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This study examines the influence of Mongolian language on spoken Chinese, with a focus on the Sino-Mongolian, or Chinese language translated using the literal translation style (zhiyi-ti 直譯體) from Mongolian. Sino-Mongolian was a type of contact language, based on the Chinese vocabulary and Mongolian syntactic structure. Common linguistic elements are observed between Sino-Mongolian and the Chinese textbook No Gŏltae edited in the Koryŏ Kingdom under Mongol rule. The analysis confirms that No Gŏltae was not translated from Mongolian language but a type of spoken Chinese that was influenced and shaped by Sino-Mongolian through oral dissemination. Although Sino-Mongolian was an artificially translated language, the literal translation style may have been based on Altaic Pidgin Chinese. Hence, it was readily accepted in Northern China and naturally influenced and shaped the spoken Chinese there. It is concluded that the colloquial Chinese influenced by Sino-Mongolian, as observed in No Gŏltae, would be defined as Mongolo-Chinese, a type of Creole language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research objectives: An analysis of official documents and notes of foreign contemporaries to clarify some aspects of political and legal life of the Chaghadai Ulus and early Timurid state in the 13th– beginning of 15th centuries. Materials and methods of research: The basic materials are official documents (diplomatic correspondence), travelers’ reports and notes, diaries and memoirs of travelers from different countries of Europe and Asia who visited the Chaghadai Ulus with different missions in the analyzed period as well as some official documents (diplomatic correspondence) between foreign and Mongol rulers. The methods of research are formal and historical legal research of historical documents, comparative legal analysis as well as historical approach in general. Scientific novelty: The state structure and legal relations in the Chaghadai Ulus and early Timurid state still have not been objects of special research. The author proposes to use works of foreign contemporaries as a tool to clarify some questions of political and legal life in the Chaghadaid state, finding similarities with other Chinggisid states and specific features of the region, its traditions, etc. Results of the research: The information of the analyzed historical documents, naturally, doesn’t allow one to reconstruct all aspects of political structure of Chaghadai Ulus and early Timurid state and their legal system in general, but adds valuable details to the information of other sources on history of this state – that is, historical chronicles (mainly of Timurid age) and legal monuments (khans’ yarliks and other official documents of the ulus). At that, we cannot ignore the fact that the Chaghadai Ulus before Timur was not considered as a full and authoritative member of international relations which is why contemporaries paid more attention to other Chinggisid states: The Golden Horde, Ilkhanate, Yuan Empire. However, the analysis of contemporaries’ notes could stimulate scholars to study some specific aspects of the Chaghadai Ulus’ history which were not researched before.

Research objectives: To find out the real causes of death of the Mongolian khans Yesugei-baatur, Ogedei, and Guyuk, as well as the circumstances of the emergence of ideas about their poisoning, reflected in a number of narrative sources. Research materials: The work used the Mongolian historical and literary works “Mongol un-niucha tobchiyan” (“The Secret History of the Mongols”) and “Altan Tobchi” (“Golden Legend”), the Mongolian-Chinese dynastic chronicle “Yuan Shi”, as well as the works of the Hulaguid “chroniclers” Rashid al-Din (“Jami at-tawarih”) and Juveini ata-Malik (“Tarikh-i-jehangusha”). In addition, the information contained in the travel notes of the head of the papal embassy to the court of Guyuk Khagan – Giovanni del Plano Carpini – and the ambassador of the French King Louis IX, Guillaume Rubruk, were involved. Results and novelty of the study: the topic of reflection and interpretation in medieval written sources of the sudden deaths of Mongolian rulers has been beyond the attention of nomadic historians up to the present time. Because of this circumstance, the relevance of the problem raised in the study lies in considering one of the least studied aspects of the mental history of Eurasian nomads. The article examines several episodes related to the sudden death of three Mongolian khans (Yesugei-baatur, Ogedei, Guyuk) and the interpretation of these tragic events in narrative sources. Based on a critical analysis of the information presented in written sources, as well as the use of data from natural science disciplines (medicine, geography), the authors conclude that the misconceptions common in historical science about the violent nature of the deaths of the above-mentioned Mongolian rulers are false. According to the authors of the study, the causes of the sudden and premature deaths of Yesugei-baatur, Ogedei, and Guyuk were, respectively, food toxicological poisoning, the consequences of excessive alcohol consumption, and the progressive development of a chronic, incurable disease. It should be noted that the presented work is in the nature of an interdisciplinary study and is a thematic continuation of the article published in the journal “Golden Horde Review” in 2023 [8].

The article deals with the study of ethnic-cultural and confessional processes in Azerbaijan in the XIII–XIV centuries. The methodological basis of the study was the basic principles of historical knowledge and a comprehensive analysis of sources of different types. The establishment of Mongol rule in Azerbaijan and a new wave of migration of Turkic tribes to the South Caucasus led to a further increase in the number of Turkic-speaking population. The Turkic language received official status and became the language of education. The Mongol khans pursued a policy of religious tolerance, patronage and support for various religions. Islam won a convincing victory in the rivalry of various religious doctrines and was declared the official religion at the beginning of the XIV century. In the XIII–XIV centuries, a new style was formed and developed in architecture and art based on the fusion of local Islamic traditions with East Asian elements. The summer residence of the Ilkhanid rulers in Takht-e Soleyman became one of the first centers where the formation of a new style was observed. In the decorative arts, the new style is especially clearly visible in art pottery. The results of Mongol rule were not the same for all regions of Azerbaijan. For South Azerbaijan, the Mongol period was a new stage of economic and cultural development, but for Arran it had negative consequences. Shirvan occupied a middle position between these two opposite sites.

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In this paper, I propose a new model of how the Mongol empire connected the various systems used by the subject peoples under their control. I contrast this to modern empires, which used a system of direct standardisation, so that one calendar, one currency, one system of measures, one way of doing history, often even one language (at least for most public purposes) and so on, was imposed on the entire empire. In the Mongol Empire, while a single system was not imposed, new methods of 'conversion' – or perhaps we could say 'conversion formulae' – appeared, by which disparate cultural practices of the conquered peoples were maintained, but rendered easily 'convertible' to each other, using tables and cognate methods. I discus this 'conversion' empire – as opposed to the modern 'integration' empire – in the fields of the calendar, language, money and historiography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents linguistic and philological analyses of glossed medieval Georgian transcriptions of the Middle Mongol zodiac terms in the fourteenth-century anonymous ასწლოვანი მატიანე Asc'lovani Mat'iane (Chronicle of One Hundred Years), revealing unique details on Middle Mongol as attested in medieval Georgia. This is the first instalment of the authors' joint research on this vastly important, largely untapped contemporaneous Georgian source on medieval Mongol language, culture and history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mongol power was the largest empire in pre-industrial history. The Mongols were nomads, but as they conquered settled countries they began to build large cities. Their capitals amazed travelers and traders from agrarian states. Cities with and without ramparts, large fortless settlements, individual homesteads and country palaces were built. The author discusses three cities of Mongol imperial history without fortifi cation. It examines the planigraphy of the Khirkhira city (Transbaikalia) in comparison with two other famous cities of the Mongol Empire – Avarga (Eastern Mongolia) and Khar Khul Khaany Balgas (Central Mongolia). Also the typical features such as the absence of city walls, the location of the ruler's residence in the south, the construction of the city to the left, right and behind (north) of the palace, the homestead planning, and the seasonal presence of the elite were highlighted.

The article examines the relationship between the Alans and the Mongols during the latter’s global expansion. The aim is to present the main historical narratives on this issue. Various multilingual written sources from the 13th-16th centuries were used for the research. The historical-genetic approach allowed for the presentation of relevant source information outside the context of specific studies on different aspects of the problem. As a result, Alan-Mongol relations are traced within the complex of historical events, processes, and phenomena that constituted Mongol expansion. Conclusions are drawn that the Alans, inhabiting various regions of Eurasia, were drawn into the orbit of the internal and external political life of the Mongol Empire. It is asserted that despite the severe consequences of Mongol conquest, Caucasian Alania managed to integrate into the economic and political system of the Golden Horde, while Alan settlement enclaves and districts in its western and eastern parts, as well as Alans in Mongolia and China, were assimilated. Additionally, it is shown that ally-vassal relations with the Jochids played a crucial role for the North Caucasian Alans, involving them in confrontation with Timur’s empire on the side of Khan Tokhtamysh.

Research objectives: This article analyzes a new edition of the book by the famous Franciscan ambassador to the Mongols, John de Plano Carpini (1182–1252), who made a long journey from Lyon to Central Mongolia in 1245–1247 where he witnessed the enthronement of the khagan, Guyuk (1246–1248). Following the results of his difficult and dangerous journey, he wrote a report “The History of the Mongols,” in which he described quite fully and accurately what he saw and heard. Research results and scientific novelty: The work of Plano Carpini was published in Russian three times: in 1795, 1825 and 1911; the last translation, made by A.I. Malein, was then published more than once and gradually overgrown with comments. However, all these editions cannot be considered fully satisfying the requirements of publishing medieval sources. The new edition in question here meets the standards of modern science. It includes an introductory part, a critical text of the source, its new translation into Russian and detailed comments made by professional medievalist historians. In the comments, various aspects of the Central Asian civilization of the XIII century, with which the Franciscan mission had a chance to come into contact, are covered as fully as possible: material and spiritual culture of nomads, organization of their society, military affairs and many others. Despite the high level of preparation of this publication, some points in it do not exclude an alternative interpretation.

Ornas (also Hornach) appears in the mentions of several Latin authors in the mid-thirteenth century as an important city deep in Asia that had been conquered by the Mongols. There have been several past suggestions by scholars for its identity; the scattered mentions of Ornas (Hornach) have been variously suggested to refer to Tana, Otrar, or Konye-Urgench. The present paper argues that these references, though confused on matters of geography since the Western European authors were writing about largely unknown regions that they did not personally visit, are typically references to the city of Konye-Urgench. The Latin authors' descriptions of its fall to the Mongols unquestionably draw parallels with Middle Eastern, Rus', Chinese, and Mongol accounts. This paper argues that the Latin references to Ornas' proximity to a nearby sea are related to the Aral Sea which had southerly stretches very close to Konya-Urgench as is indicated, for instance from Russian survey maps of the nineteenth century. This identification allows us to place John of Plano Carpini's description of the fall of Ornas within a larger, cohesive narrative which, though confused on points, offers insights on the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire in the early 1220s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Research on the Mongol conquest of Iran and the Transcaucasus has focused most heavily on the campaigns of Chinggis Khan and his nephew Hülegü, in 1219–1224 and 1256–1260 respectively. Significantly less attention has been given to the nearly four decades that separate these two invasions, during which Mongol control was consolidated by a tamma (garrison) army numbering roughly 30,000 soldiers. This garrison occupied a liminal position on the frontier of the Mongol empire, linking the great khan to regional vassals in Iran, Greater Armenia, Georgia, and eastern Anatolia. This paper will use the history of the tamma to illuminate the web of personal relationships that allowed the Mongol empire to project its authority into the Middle East. It will demonstrate that this network was extremely brittle during the first three decades after Chinggis Khan's death, during which time the Mongol empire was still taking shape. Founded by Chinggis Khan, the tamma owed its loyalty to the great khan in Mongolia, yet long interregnums and political instability at the heart of empire forced the Mongol garrison to identify regional princes and princesses as suitable substitutes for political authority. This collaborative approach embroiled the tamma in the factional politics at the heart of the Mongol empire and ultimately brought about its destruction in 1261. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This contribution is one of the first 'field-based' personal observations, when ethnographic research in the region is now almost impossible, especially for Western researchers. It sketches ethnographically local experiences of the war, describing a divided society in distress, which 'galvanises nostalgia' (Balzer 2021) for the past amid the grim reality around. The essay attempts to show in particular, what soldiers from Buryatia are experiencing at war, including the supernatural, and to describe the reflections of their family members and their communities on how the war has changed their lives, on the tragedies of human losses, frustrations, fears for an uncertain future, and hopes that the war soon would be over. Moreover, Russia's war in Ukraine is producing many narratives of cultural difference, when 'Buryats', whether that term indicates ethnic belonging or a regional identity, are now seen as a distinct social group separate from the majority of the population of the Russian Federation on the basis of their cultural and historical traits often based on imaginaries deploying the much-mythologised figure of the Mongolian nomad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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В статье анализируется деятельность правителей чингизидских государств XIII—XIV вв. по охране правопорядка в городах и прочих населённых пунктах. Прослеживается эволюция институтов, осуществлявших правоохранительные функции в Монгольской империи и её улусах. Основное внимание уделяется соотношению монгольских имперских и местных принципов и институтов в отдельных улусах с учётом их специфики и традиций в организации правоохранительных структур. Впервые в научный оборот вводится русский перевод ярлыка о назначении на должность исфахсалара — сановника, отвечающего за охрану правопорядка в монгольском Иране из трактата«Дастур ал-катиб», составленного персидским чиновником Мухаммедом б. Хиндушахом Нахчивани в 1360-х гг. Авторы приходят к выводу, что в организации охраны правопорядка в улусах Чингизидов в рассматриваемый период проявлялись примерно одинаковые тенденции — усложнение системы правоохранительных органов, активное вовлечение в эту деятельность представителей местного населения, существенное влияние прежних традиций стран и регионов, находившихся под властью потомков Чингис-хана.

Introduction. The article examines the institution of bukaul in Chinggisid states and their successors. Special attention is given to functions implemented by the official in the uluses of Hulagu, Jochi and Chagatai — and the former’s evolution throughout centuries. It is also explained why the functions tended to vary in different Turko-Mongol states. Goals. The study seeks to characterize the status of bukaul in Chinggisid and post-Chinggisid states. To facilitate this, the paper introduces a Russian translation and an interdisciplinary analysis of one legislative act — yarliq (decree) — appointing an army bukaul, and compares it to other sources for specific features of this official in Turko-Mongol states. Materials and methods. The paper examines Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-fourteenth century by Persian official Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani, and other historical sources on Turko-Mongol states — from the empire of Genghis Khan and to Central Asian khanates of the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatic analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. Bukauls are often mentioned by medieval Asian historians but the messages tend to vary, which gives rise to different opinions as to their status and functions. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing a bukaul from Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. Our comparative insights into other sources attest to that functions of bukaul in different Chinggisid states were as different and diverse, which resulted from the latter’s specific sociopolitical and economic development conditions. Conclusions. Depending on correlations between Mongol imperial and regional traditions of power, administrative and socioeconomic patterns, bukaul could serve as distributor of material benefits in the army (Mongol Iran), as executive of administrative and law-enforcement structures (Ulus of Jochi), and even as courtier in charge of khans’ cuisine (Chagatai Ulus). At the same time in Chinggisid and post-Chinggisid states, bukauls were usually ethnic Turko-Mongols of noble origin with military-oriented minds and corresponding training, which resulted in that they could be actively involved into military endeavors regardless of their official positions and functions.

Introduction. The article examines a yarliq from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib to characterize the institution of ulug bitigchi that used to be widespread in the Mongol Empire and states of Genghis Khan’s descendants. Goals. The study attempts an interdisciplinary analysis of the historical monument — one yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi (head of scribes) and contained in Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-14th century by Persian official Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani. Materials and methods. The paper focuses on Dastur al-Katib and the mentioned yarliq proper, involves related medieval sources on Mongol Iran and other Chinggisid states, including works by Juvayni, Rashid al-Din, Fasih Khwafi, etc., official documents of the Chinggisid chancelleries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatics analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. The work clarifies specific features of an ulug bitigchi’s legal status — including his functions, rights, requirements for candidates in Chinggisid chance­lleries — and traces its evolution. It also shows reasons for the survival of the institution in those states even after the official conversion to Islam and shaping of a corresponding government system in accordance with traditions that had existed across the Volga Region, Iran and Central Asia long before the Mongol conquest. Conclusions. The fact that the institution of ulug bitigchi did survive the subsequent Islamization was to primarily position of Ilkhans as heirs of the Mongol Empire where it had first been established as well as to seek a compromised approach in governing their various subjects — nomadic and sedentary peoples, Turko-Mongols and those who spoke Iranian languages, Moslems and adherents of other religions.

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For many women living in parts of present-day north China and Mongolia during the 10th to 14th centuries, equestrian activities were a part of daily life. Women of all social levels were expected to know how to ride from an early age. However, documentary evidence for women's participation in equestrian activities during this period is sparse. This paper brings together materials that highlight the important role horse riding played in the lives of northern women during the 10th to 14th centuries from the funerary context. This study connects funerary objects with women's participation in polo, hunting, warfare, and the Mongol postal system, among other activities. The synthesis of material evidence from tombs with period texts will illuminate the important role of equestrian activities in women's lives and afterlives during this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the research: This research builds upon the author’s previous work focused on exploring the reflection of Mongolian imperial ideology in sources from various countries that were influenced to varying degrees by the Mongolian expansion during the 13th and 14th centuries. The objective is to search for and systematically categorize the manifestations of Mongol ”world-organizing” ideas within Russian sources. Research materials: The primary sources for this study were the oldest Russian chronicles, including the Laurentian, First Novgorod, and Hypatian chroniclew, along with several others. Valuable information was also extracted from collections of yarlyqs (edicts) from Mongol khans to Russian metropolitans, hagiographic literature, and religious records. Comparative materials from Eastern and European sources were utilized to elucidate the identified elements of Mongolian ideology. The works of both Russian and foreign historians, specializing in Russian and Mongolian history, were extensively referenced. The results of the research and scientific novelty: This research reaffirms conclusions made by other experts regarding the limited interest among Russian scribes in the material and spiritual culture of the Mongols. Ideological aspects of Mongolian power are scarcely documented in Russian sources, although in some instances, they can be reasonably reconstructed. The foundations of Mongolian ”universalism,” such as the concept of Eternal Heaven, the deification of Genghis Khan, and the Great Yasa attributed to him, have left traces in chronicles and other historical sources. Russian sources also provide supplementary information highlighting Mongolian “imperialism,” including the Mongol Empire’s system of titles, interactions between the Ulus of Jochi and Karakorum, and the steppe rituals that princes were compelled to perform within the Horde. Overall, Russian materials do not support the notion that the Mongols aimed to conquer ”the whole world.”

The article focuses on the question of the consumption of kumiss, a drink made from fermented mare's milk, among the various religious groups coexisting in the medieval Mongol empire. Inspired by Actor-Network Theory (B. Latour) and the project of provincializing Europe (D. Chakrabarthy), the article provides a comparative contextual analysis of medieval sources, including accounts of the Franciscan friars John of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck, and other relevant sources relating to the history of the principalities of Rus', communities of Syriac and Armenian Christians, and the Mongols. It sheds light on the role of kumiss as a natural, cultural, and religious agent, which provoked diverse attitudes among the different religious groups and revealed their interdenominational and interreligious dynamics. Comparing the various, often contrasting attitudes towards kumiss consumption enables us to better understand the missionary situation of the Franciscan friars and also reveal the practical challenges and problems facing medieval Christian missions in the Mongol empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Persian scholar and state official Rashīd al-Dīn (d. 1318) devoted a considerable part of his literary output to the study of China (Khatā') and its foremost cultural achievements. The most distinctive aspect of these writings is their sheer novelty. Indeed, Rashīd al-Dīn is the first Islamicate author to systematically investigate such subjects with reference to textual sources and informants from East Asia. This article discusses the motives and methods underlying Rashīd al-Dīn's intellectual engagement with China, ultimately framing him as an example of (post-)Mongol muḥaqqiq , or " taḥqīq practitioner," and his writings about China as an emblematic case of Mongol-sponsored, taḥqīq -infused scholarship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goryeo (918–1392) was a politically and commercially integrated part of the wider Mongol Empire (1206–1368), while also temporally situated in the difficult transition from the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) to the Little Ice Age (LIA). Yet narratives of Goryeo's incorporation into the Mongol world remain overwhelmingly focused on politics, economics, and culture. Since Alfred Crosby's Ecological Imperialism , scholars have increasingly been sensitive to the ecological impacts of imperialism and colonialism, while Geoffrey Parker has highlighted the integral role of climate in human history. This study seeks to combine these two approaches and argues that the confluence of Mongol imperialism and climate change was profoundly impactful on Goryeo's environment and ecologies. Invasion and incorporation into the Mongol Empire spurred processes of deforestation and agro-ecological transformation, as armies traversed the peninsula, populations were displaced, and capitals were (re)built. Therein, an arguably drier, cooler, and less stable climate compounded anthropocentric agro-ecological dislocation and sylvan ecological disruption. Consequently, political transitions, as in the 1258 fall of the Choe dictatorship and the end of Goryeo itself in 1392, cannot be separated from the climate destabilization of the MWP-LIA transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collection No. 192 is kept in the Irkutsk regional museum of local history. There is no documentation for the collection. Most of the items in the collection date back to 13th – 14th centuries. They are probably the accompaniments to burials excavated by B.E. Petri in the middle of 20s of 20th century in the Tunka valley on the Mondy 1 burial ground. The collection includes two fragments of silk fabric. On one of them, a leaf with a complicated edge is woven with gold threads, on the other – a parrot sitting on a peony shrub. It can be assumed that the first fragment is part of a ceremonial robe. The second fragment could have been part of boots, a handbag, or a large robe trimmed with fur. A silk headscarf with parrots and peonies embroidered with gold threads, similar to images from collection No. 192, was found in burial No. 6 of the Nogoon Gozgor 1 burial ground on the northern shore of Lake Khovsgol in Mongolia. Based on AMS14С dating, this burial, like Mondy 1, is dated to 14th century.

Research objectives: To identify representatives of the Mongolian ruling elite of the 13th century whose names are mentioned in the “History of the Mongols” by the Papal legate, Franciscan John (Giovanni) de Plano Carpini, as well as several historical realities of the epoch of the Mongol conquests. Research materials: The Wolfenbüttel copy of the “History of the Mongols” and its new Russian translation, Persian Arabic and Russian chronicles, Mongolian medieval writings of the 13th–17th century, historiographical literature on the Mongol Empire of the first half of the 13th century. Results and novelty of the research: Based on the comparison of information from various sources, different proposals for the identification of some characters appearing in the “History of the Mongols” by Plano Carpini have been offered. Identification of names is complicated by the abundance of their discrepancies in various editions and handwritten versions of the work under study. The basis for the present analysis was the second, lengthy edition of Plano Carpini’s work, existing in two copies that independently go back to the common protograph – the Wolfenbüttel (the 14th century) and the Cambridge (the 13th century). This article suggests the identification of the Mongol governors in the southern Russian steppes, Mautsi and Karbon, with Noyon Mugedu and an anonymous Gurgan (i.e., Batu’s son–in-law) respectively; Batu’s court dignitary Eldegai can be associated with Eldeke from the Juryat tribe. Assumptions are also made regarding the discovery of prototypes of the Mongol military commander and governor Korentsa (Kuremsa), the Khorezm ruler Altisoldan, and the town Summerkent of the “Saxes” (Saxins) people.

Research objectives: This work is aimed at identifying in the works of pre-revolutionary Russian historians issues related to various aspects of the existence of the Mongol Empire from its prehistory to the collapse, with special attention to the presentation of the ideology of its leaders. Research materials: The main sources are the major works of fifteen famous Russian historians of the XIX – early XX centuries: N.A. Polevoy, M.P. Pogodin, N.G. Ustryalov, N.I. Kostomarov, S.M. Solovyov, K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, D.I. Ilovaisky, E.E. Go­lubinsky, V.O. Klyuchevsky, A.V. Ekzemplyarsky, S.F. Platonov, M.K. Lyubavsky, M.S. Grushevsky, M.N. Pokrovsky, and A.E. Presnyakov. Additional information was drawn from historiographical and Oriental literature. Results and novelty of the research: An analytical review of the pre-revolutionary Russian historiography showed a very different depth of penetration of historians into issues related to the Mongol Empire. For a number of specialists, the empire did not seem to exist, and all historical Mongol-Russian conflicts were confined to the Jochid Ulus. Others, taking a contrary approach, demonstrate a good understanding of the internal structure of this colossal political organism and the processes that took place inside it. The amount of information about the Mongols and Mongol Empire in the works of Russian historians were not dependent on the number of available medieval eastern sources at one time or another, being determined rather naturally by the author’s position. Along with erroneous opinions, the Old Russian historiography gave rise to many insights and hypotheses that were ahead of their time.

Among historical records used in this research, an example of the yarligh by Iranian Ilkhan on the appointment of a head of a caravan is of key importance. This edict is incorporated into the treatise for penmen “Dastur al-katib”, which was written in the 1360s by Mukhammad ibn Khindushakh Nakhchivani, a Persian official. The document is translated into Russian for the first time and provided with interdisciplinary scholarly commentary. The data of the yarligh, combined with further relevant accounts, provide a rather seminal record on issues of security for caravans and trade routes in the Black Sea area, which in the 13th to 14th centuries was divided into parts between successor states of the Mongol Empire — the Golden Horde (the Ulus of Jochi) and the state of the Khulaguids in Iran, — and evaluate the effectiveness of the protective measures the Genghisids rulers have taken to respond to those challenges.

Seasonal settlements of the Mongol rulers fall into the two general classes of temporary and permanent settlements, which were scattered across the territory under their influence. According to historical reports and archaeological documents, permanent settlements were constructed using building materials in certain Yaylaqs (summer quarters) and Qishlaqs (winter quarters) or on the outskirts of urban centers, and were periodically used by Mongol rulers. Historical texts from the Ilkhanid period use three different names of Qarshi, Kushk and Saray to refer to such settlements, highlighting the differing structures of the pertaining settlements. The present study aims to offer a classification for permanent settlements of the Mongol and Ilkhanid rulers via semantically and functionally interpreting the terms Qarshi, Kushk and Saray. To this end, apart from archaeological documents, Chinese terms referring to the permanent settlements of the Mongol rulers are invoked. The results of this analytical-historical research show that in light of the prefixes used in the Persian texts deriving from the Ilkhanid period, the permanentsettlements of the Mongol empires and Ilkhans split into two categories: Saray and Kushk. Sarays were a series of ceremonial buildings located mostly in the main cities or important seasonal residences and are comparable to the Gongchengs of the Mongols in China. Kushk mainly denoted a midway residence, where the sole existing building was a single Kushk or Qarshi.

Abstract: Research objectives: The article aims to reveal the time, circumstances and consequences of the first demands of Mongol conquerors to the main Russian princes to visit the residence of Batu. Research materials: The texts of Old Russian chronicles – Hypatian, Laurentian, First Novgorod and others, Vita of Mikhail Chernigovskiy, “History of the Mongols” by John of Plano Carpini. Results and novelty of the research: It is established that at the end of 1242 – the beginning of 1243 the demands to visit the residence of Batu (who just returned from the campaign in Central Europe) were received by all three of the strongest Russian Princes – Yaroslav Vsevolodich, Mikhail Vsevolodich and Daniil Romanovich. The decision to leave the Russian princes in their possessions at that moment was not accepted yet, and the possibility of the earlier employed Mongol regime of direct control remained. Mikhail and Daniil shied away from the visit, while Yaroslav came to Batu and received an all-Russian ‘seniority’. These events predetermined the establishment of a model of rule in Rus’ through local rulers.

This paper considers the concept of science diplomacy in the context of Eurasian history with a particular focus on the period of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. The Mongol Empire held sway over much of Eurasia and thus participated in diplomatic activity within and outside of Mongol domains. Scientists and intellectuals routinely headed diplomatic embassies sent and received by the Mongol Empire. Diplomats were valued for their knowledge and skills and served as interlocutors and translators for the Mongol Khans. These scientist-diplomats were key figures in the court and were essential in facilitating exchanges, building connections and fostering relations. As polyglots and polymaths they were able to operate in a multi-cultural environment. They were part of the complex framework of the Mongol Empire that brought to bear a kind of Eurasian development model that relied on expertise, knowledge and resources that could be utilised across the empire. Set within this context, the paper describes the creation of a politico-science complex in Mongol Eurasia with a special emphasis on the relationship between the Mongol Khans and their partners, chief among them were scientists and intellectuals. The Mongol Empire as an empire built upon exchanges summarises how scientific exchanges were both a product of and a driver for diplomatic relations in this period. Thus, the historical connection between diplomacy and science in Eurasia is a necessary component in understanding the modern notion of science diplomacy beyond a European context and applied more globally both in terms of time and space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. The article examines a yarliq from Dastur al-Katib (14th c. CE) and attempts to an insight into the principles of using the Mongol language in the 13th–14th century Persian records management system. Goals. The study provides an interdisciplinary analysis of the historical monument — a yarliq appointing a bakhshi (senior scribe) included in Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-14th century by Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani, a financial statesman under the late Hulaguids and early Jalairids. To facilitate this, the paper shall: 1) translate the examined document into Russian, 2) characterize the latter as a valuable source on history of state, law and chancellery culture of Mongol Iran, 3) analyze the yarliq as an official act and a source of law, 4) identify the legal status of the Mongolian language in 13th–14th century Iran. Materials and methods. The study explores the yarliq proper and other materials of Dastur al-Katib, additional medieval sources on Mongol Iran and Genghisid states, including works by Rashid al-Din, Wassaf, etc., official documents of Genghisid chancelleries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatics analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing a secretary (bakhshi) from the medieval Persian treatise titled Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. The work clarifies specific features of a bakhshi’s legal status as a senior scribe responsible for translating official edicts from Persian into Mongolian, his functions, rights, requirements for candidates. An attempt to identify the person to have been appointed scribe therein was made. Conclusions. The works concludes Mongolian had a status of the official language in records management system of Iran throughout the late 13th and 14th centuries, the former having been extensively used by nomadizing subjects of Hulaguid and Jalairid Ilkhans, including top-rank executives of Mongolian descent. This was reflected in the appointment of a special official responsible for articulating legal and other documents into Mongolian for nomadic elites and warlords. However, to extrapolate this conclusion onto other Genghisid states it is necessary to compare the researched document and additional information on Mongol Iran with similar sources from other heirs of the Mongol Empire, such as the Golden Horde, Chagatai Ulus, etc.

The article is an analysis of judicial activity of Chinggis Khan towards persons who entered his service under different circumstances. Analysis allows to state that Chinggis Khan not always used the same criteria taking his decision on the reward for loyalty and punishment for treachery. Authors attempt to explain the reasons of taking one or another decision by Chinggis Khan and clarify their correlation with political ideology formed by him during the establishing of the Mongol Empire. Besides, it seems that the analysis of specific cases could help trace the process of forming the system of khans court which foundation was laid by Chinggis Khan just during the period of the unification of Mongol tribes at the initial stage of creating of his empire. The source base for the research includes medieval historical works: Secret history of Mongols, Sheng-wu qin-cheng-lu, Compendium of chronicles by Rashid ad-Din, Yuan shih, Altan Tobchi by Lubsan Danzan and some others. Positions of different scholars on decisions of Chinggis Khan are also taken into account.

Research objectives: The goal of the article is a comparative analysis of information recorded by John of Plano Carpini on Mongolian and Mongol Empire law, along with other sources on the Mongolian law and legal traditions aimed at determining the objectivity of diplomat’s materials and observing the evolution of traditional law of the Mongols. Research materials: Verification is carried out on the basis of the work “The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars” by John of Plano Carpini, making comparisons with the corpus of other historical sources, including travelers’ notes and historical chro­nicles by authors of the medieval and modern eras, as well as materials of ethnographic research on the legal traditions of nomadic peoples of Eurasia. The novelty of the study: The presented article is the first attempt to compare the information of John of Plano Carpini on the customary and imperial law of the Mongols with other sources on Mongolian law to observe certain legal traditions of the Mongols and the evolution of law among the Eurasian nomads. Research results: The author has found that the majority of information from John of Plano Carpini on Mongolian law in the middle of thirteenth century can be characterized as objective as it is confirmed by the data from independent sources dating from the thirteenth to nineteenth centuries. These include testimonies of other foreign travelers who visited Mongolia in different epochs, medieval historical chronicles, studies resulting from ethnographic research, etc. Besides that, the value of the information of the diplomat is emphasized within the context of comparative legal research on the history of the state and law of the Mongol Empire and Chinggisid states.

For many women living in parts of present-day north China and Mongolia during the 10th to 14th centuries, equestrian activities were a part of daily life. Women of all social levels were expected to know how to ride from an early age. However, documentary evidence for women’s participation in equestrian activities during this period is sparse. This paper brings together materials that highlight the important role horse riding played in the lives of northern women during the 10th to 14th centuries from the funerary context. This study connects funerary objects with women’s participation in polo, hunting, warfare, and the Mongol postal system, among other activities. The synthesis of material evidence from tombs with period texts will illuminate the important role of equestrian activities in women’s lives and afterlives during this period.

The middle of the XIII century - the apogee of power of the unified Mongol Empire. In 1241-1242, the first, bloodiest and most destructive Mongol invasion into Europe took place. Certainly, it was vital for the Europeans to find an answer to the question: what did the invaders want, what goals did they pursue? In this article, the author shows that, due to the abundance of contradictory information and the acute lack of an objective understanding of the new enemy at first, European political and ecclesiastical figures attributed many goals to the Mongols (at least eighteen!), of which only three were fully confirmed - an attack on Russia, Poland, and Hungary, and the rest were either not realized for some reason, or arose in minds of the Europeans themselves. All these goals, identified in various official and unofficial European sources, mainly dating from the middle of the XIII century, are discussed here taking into account information from synchronous Eastern sources. Despite well-known ideas of a world-building monarchy, perhaps actually hatched by the Mongol khans, events in Europe suggest that their main goal there was to punish the Hungarian king Bela IV, who refused to hand over the Polovtsians hiding in Hungary to the Mongols.

The middle of the XIII century - the apogee of power of the unified Mongol Empire. In 1241-1242, the first, bloodiest and most destructive Mongol invasion into Europe took place. Certainly, it was vital for the Europeans to find an answer to the question: what did the invaders want, what goals did they pursue? In this article, the author shows that, due to the abundance of contradictory information and the acute lack of an objective understanding of the new enemy at first, European political and ecclesiastical figures attributed many goals to the Mongols (at least eighteen!), of which only three were fully confirmed - an attack on Russia, Poland, and Hungary, and the rest were either not realized for some reason, or arose in minds of the Europeans themselves. All these goals, identified in various official and unofficial European sources, mainly dating from the middle of the XIII century, are discussed here taking into account information from synchronous Eastern sources. Despite well-known ideas of a world-building monarchy, perhaps actually hatched by the Mongol khans, events in Europe suggest that their main goal there was to punish the Hungarian king Bela IV, who refused to hand over the Polovtsians hiding in Hungary to the Mongols.

Background. The relevance of this topic is due to the important role of region in question connected with the political and socio-economic life of the Golden Horde – the largest state formation in Eastern Europe and Western Siberia in the 13th – 14th centuries. This special role was due to the location of the Southern Urals in the very center of the Ulus of Jochi, which made it a link not only between the yurts subordinated to Batu and his descendants, but also between the Golden Horde and other parts of the Mongol Empire. Also, the need for a scientific examination of this problem is caused by the significant influence of the Horde dependence on the historical development of Russia. Some of the results obtained at the regional level can be extrapolated to the entire state, since the Mongols applied a certain set of measures in relation to various state formations. The latter varied because of local characteristics. In addition, the relevance of this topic can be explained by the fact that in modern scientific works the fact of the conquest of the South Urals by the Mongols is denied. Moreover, the influence of the Golden Horde on its development is belittled. The aim of the study is to study the process of the Southern Urals joining the Jochi ulus. Materials and methods. Sources on this issue should be divided into two large groups: written and archaeological. Among the first group should be highlighted the works of Western European and Eastern authors, Russian chronicles. Among the works of Western European authors the books of the Flemish monk Guillaume de Rubruk “Journey to the Eastern Countries”, the Franciscan monk Plano Carpini and the Dominican Julian of Hungary should be paid attention to. As for the eastern authors, Ata-Malik Juveini should be singled out. He wrote “The History of the World Conqueror”, “Collection of Chronicles” by Rashid- ad-Din. Furthermore, the work of the Khiva Khan Abul-Gazi “The Genealogical Tree of the Turks” is of great importance. Some information about the invasion of the Mongols into the South Urals can be found in the Laurentian Chronicle. Archaeological sources include the Golden Horde mausoleums, burials accompanied by implements (weapons, dishes, jewelry, coins, etc.). Thanks to these sources, we can obtain information about the ethnic picture that took place in the Southern Urals during the period under review, social stratification and economic ties. Results. We managed to compile the periodization of the conquest of the Southern Urals by the Mongols; on the basis of written sources, the features of each stage are highlighted. It was found out that the entry of the South Ural peoples into the Jochi ulus was a long process, since the first clashes of the Mongols with the Kipchaks and Bashkirs occurred at the beginning of the 13th century. It was established that the Kypchaks, who inhabited the steppes of the Southern Urals, were subjugated by the Mongols by 1225, and the Bashkirs – after the western campaign of 1236–1242. The problem connected with the place of the South Ural peoples in the ulus-yurt system of the Golden Horde is also considered. Conclusions. Thanks to the analysis of written sources, we were able to establish that, despite the fact that some peoples of the Southern Urals received certain administrative indulgences from the Mongols (for example, part of the Bashkirs received the right to have rulers from their own dynasty), this region became the part of the Golden Horde, having lost political independence. The presence of some elements of autonomy should be explained not by the nature of the entry of specific peoples into the Golden Horde (either voluntarily or with the help of weapons), but by the features of the landscape that allowed the Bashkirs to wage a long guerrilla war with the Mongols, which forced the latter to make certain concessions. The Kypchaks inhabiting the South Ural steppes could not offer longterm resistance to the Mongols and they were used by them against both the Bashkirs and Bulgars.

In 1345 the Mongol ruling house of the Yuan (1271–1368) built Juyong Gate along China's Great Wall. The gate stood on a road connecting the empire's twin capitals, Dadu and Shangdu. Those two cities possessed vastly different built environments. Dadu, the emperor's winter residence, evoked the tradition of Chinese imperial-city building. It provided the ruler with wooden and stone buildings laid out on an orthogonal grid. Shangdu, the emperor's summer residence, delivered a space for grassland containing pastures, where the ruler could set up collapsible tents filled with wall hangings. In other words, the seasonal movement between the two capitals entailed a shift in the habit of seeing and visual representation. To reflect that shift, Juyong Gate's passageway was carved with imagery that could simultaneously belong to the two visual worlds: planar reliefs that could be perceived as both stone carvings and wall hangings. Juyong Gate thus became a site where two major visual systems in constant negotiation in the Mongols' China could come together and coexist as one. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]