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Shape memory alloy morphing actuators are a type of composite soft actuator with many attractive properties such as large deformation, small form factor, self-sensing ability, and physical reservoir computing potential. These actuators are composed of active shape memory alloy wires and a passive material to magnify the overall deflection. However, the dynamic modeling of these actuators is difficult due to both shape memory alloy characteristics and the nonlinearity of the passive layer. Here, a hybrid dynamical model is proposed that couples the phase kinetics and thermal modeling for the shape memory alloy with a dynamic Cosserat beam model. This hybrid model is benchmarked against experimental linear and morphing actuators resulting in a root mean squared error of 0.87 mm for the linear actuator and root mean squared error of 1.34 and 1.42 mm for the two morphing actuator configurations evaluated in this work. This model applies continuous phase kinetic equations in a comprehensive hybrid dynamical model to accurately simulate the hysteretic transition of the alloy, which is then coupled to a high deformation beam model. This work can expand the capability and design of novel morphing actuators to achieve specified dynamic characteristics for increased application in robotic fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implementation of morphing wing mechanisms shows significant potential for improving aircraft performance, as highlighted in the recent literature. The Clean Sky 2 AirGreen 2 European project team is currently performing ground and wind tunnel tests to validate improvements in morphing wing structures. The project aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of these morphing designs on a full-scale flying prototype. This article describes the design methodology and structural testing of a scaled morphing-flap structure, which can adapt to three different morphing modes for various flight conditions: low-speed (take-off and landing) and high-speed (cruise). A scale factor of 1:3 was selected for the wind tunnel test campaign. Due to challenges in scaling the embedded mechanisms and actuators necessary for shape-changing, a full geometrical scale of the real flap prototype was not feasible. Static analyses were performed using the finite element method to address critical load conditions determined through three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis. The finite element (FE) analysis was conducted and the results were compared with the empirical data from the structural test. Good correlations were found between the structural testing results and numerical predictions, including static deflections and elastic deformations under applied loads. This indicates that the modeling approaches used during the design and testing phases were highly successful. Based on simulations for the ultimate load conditions tested during the wind tunnel tests, the scaled flap prototype has been deemed suitable for further testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implementation of morphing wing mechanisms shows significant potential for improving aircraft performance, as highlighted in the recent literature. The Clean Sky 2 AirGreen 2 European project team is currently performing ground and wind tunnel tests to validate improvements in morphing wing structures. The project aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of these morphing designs on a full-scale flying prototype. This article describes the design methodology and structural testing of a scaled morphing-flap structure, which can adapt to three different morphing modes for various flight conditions: low-speed (take-off and landing) and high-speed (cruise). A scale factor of 1:3 was selected for the wind tunnel test campaign. Due to challenges in scaling the embedded mechanisms and actuators necessary for shape-changing, a full geometrical scale of the real flap prototype was not feasible. Static analyses were performed using the finite element method to address critical load conditions determined through three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis. The finite element (FE) analysis was conducted and the results were compared with the empirical data from the structural test. Good correlations were found between the structural testing results and numerical predictions, including static deflections and elastic deformations under applied loads. This indicates that the modeling approaches used during the design and testing phases were highly successful. Based on simulations for the ultimate load conditions tested during the wind tunnel tests, the scaled flap prototype has been deemed suitable for further testing.

Multistable laminates have attracted the attention of researchers for developing morphing structures, as they can stay in different stable configurations without any need for external forces to maintain any of those configurations. In this study, a novel application of a reconfigurable antenna made with rectangular composite laminates [90/0] in the shape of a star is analyzed using the Variational Asymptotic Method (VAM), which is free of ad-hoc assumptions and highly accurate, unlike semi-analytical theories present in the literature. The star shaped laminate is modeled as a plate using geometrically exact kinematics, and thermal analysis is done by applying uniform temperature to obtain its cool-down shape, which shows multistability. Snap-through forces are applied on the structure to change to the other stable configurations. Three parametric studies are performed to identify the variation of snap-through force. These studies are carried out by varying the aspect ratio, curing temperature, and thickness of the individual rectangular laminates to identify the lower and upper limits beyond which the laminate loses its multistability. All studies performed using VAM are validated against 3D FEA in ABAQUS are found to be in good agreement with each other although, VAM handled the 3D problem at the 2D level achieved by systematic dimensional reduction. The computational efficiency is found to increase by almost 70% compared to 3D FEA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphing wings provide a potential avenue to improve aerodynamic performance of aircraft operating at multiple design conditions. Nevertheless, morphing wing design is constrained by the mutually exclusive goals of high load-carrying capacity, low weight, and sufficient aerodynamic control authority via conformal shape adaptation. This trade-off can be addressed by exploiting the stiffness selectivity and shape "lock-in" properties enabled by using bistable beam-like elements within compliant structures. In this paper, we present an aero-structural optimization method to realize morphing structures with selective stiffness and shape "lock-in" capability from embedded bistable elements. We leverage an embeddable beam element with an invertible curved arch that provides stiffness selectivity and camber variation to the proposed rib geometry. Optimization objectives and constraints are designed to maximize the structure's stiffness change and camber morphing "lock-in" effect when operating at two distinct flight conditions. Using the optimization results, we manufacture a wing section demonstrator with selective stiffness and "lock-in" morphing featuring two optimized ribs, a load-carrying skin made of a carbon reinforced laminate, Macro-Fiber Composite (MFC) actuators, and a servo-controlled mechanism for switching the bistable elements' states. The power and energy requirements of actuating and holding a target deflection are experimentally measured and compared. The results show that the bistable elements can assist in holding a target deflection at a reduced energy cost. Finally, we test the experimental demonstrator in a low-speed wind tunnel demonstrating the load carrying capability and lift variation achieved from switching states. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we present a concept of morphing structure – featuring an arch mounted on a compliant base – that can be reconfigured via snap-through buckling and leverages bistability to retain its morphed shape. We show that one-dimensional arrays of such units yield beam-like structures that, upon localized snapping, can attain multiple, morphologically distinct stable shapes. Units are modeled using discrete elastic rods, a reduced-order formulation for beams and beam structures, and the results are validated via experiments. We leverage our model to understand the influence of the geometrical design parameters on the response and final shape of a unit. We then show that the morphed shapes of arrays of units can be predicted by concatenating results of simulations on single units, and leverage this idea to inverse-design structures that can be snapped into target stable shapes. Ultimately, our work suggests an up-scalable way to create shape-retaining morphing structures with target stable shapes. • We introduce a concept for shape-retaining morphing beam-like structures. • Our structures, made of snap-through units, are inspired by soft dimpled sheets. • We study single units via experiments and discrete elastic rod models. • We inverse design 1D arrays of units to meet target shapes when snapped. • We show that units are up-scalable and extendable to 2D. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A key aspect in the design of deployable space structures comprising slender elements such as booms is their deployed bending stiffness. In space, due to zero gravitational loading, a high level of bending stiffness is not required to support neighbouring structures, but instead is desirable to resist vibrations generated by the attitude control system. The morphing composite cylindrical lattice that is under development is a structure with significant potential for deployable applications in space, however, concepts developed so far may lack sufficient bending stiffness. Therefore, current work focuses on developing a method of increasing the lattice bending stiffness, while minimising any increase in both mass and stowed volume. These goals are achieved by using additional composite strips mounted adjacent and concentric to pre-existing strips. These strips are attached using pre-existing fasteners, thus, only increasing the weight of the structure by the mass of the composite strips. A finite element model of the new lattice configuration is developed and validated by comparison to experimental results. For this comparison, three different lattice configurations were manufactured, two lattices with a conventional strip configuration, an eight-strip lattice and a four-strip lattice, and a third using a new lattice configuration developed in this work. In comparison with the eight-strip lattice, the new lattice configuration is 32% less stiff, however it weights 33% less and stows to approximately half the stowed height. Compared to the four-strip lattice, the new configuration weighs 75% more, but it is 281% stiffer while stowing to the same volume. By increasing the deployed bending stiffness, this work makes the morphing cylindrical lattice a more viable candidate for deployable space structures.

Morphing technology aims to improve the performance of structural components by drastically altering their shape in response to conflicting operational requirements. Thus, achieving the optimum operation of morphing structures is a rather challenging task which includes non-linear effects associated with the large deformations and rigid body motions, the actuator performance and the interactions between active and passive components. In this paper a formal optimization procedure is developed to provide the optimal design of a morphing structure with shape memory alloy actuators. The optimization of the morphing structure is formulated as a multi-objective problem aiming to concurrently optimize the passive structural components and the actuators. Subsequently, a multi-level optimization scheme is presented and implemented. Case studies prove the capability of the multi-objective optimization framework to produce robust designs of the morphing structure that simultaneously improve all performance metrics. Furthermore, it is illustrated that the proposed multi-level optimization scheme may produce similar optimal designs, compared with the conventional aggregate optimization scheme, but with significant computational gains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrogel‐based soft electronics (HSE) is promising as implantable devices due to the similarity of hydrogel substrates to biologic tissues. Most existing HSE devices are based on conducting hydrogels that usually have weak mechanical properties, low conductivity, and poor patternability. Reported here is an HSE with good mechanical performance, high sensitivity, and versatile functions by stencil printing of liquid metal on a tough hydrogel, facilitating integration of multiple sensing units. Self‐shaping ability is imparted to the HSE by creating gradient structure in the hydrogel substrate. The resultant HSE actively deforms into 3D configurations with zero or nonzero Gaussian curvature to fix on objects or organs with sophisticated geometries and maintains the sensing functions. The versatilities and potential applications of this HSE are demonstrated by monitoring motions of a rice field eel and beatings of a rabbit heart. Such HSE based on morphing substrate should pave the way for implantable electronics with better fixation and interfacial contact with the organs. The concept of morphing hydrogel devices can be extended to other soft electronics with responsive polymer films or elastomers as the substrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building the differential growth through the thickness is a promising and challenging approach to design the morphing structures of hydrogel actuators. Besides retaining the size of the hydrogel actuators under environmental stimuli still remains a big challenge. Herein, a facile and universal approach is developed to address both issues by introducing PEG during the polymerization of N‐isopropylacrylamide (NIPAm) via one step method using asymmetric mold. Both composition gradient and pore gradient are obtained in micro level along the thickness direction of the final hydrogel, while thin‐thickness gradient in macro level. The thickness gradient and water retention can be controllably adjusted by changing PEG concentration. The introduction of PEG effectively improves both responsive and non‐shrunken performance by the interaction with PNIPAm. The resultant anisotropic PNIPAm/PEG hydrogel respond quickly and reach maximum deformation (360°) within 10 s at low temperature (40 °C). The various 3D shape and biomimetic movement can be programmed by simply controlling the PEG concentration and mold shape. This strategy can provide new insights into the design intelligent soft materials with 3D morphing for bioinspired and biomedical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A promising avenue for development in the aerospace industry involves relocation of engines from conventional locations beneath the wings, to within the aircraft fuselage. Aircraft with these so-called embedded engines have the potential to increase engine efficiency, but necessitate the use of a serpentine engine inlet duct (S-duct) to provide the propulsion system with air. The optimal shape of an aircraft S-duct varies with flight condition, incentivizing the use of morphing systems to vary inlet parameters during flight: allowing for continual supply of the optimal airflow level. Design of a morphing system therefore requires collaboration across multiple disciplines, including aerodynamic analysis and structural analysis. This work presents a methodology for the structural optimization of morphing systems utilizing aerodynamic shape optimization results as inputs, in order to assess the relationship between morphing performance and structural stiffness. The methodology is implemented on a baseline morphing S-duct model for which shape optimization has been previously conducted. Structural optimization is conducted using a gradient-based multi-material topology optimization software with multi-phase penalization. While the conclusions of this work indicate that the impact of multiple material optimization in the S-duct case study is minimal, the methodology does provide non-intuitive designs capable of supporting morphing. At the expense of structural stiffness, the methodology is shown to increase morphing performance through the generation of compliant mechanisms. A parameter study conducted on the S-duct model successfully proves the ability of the methodology to assess the trade-offs between structural and morphing performance. By emphasizing morphing performance, mass reductions from 1.75 kg to 0.201 kg were observed at the expense of a 94% reduction in fatigue lifecycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A geometrically exact model (GEMP) is developed for mosaic multi-stable composites. • Besides GEMP, a common model based on classical laminated‐plate theory is used. • Mosaic bi-stable and tri-stable composite laminates with large rotations are studied. • Lagrange multiplier is used to apply linear and non-linear continuity conditions. • Effect of dimensions of mosaic multi-stable laminates on static behavior are studied. Multi-stable composite laminates are composite materials that exhibit multi-stable states, making them highly suitable for use in morphing structures. These materials are capable of maintaining each stable state without expending any energy. As a result, they are used extensively in numerous applications and garnered the interest of scholars and aerospace organizations. In the context of practical applications, such as morphing structures, it is insufficient for designers to rely solely on common bi-stable composite laminates that exhibit large deformations and medium rotations to achieve their desired objectives. Consequently, based on the objectives of the design, there are two potential resolutions to address this limitation. A designer may utilize mosaic multi-stable composite laminates to achieve a morphing structure that exhibits high flexibility, significant deformation, and substantial rotation. The utilization of a series connection between a bi-stable composite laminate and a symmetric composite laminate results in the formation of a mosaic bi-stable composite laminate with variable stiffness. Furthermore, the amalgamation of two asymmetric composite laminates with inverted orientations engenders a mosaic tri-stable composite laminate. The present research examines the static characteristics of mosaic bi-stable and tri-stable composite laminates. It also seeks to analyze the factors affecting the behavior of these types of laminates. A geometrically exact model was formulated for this objective. Apart from the geometrically exact model, a widely used and uncomplicated model relying on the conventional Classical Laminated-Plate Theory (CLPT) and Von-Karman nonlinear strains was employed. The proposed models were validated through finite element simulations. The system's static equations were derived using the virtual work principle and the Rayleigh-Ritz method. The present study examines and explores quasi-static snap-through behavior between stable states through the application of concentrated forces. The findings indicate a high level of concurrence between the outcomes derived from the geometrically exact model and the finite element analyses, particularly in composite laminates exhibiting significant deformations and rotations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the stiffness analysis of a module-based shape morphing snake-like robot. Snake-like robots have the characteristic of adapting to unstructured environments by exploiting their ability to reconfigure their body's shape. However, the excellent mobility contrasts with the ability to transmit high loads, precluding its application in manufacturing operations. This article presents a hybrid structure based on reconfigurable modules equipped with lockable joints. The use of multiple modules in series allows for a large workspace. Furthermore, the parallel structure of the single modules provides for transferring or sustaining high loads. First, the reliability and precision of the theoretical model has been verified using finite element analysis (FEA). The relative errors are less than 5%. Then, a morphing module has been constructed as a physical demonstrator for the kinematic parameters and stiffness parameters used in elastostatic analysis. Finally, a five-segment prototype has been manufactured and tested. There is a deviation between the experimental results and the theoretical results due to manufacturing errors of the prototype but the trend of displacement change shown in the experimental results is basically consistent with the theoretical results. • The snake-like robot combines high rigidity with excellent mobility. • Reconfigurable modules equipped with lockable joints. • The kinetostatic analysis follows the modular architecture. • Experimental and numeric tests confirm a feasible extension to manufacturing tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study considers the small-amplitude free vibrational response performed on top of the quasi-static snap through buckling, which is accompanied by large displacements and rotations of shallow doubly curved laminated piezoelectric shells under multifield loading. The mechanics incorporate coupling between mechanical, electric, and thermal fields and encompass geometric nonlinearity effects due to large quasi-static displacements and rotations. The governing equations are formulated explicitly in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates and combined with the kinematic assumptions of a mixed-field shear-layerwise shell laminate theory. Based on the above mechanics and adopting the finite element methodology, an eightnode nonlinear shell element is developed to yield the linearized discrete coupled small-amplitude dynamic equations of motion. Initially, the nonlinear coupled equations are linearized and solved quasi-statically using an extended cylindrical arclength method in combination with the Newton--Raphson iterative technique, and subsequently the free vibration analysis is performed at each solution point. Validation and evaluation cases on laminated cylindrical shells demonstrate the accuracy of the present method and its robust capability to predict the modal response on top of the nonlinear quasi-static response of active multistable shells subject to combined thermo--piezo--electromechanical loads. Numerical cases show the feasibility to develop smart shell structures to detect, via the monitoring of natural frequencies, the onset of snap-through instability. The capability of smart shells to actively modify its natural frequencies such as to promote or mitigate snapthrough instabilities is quantified. Additional results quantify the effect of thermomechanical loads on actuation capability. The influence of geometric parameters (curvature and thickness) on the modal response is finally investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

4D printing is an emerging field where 3D printing techniques are used to pattern stimuli-responsive materials to create morphing structures, with time serving as the fourth dimension. However, current materials utilized for 4D printing are typically soft, exhibiting an elastic modulus (E) range of 10 -4 to 10 MPa during shape change. This restricts the scalability, actuation stress, and load-bearing capabilities of the resulting structures. To overcome these limitations, multiscale heterogeneous polymer composites are introduced as a novel category of stiff, thermally responsive 4D printed materials. These inks exhibit an E that is four orders of magnitude greater than that of existing 4D printed materials and offer tunable electrical conductivities for simultaneous Joule heating actuation and self-sensing capabilities. Utilizing electrically controllable bilayers as building blocks, a flat geometry that morphs into a 3D self-standing lifting robot is designed and printed, setting new records for weight-normalized load lifted and actuation stress when compared to other 3D printed actuators. Furthermore, this ink palette is employed to create and print planar lattice structures that transform into various self-supporting complex 3D shapes. Finally these inks are integrated into a 4D printed electrically controlled multigait crawling robotic lattice structure that can carry 144 times its own weight., (© 2023 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

This paper presents the development and implementation of a user-defined material (UMAT) model for NiTi Shape-Memory Alloy (SMA) wires for use in LS-DYNA commercial explicit finite-element analysis software. The UMAT focusses on the Shape-Memory Effect (SME), which could be used for actuation of aerostructural components. The actuation of a fundamental structure consisting of an SMA wire connected in series with a linear spring was studied first. The SMA thermomechanical behaviour obtained from the finite-element simulation was compared with that obtained from the analytical solution in MATLAB. A further comparison is presented for an SMA-actuated cantilever beam, showing excellent agreement in terms of the SMA stress and strain as well as the tip deflection of the cantilever beam. A mesh sensitivity study on the SMA wire indicated that one beam element was adequate to accurately predict the SMA thermomechanical behaviour. An analysis of several key parameters showed that, to achieve a high recovery strain, the stiffness of the actuated structure should be minimised while the cross-sectional area of the SMA wire should be maximised. The actuation of an SMA wire under a constant stress/load was also analysed. The SMA material model was finally applied to the design of morphing aluminium and composite aerofoils consisting of corrugated sections, resulting in the prediction of reasonably large trailing-edge deflections (7.8–65.9 mm). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The request of even more stringent restrictions, regarding efficiency and environmental impact of industrial components, determines an optimized use of primary energy but also entails the design of more lightweight, smart and flexible devices, able to adapt their operation as a function of several different inputs. In this framework, the use of a fascinating class of metallic materials, called Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs), could represent a valid support for the designers. The capability of these materials to react to an external stimulus, without continuing to supply energy to external actuators, represents, especially in the aerospace engineering field, a technological breakthrough. The present paper reports the basic ideas and summarizes the important aspects related to the development of SMA-based actuators in relation to the present state of the art. A case study of morphing blades, equipped with embedded SMA strips, for an automotive cooling fan is reported. Finally, some hints, regarding the design process of SMA-based actuators, are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• New formulation to design structures that react to loads through shape morphing. • Target shapes and element dimensions obtained via gradient-based optimization. • Formulation of derivatives of objective and constraint functions. • Shape morphing enables effective stress homogenization under peak demand. • Much lower mass and energy requirements than conventional passive structures. This paper gives a new formulation to synthesize load-responsive structures through shape morphing. The design method is based on the minimization of the whole-life energy, which comprises an embodied share in the material and an operational share for adaptation. Target shapes that counteract the effect of the design loads are obtained through geometry and sizing optimization. Adaptation through shape morphing enables effective stress redistribution so that the design is not dominated by peak loads with long return periods. Material utilization is maximized, and therefore embodied energy is significantly reduced. The geometry is controlled through length changes of optimally-placed linear actuators. The actuator commands are computed through minimization of the operational energy to satisfy safety and serviceability criteria. Minimum energy solutions are obtained through a univariate optimization process in which embodied and operational energy minimization are nested. Numerical benchmarks between adaptive and mass-optimized passive solutions are provided on a truss bridge and multi-story frame configurations. Parametric studies show that mass and energy savings are significant for slender structures and when the live load is dominant over the permanent load. Generally, larger shape bounds result in a greater reduction of mass and embodied energy at the cost of a larger operational energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces the concept of multi-configuration rigidity for kinematically indeterminate structures with elastic springs and unilateral constraints. A simple example is provided by a structure with a single mechanism and a spring that engages two different unilateral constraints. In each of these configurations, the structure can rigidly support loads up to a critical magnitude at which the unilateral constraints become inactive. The general design problem of embedding springs throughout a structure to achieve multi-configuration rigidity , with multiple unilateral constraints and springs, is studied. This problem is cast as a linear program that maximizes the critical loads required to break free from the unilateral constraints, in all target configurations. This problem can be efficiently solved with guarantees of optimality. The formulation is generally applicable to a variety of discrete structures (e.g., linkages, pin-jointed bars, or origami) with unilateral constraints (e.g., contacts or cables). • The concept of multi-configuration rigidity is introduced for kinematically indeterminate structures with elastic springs and unilateral constraints. • The design problem of embedding springs in a structure to achieve multi-configuration rigidity is solved. • A linear program maximizes the critical loads required to release the initially prestressed unilateral constraints, in all target configurations. • This paper makes a fundamental contribution to the design of adaptive structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate stabilizing and eschewing factors on bistability in polar-orthotropic shells in order to enhance morphing structures. The material law causes stress singularities when the circumferential stiffness is smaller than the radial stiffness (β < 1), requiring a careful choice of the trial functions in our Ritz approach, which employs a higher-order geometrically nonlinear analytical model. Bistability is found to strongly depend on the orthotropic ratio, β, and the in-plane support conditions. An investigation of their interaction offers a new perspective on the effect of the hoop stiffness on bistability: while usually perceived as promoting, it is shown to be only stabilizing insofar as it prevents radial expansions; however, if in-plane supports are present, it becomes a redundant feature. Closed-form approximations of the bistable threshold are then provided by single-curvature-term approaches. For significantly stiffer values of the radial stiffness, a strong coupling of the orthotropic ratio and the support conditions is revealed: while roller-supported shells are monostable, fixed-pinned ones are most disposed to stable inversions; insight is given by comparing to a simplified beam model. Eventually, we show that cutting a central hole is a suitable method to deal with stress singularities: while fixed-pinned shells are barely affected by a hole, the presence of a hole strongly favours bistable inversions in roller-supported shells.

The response of adaptive structures entailing shape memory alloy actuators is investigated both numerically and experimentally in this work. Emphasis is placed on the inclusion of large displacements and rotations, as well as thermomechanical coupling in the simulation of the shape memory alloy actuators. Reduced multi-field beam finite element models for shape memory alloy actuators, encompassing a co-rotational formulation for large displacements and capability to provide the thermomechanically coupled transient response, are briefly overviewed. Prototypes of two adaptive structure configurations are developed, experimentally characterized, and numerically modeled. The measured response of the two prototypes is correlated with respective numerical results that consider both the geometric non-linearity and the thermomechanical coupling of the shape memory alloy actuators. Hence, the influence of these two effects on the predicted response of both the actuator and the adaptive structure is demonstrated. The results quantify also the interactions between geometric non-linearity and thermomechanical coupling terms. As it is shown, better agreement with experimental data is obtained when considering both effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article investigates and explores the effect of partial phase transformation on the response of shape adaptive/morphing structures controlled by shape memory alloy wire actuators subject to variable trajectory and high actuation speed requirements, where the effect of partial transformation becomes more dominant. A modified constitutive model is adopted for the prediction of the thermo-mechanically coupled response on a trailing edge shape adaptive rib prototype intended for active load alleviation in large wind turbine blades, and the simulated behavior is subsequently correlated with experimental results. The experimentally validated model is further used to predict the response of the full-scale camber-line adaptive structure with shape memory alloy Ni51Ti49 wt% actuators in antagonistic configurations, under demanding operational time target trajectories at extreme turbulence conditions. Comparison of the results, with a case that omits partial transformation behavior, reveals substantial improvements in the predicted target trajectories, actuation speed, actuator stresses, and required operational temperature variation. The latter discloses the enhanced potential of shape memory alloy actuators to provide higher transformation rate and possibly higher fatigue life combined with lower energy demands toward the design and realization of efficient morphing structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study aims to harness the geometric non-linearity of structures to design a novel camber morphing mechanism for a bi-stable airfoil using topology optimization. The goal is to use snap-through instabilities to actuate and maintain the shape of the morphing airfoil. Topology optimization has been used to distribute material over the design domain and to tailor the nonlinear response of the baseline structure to achieve the desired bi-stable behavior. The large scale deformation undergone by the structure is modeled using a hyperelastic material model. The non-linear structural equilibrium equations are solved using arc-length and displacement-controlled Newton–Raphson (NR) analysis. Isoparamteric finite element evaluation is used for analyzing kinematic and deformation characteristics of the structure. The optimization problem is solved using a computationally efficient nonlinear optimization algorithm, the Method of Moving Asymptotes (MMA), with a Solid Isotropic Material Penalization (SIMP) scheme. The gradient information required for the optimization has been evaluated using an adjoint sensitivity formulation. Two different design domains, one with a structured quadrilateral mesh and other with an unstructured triangular mesh, are investigated and compared. The effect of different optimization parameters on the final optimized structure and its behavior has also been analyzed. The final result is a novel camber morphing mechanism without the disadvantages of increased weight and higher maintenance costs associated with conventional actuation mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shape memory polymers (SMPs) are materials capable of changing their structural configuration from a fixed shape to a temporary shape, and vice versa when subjected to a thermal stimulus. The present work has investigated the 3D printing process of a shape memory polymer (SMP)-based polyurethane using a material extrusion technology. Here, SMP pellets were fed into a printing unit, and actuating coupons were manufactured. In contrast to the conventional film-casting manufacturing processes of SMPs, the use of 3D printing allows the production of complex parts for smart electronics and morphing structures. In the present work, the memory performance of the actuating structure was investigated, and their fundamental recovery and mechanical properties were characterized. The preliminary results show that the assembled structures were able to recover their original conformation following a thermal input. The printed parts were also stamped with a QR code on the surface to include an unclonable pattern for addressing counterfeit features. The stamped coupons were subjected to a deformation-recovery shape process, and it was observed that the QR code was recognized after the parts returned to their original shape. The combination of shape memory effect with authentication features allows for a new dimension of counterfeit thwarting. The 3D-printed SMP parts in this work were also combined with shape memory alloys to create a smart actuator to act as a two-way switch to control data collection of a microcontroller.

In this study, we present a method to construct meter-scale deformable structures for underwater robotic applications by discretely assembling mechanical metamaterials. We address the challenge of scaling up nature-like deformable structures while remaining structurally efficient by combining rigid and compliant facets to form custom unit cells that assemble into lattices. The unit cells generate controlled local anisotropies that architect the global deformation of the robotic structure. The resulting flexibility allows better unsteady flow control that enables highly efficient propulsion and optimized force profile manipulations. We demonstrate the utility of this approach in two models. The first is a morphing beam snake-like robot that can generate thrust at specific anguilliform swimming parameters. The second is a morphing surface hydrofoil that, when compared with a rigid wing at the same angles of attack (AoAs), can increase the lift coefficient up to 0.6. In addition, in lower AoAs, the L ∕ D ratio improves by 5 times, whereas in higher angles it improves by 1.25 times. The resulting hydrodynamic performance demonstrates the potential to achieve accessible, scalable, and simple to design and assemble morphing structures for more efficient and effective future ocean exploration and exploitation.

The numerical and experimental validation of multistable behavior of cantilever shells is addressed. The design of the laminated composite shells is driven by a recently proposed semi-analytical shell model, whose predictions are verified and critically examined by means of finite element simulations and stability tests on two manufactured demonstrators. In addition, the influence of the main design parameters on the shells stability scenario is discussed. Despite its simplicity, the reduced model allows to depict a fairly faithful picture of the stability scenario; therefore, it proves to be a useful tool in the early design stages of morphing shell structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multistable shells have been recently proposed as an effective solution to design morphing structures. We describe a class of shallow shells which are bistable after one of their sides, initially curved, is clamped along a flat line. Supposing the shell being assembled as a composite laminate, we show how the anisotropy of the material can influence the multistable behaviour and the robustness of stable configurations. Specifically, we focus on orthotropic laminated shells using the polar method for a complete representation of the anisotropic elastic properties. Two experimental prototypes have been produced and tested to validate our analytical and numerical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphing structures for lightweight and energy-efficient aircraft mobile surfaces have been investigated for several years. This paper presents a novel lightweight, passive and low-energy morphing surface concept based on the “lever effect” of a bistable composite plate that can be integrated in aircraft moving surfaces. By using appropriate boundary conditions, it is demonstrated that the magnitude of the activation force on the bistable composite can be tailored to match the differential pressure on the aircraft's airfoil. As a consequence, the bistable laminate can be used as a passive morphing surface. Both numerical simulations and experimental testing are used to prove this concept on a NACA 2412 airfoil structure. The results show that, by choosing proper configuration of constraints, lay-up and aspect ratio of the bistable composite, it is possible to tailor and activate the snap-through mechanism in a passive manner. The proposed concept would save significant weight when compared to an active morphing concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphing structures that are both lightweight and conformal to the aerofoil are currently being considered as promising candidates for the next generation of aircraft high-lift systems. Utilizing spatially variable stiffness materials in morphing structures leads to a possible reduction in the actuation energy requirement and also enables geometric control over the deformed shape of the morphing structure, resulting in enhanced aerodynamic and aeroacoustic performance. In this study, a design optimization methodology has been developed to identify the required material stiffness variations of a morphing structure for target optimal deformed shapes. In the optimization scheme, a layer-wise sandwich beam model is used to predict the structural behaviour of the flap with a specific material stiffness variation. Two-dimensional fluid/structure static aeroelastic interaction analysis is performed in the design optimization. Finite element analysis and mechanical tests were also carried out for a chosen optimization result to study the actuation requirements and the capability of control over the deformed shape of the morphing trailing edge. Numerical and experimental results confirm the feasibility of the proposed optimization methodology for identifying the required stiffness variation in the core and also ways of using rapid prototyped honeycomb core to realize the honeycomb core stiffness variations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphing materials have promising applications in various fields, yet how to program the self-shaping process for specific configurations remains a challenge. Herein we show a versatile approach to control the buckling of individual domains and thus the outcome configurations of planar-patterned hydrogels. By photolithography, high-swelling disc gels were positioned in a non-swelling gel sheet; the swelling mismatch resulted in out-of-plain buckling of the disc gels. To locally control the buckling direction, masks with holes were used to guide site-specific swelling of the high-swelling gel under the holes, which built a transient through-thickness gradient and thus directed the buckling during the subsequent unmasked swelling process. Therefore, various configurations of an identical patterned hydrogel can be programmed by the pre-swelling step with different masks to encode the buckling directions of separate domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a key enabler for future aviation technology, the use of servo electromechanical actuation offers new opportunities to transition innovative structural concepts, such as biomimicry morphing structures, from basic research to new commercial aircraft applications. In this paper, the authors address actuator integration aspects of a wing shape-changing flight surface capable of adaptively enhancing aircraft aerodynamic performance and reducing critical wing structural loads. The research was collocated within the Clean Sky 2 Regional Aircraft Demonstration Platform (IADP) and aimed at developing an adaptive winglet concept for green regional aircraft. Finite Element-based tools were employed for the structural design of the adaptive device characterized by two independent movable tabs completely integrated with a linear direct-drive actuation. The structural design process was addressed in compliance with the airworthiness needs posed by the implementation of regional airplanes. Such a load control system requires very demanding actuation performance and sufficient operational reliability to operate on the applicable flight load envelope. These requirements were met by a very compact direct-drive actuator design in which the ball recirculation device was integrated within the screw shaft. Focus was also given to the power-off electric brake necessary to block the structure in a certain position and dynamically brake the moveable surface to follow a certain command position during operation. Both the winglet layout static and dynamic robustness were verified by means of linear stress computations at the most critical conditions and normal mode analyses, respectively, with and without including the integrated actuator system.