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Actions are rarely devoid of emotional content. Thus, a more complete picture of the neural mechanisms underlying the mental simulation of observed actions requires more research using emotion information. The present study used high‐density electroencephalography to investigate mental simulation associated with facial emotion categorisation. Alpha‐mu rhythm modulation was measured at each frequency, from 8 Hz to 13 Hz, to infer the degree of sensorimotor simulation. Results suggest the sensitivity of the sensorimotor activity to emotional information, because (1) categorising static images of neutral faces as happy or sad was associated with stronger suppression in the central region than categorising clearly happy faces, (2) there was preliminary evidence indicating that the strongest suppression in the central region was in response to neutral faces, followed by sad and then happy faces and (3) in the control task, which required categorising images with the head oriented right, left, or forward as right or left, differences between conditions showed a pattern more indicative of task difficulty rather than sensorimotor engagement. Dissociable processing of emotional information in facial expressions and directionality information in head orientations was further captured in beta band activity (14–20 Hz). Stronger mu suppression to neutral faces indicates that sensorimotor simulation extends beyond crude motor mimicry. We propose that mu rhythm responses to facial expressions may serve as a biomarker for empathy circuit activation. Future research should investigate whether atypical or inconsistent mu rhythm responses to facial expressions indicate difficulties in understanding or sharing emotions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aimed to evaluate the effects of action observation on the walking ability and oscillatory brain activity of chronic stroke patients. Fourteen chronic stroke patients were allocated randomly to the action observation (AO) or sham observation (SO) groups. Both groups received 12 sessions of intervention. Each session composed of 12 min of observational training, which depicted exercises for the experimental group but nature pictures for the sham group and 40 min of occupational therapy, which was the same for the both groups. Walking ability was assessed by a motion analysis system and brain activity was monitored using quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) before and after the intervention. Brain asymmetry at alpha frequency, the percentage of stance phase, and step length showed significant changes in the AO group. Only the change in global alpha power was significantly correlated with the change in velocity after the intervention in AO group. Despite more improvements in walking and brain activity of patients in the AO group, our study failed to show significant correlations between the brain activity changes and functional improvements after the intervention, which might be mainly due to the small sample size in our study. Trial registration: IRCT20181014041333N1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Action observation training (AOT) is a therapeutic approach used in stroke rehabilitation. Videos form the core of AOT, and knowledge of constituent parameters is essential to make the intervention robust and generalizable. Currently, there is a dearth of available information on video parameters to be used for AOT. Our purpose was to identify and describe the parameters that constitute AOT videos for stroke rehabilitation. Electronic databases like PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, ProQuest, and Ovid SP from inception to date according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Title, abstract, and full-text screening were done independently by two authors, with a third author for conflict resolution. Data on video parameters like length, quality, perspective, speed, screen size and distance, sound, and control videos were extracted. Seventy studies were included in this review. The most-reported parameters were video length (85.71%) and perspective of view (62.85%). Movement speed (7.14%) and sound (8.57%) were the least reported. Static landscapes or geometrical patterns were found suitable as control videos. Most video parameters except for length and perspective of view remain underreported in AOT protocols. Future studies with better descriptions of video parameters are required for comprehensive AOT interventions and result generalisation. Videos shorter than 5 min may be preferred during action observation training (AOT) intervention in post-stroke. Egocentric view may be better for upper limb dexterity function and allocentric view for gross actions like walking. Choice of video disseminating device depends on its dimension as well as observer distance. Movement speed, video sound, and quality must be considered to obtain more comprehensive AOT videos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The learning process in humans requires continuous contacts with environmental stimuli, especially during neurodevelopmental growth. These functions are assisted by the coding potential of mirror neurons to serve social interactions. This ability to learn imitating the observed behavior is no longer necessary during adulthood, and control mechanisms prevent automatic mirroring. However, children with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome could encounter coding errors at the level of the mirror neurons system as these cortical regions are themselves the ones affected in the syndrome. Combined with impulsivity, the resulting sign would be a manifest echopraxia that persists throughout adulthood, averting these individuals from the appraisal of a spot-on motor control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Neuron activation therapies improve relevant abilities in older adults. • Better results are obtained if the therapy includes functional activities. • The beneficial effects of adding MNAT to a PE program are controversial. : To identify the effects of mirror neuron activation (MNAT) combined or not with physical exercise (PE) in healthy older adults, on functionality, balance, gait velocity and risk of falls. : A systematic electronic search was performed in PubMed/MEDLINE, Cochrane, and Embase databases. : Thirteen randomized controlled trials were included in the qualitative analysis, and eleven in the quantitative analysis. All studies showed fair to high quality and the most frequent high-risk bias was "Blinding of participants and personnel". Compared to the control condition, higher improvement was shown in older people who received MNAT, on functionality (1.57 [0.57, 2.62], balance (1.95 [1.32, 2.572]), and gait velocity (1.20 [0.30, 2.11]). Compared to PE, MNAT combined with PE does not improve functionality. More studies are needed to assess MNAT effectiveness in the rest of the outcomes. : Neuron system activation through MNAT improves relevant abilities in older adults, with better results when including functional activities. However, the beneficial effects on these variables of adding MNAT to a PE program are controversial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The mirror neuron system (MNS) plays a key role in the neural mechanism underlying motor learning and neural plasticity. Action observation (AO), action execution (AE), and a combination of both, known as action imitation (AI), are the most commonly used rehabilitation strategies based on MNS. It is possible to enhance the cortical activation area and amplitude by combining traditional neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) with other top-down and active rehabilitation strategies based on the MNS theory. Objective: This study aimed to explore the cortical activation patterns induced by NMES synchronized with rehabilitation strategies based on MNS, namely NMES+AO, NMES+AE, and NMES+AI. In addition, the study aimed to assess the feasibility of these three novel rehabilitative treatments in order to provide insights and evidence for the design, implementation, and application of brain-computer interfaces. Methods: A total of 70 healthy adults were recruited from July 2022 to February 2023, and 66 of them were finally included in the analysis. The cortical activation patterns during NMES+AO, NMES+AE, and NMES+AI were detected using the functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) technique. The action to be observed, executed, or imitated was right wrist and hand extension, and two square-shaped NMES electrodes were placed on the right extensor digitorum communis. A block design was adopted to evaluate the activation intensity of the left MNS brain regions. Results: General linear model results showed that compared with the control condition, the number of channels significantly activated (PFDR < 0.05) in the NMES+AO, NMES+AE, and NMES+AI conditions were 3, 9, and 9, respectively. Region of interest (ROI) analysis showed that 2 ROIs were significantly activated (PFDR < 0.05) in the NMES+AO condition, including BA6 and BA44; 5 ROIs were significantly activated in the NMES+AE condition, including BA6, BA40, BA44, BA45, and BA46; and 6 ROIs were significantly activated in the NMES+AI condition, including BA6, BA7, BA40, BA44, BA45, and BA46. Conclusion: The MNS was activated during neuromuscular electrical stimulation combined with an AO, AE, and AI intervention. The synchronous application of NMES and mirror neuron rehabilitation strategies is feasible in clinical rehabilitation. The fNIRS signal patterns observed in this study could be used to develop braincomputer interface and neurofeedback therapy rehabilitation devices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The disease burden of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a definitive public health challenge. The quality of life of children with ASD depends on how the cultural environment fits their special needs, including religious and spiritual factors. Does ASD predict low religiosity, and if not, what is the significance for clinical care? To answer this question, we reviewed the literature on the cognitive models of ASD and religious beliefs. We found that the cognitive models of ASD and religious beliefs substantially overlap, which is particularly important from a developmental psychological perspective. These models include Theory of Mind and intentionality, the "broken mirror" hypothesis, central coherence, and the intense world theory. We dispute the assumption that individuals with ASD are inherently less religious and spiritual than the neurotypical population. Religiosity is possibly expressed differently in ASD with unique spiritual experiences and beliefs ("gifted, visionary, and truth-seeker"). In some circumstances, a religious background can be helpful for both children with ASD and their caregivers. These circumstances should not be neglected, and clinicians are encouraged to consider patients' religious context, resources, and needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The group counseling approach in education helps students acquire hands-on experience through experiential learning strategies. This study employed a pretest-posttest, quasiexperimental design. The participants included 121 students enrolled in part-time undergraduate social work programs who were assigned to an experimental group or a comparison group; the experimental group (n = 82) rated their experiences with the group counseling teaching approach. The data from the experimental group were compared with those from the comparison group (n = 39), which was taught using a lecture method approach. Yalom's Therapeutic Factors Inventory, the Mirror Effect Inventory, and the Group Counseling Education Questionnaire were used to measure changes in the participants. The results showed that the group counseling teaching approach was significantly associated with positive mirror effects. The results further indicated that the positive mirror effects were attributable to the group counseling teaching approach and mediated by four therapeutic factors, namely, universality, imparting of information, catharsis, and imitative behavior. The findings of this study demonstrate that the elements of this approach facilitate and enhance the therapeutic effects of group counseling education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have struggled to determine the relationship between mirror neuron brain regions and two distinct "action understanding" processes: identifying actions and identifying the intentions underlying those actions. This may be because the identification of intentions from others' actions requires an initial action identification process. Disruptive transcranial magnetic stimulation was administered to left inferior frontal gyrus (lIFG) during a novel cognitive task to determine which of these "action understanding" processes is subserved by mirror neuron brain regions. Participants identified either the actions performed by observed hand actions or the intentions underlying those actions. The extent to which intention identification was disrupted by lIFG (vs. control site) stimulation was dependent on the level of disruption to action identification. We subsequently performed functional magnetic resonance imaging during the same task. During action identification, responses were widespread within mirror neuron areas including lIFG and inferior parietal lobule. However, no independent responses were found in mirror neuron brain regions during intention identification. Instead, responses occurred in brain regions associated with two distinct mentalizing localizer tasks. This supports an account in which mirror neuron brain regions are involved in an initial action identification process, but the subsequent identification of intentions requires additional processing in mentalizing brain regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Functional training is necessary for swallowing rehabilitation; however, there is a risk of aspiration. Indirect swallowing training involving mirror neuron activity may be useful for swallowing recovery, as there is no risk of aspiration. This study investigated the activity of mirror neurons in the cerebral cortex (Brodmann areas 6, 40, and 44) while healthy elderly adults (eight men and seven women; average age, 66.4 years) watched swallowing-related videos. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to examine the presence or absence of mirror neuron activity during the presentation of four types of swallowing-related videos. The strongest brain activity was observed during the chewing/swallowing fluoroscopic video, and female participants showed increased activity compared with male participants. Some activity was observed for all four video types; however, the highest intensity occurred during the masticatory swallowing fluoroscopy video. Since there was mirror neuron activity while participants watched the videos, it is possible that it mimics swallowing and can therefore be used for safe, indirect swallowing training during rehabilitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Various treatment approaches are being applied for recovery of gait after different medical conditions. Action observation is a new motor learning approach, which is considered as a complementary training to the conventional rehabilitation programs such as occupational therapy for this purpose. Objective: To find out which patients benefit more from action observation training. Methods: Electronic databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and PEDro were searched. Prospective studies published in peer-reviewed journals with full text available in English, which investigated the effect of action observation on gait and balance of patients with neurologic or musculoskeletal disorders, were included. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed by the Downs and Black checklist, and the information was presented based on the PICO style. Results: Nineteen studies recruiting post-orthopedic patients (4 studies), patients with stroke (11 studies), and Parkinson's disease (4 studies) fulfilled the eligibility criteria. Quality scores ranged from 51.85% to 81.48%. Balance and walking ability were the most reported primary outcomes. Conclusion: Patients in the chronic phase of stroke might benefit more from action observation training plus occupational therapy in different aspects of gait than orthopedic patients and those with Parkinson's disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Turkiye Klinikleri Journal of Health Sciences / Türkiye Klinikleri Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi is the property of Turkiye Klinikleri and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The disease burden of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a definitive public health challenge. The quality of life of children with ASD depends on how the cultural environment fits their special needs, including religious and spiritual factors. Does ASD predict low religiosity, and if not, what is the significance for clinical care? To answer this question, we reviewed the literature on the cognitive models of ASD and religious beliefs. We found that the cognitive models of ASD and religious beliefs substantially overlap, which is particularly important from a developmental psychological perspective. These models include Theory of Mind and intentionality, the “broken mirror” hypothesis, central coherence, and the intense world theory. We dispute the assumption that individuals with ASD are inherently less religious and spiritual than the neurotypical population. Religiosity is possibly expressed differently in ASD with unique spiritual experiences and beliefs (“gifted, visionary, and truth-seeker”). In some circumstances, a religious background can be helpful for both children with ASD and their caregivers. These circumstances should not be neglected, and clinicians are encouraged to consider patients’ religious context, resources, and needs.

Copyright of Istanbul Gelisim University Journal of Health Sciences / İstanbul Gelişim Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi is the property of Istanbul Gelisim Universitesi Saglik Bilimleri Yuksekokulu and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

What factors affect imitation performance? Varying theories of imitation stress the role of experience, but few studies have explicitly tested its role in imitative learning in non‐human primates. We tested several predictions regarding the role of experience, conspecific presence, and action compatibility using a stimulus–response compatibility protocol. Nineteen baboons separated into two experimental groups learned to respond by targeting on a touch screen the same stimulus as their neighbor (compatible) or the opposite stimulus (incompatible). They first performed the task with a conspecific demonstrator (social phase) and then a computer demonstrator (ghost phase). After reaching a predetermined success threshold, they were then tested in an opposite compatibility condition (i.e., reversal learning conditions). Seven baboons performed at least two reversals during the social phase, and we found no significant difference between the compatible and incompatible conditions, although we noticed slightly faster response times (RTs) in the compatible condition that disappeared after the first reversal. During the ghost phase, monkeys showed difficulties in learning the incompatible condition, and the compatible condition RTs tended to be slower than during the social phase. Together, these results suggest that (a) there is no strong movement compatibility effect in our task and that (b) the presence of a demonstrator plays a role in eliciting correct responses but is not essential as has been previously shown in human studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stroke is one of the most debilitating neurological disorders that commonly results in both cognitive and motor dysfunctions. Although the recovery of gait is one of the main goals of patients with stroke, only 50–60% of the patients commonly reach this target. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of action observation training, based on mirror neurons, as an add-on therapy to the conventional physical rehabilitation on the gait performance of patients with stroke. Fourteen patients with chronic stroke were randomly assigned to the sham or the experimental group. Both groups received a 40-min conventional physical training following a 12-min observation training depicting exercises for the experimental group but nature pictures for the sham group each session. The patients' walking was recorded using a motion analysis system at baseline and after the 12-session intervention. Spatiotemporal parameters of gait and ground reaction forces were measured. Significant improvements were found in most measured spatiotemporal parameters of gait on the unaffected side of the patients in the experimental group, while in the sham group, the recovery was observed only in the percentage of the stance phase. Regarding the affected side, the stride and step length of the patients in the experimental group were parameters with a significant amelioration. The results of this study showed that the action observation training had the potential to improve the walking quality of the patients with hemiplegia in the chronic phase of stroke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Impaired imitation has been found to be an important factor contributing to social communication deficits in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It has been hypothesized that the neural correlate of imitation, the mirror neuron system (MNS), is dysfunctional in ASD, resulting in imitation impairment as one of the key behavioral manifestations in ASD. Previous MNS studies produced inconsistent results, leaving the debate of whether “broken” mirror neurons in ASD are unresolved. Methods This meta-analysis aimed to explore the differences in MNS activation patterns between typically developing (TD) and ASD individuals when they observe biological motions with or without social-emotional components. Effect size signed differential mapping (ES-SDM) was adopted to synthesize the available fMRI data. Results ES-SDM analysis revealed hyperactivation in the right inferior frontal gyrus and left supplementary motor area in ASD during observation of biological motions. Subgroup analysis of experiments involving the observation of stimuli with or without emotional component revealed hyperactivation in the left inferior parietal lobule and left supplementary motor during action observation without emotional components, whereas hyperactivation of the right inferior frontal gyrus was found during action observation with emotional components in ASD. Subgroup analyses of age showed hyperactivation of the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus in ASD adolescents, while hyperactivation in the right inferior frontal gyrus was noted in ASD adults. Meta-regression within ASD individuals indicated that the right cerebellum crus I activation increased with age, while the left inferior temporal gyrus activation decreased with age. Limitations This meta-analysis is limited in its generalization of the findings to individuals with ASD by the restricted age range, heterogeneous study sample, and the large within-group variation in MNS activation patterns during object observation. Furthermore, we only included action observation studies which might limit the generalization of our results to the imitation deficits in ASD. In addition, the relatively small sample size for individual studies might also potentially overestimate the effect sizes. Conclusion The MNS is impaired in ASD. The abnormal activation patterns were found to be modulated by the nature of stimuli and age, which might explain the contradictory results from earlier studies on the “broken mirror neuron” debate.

Classical studies suggest that the anterior intraparietal area (AIP) contributes to the encoding of specific information such as objects and actions of self and others, through a variety of neuronal classes, such as canonical, motor and mirror neurons. However, these studies typically focused on a single variable, leaving it unclear whether distinct sets of AIP neurons encode a single or multiple sources of information and how multimodal coding emerges. Here, we chronically recorded monkey AIP neurons in a variety of tasks and conditions classically employed in separate experiments. Most cells exhibited mixed selectivity for observed objects, executed actions, and observed actions, enhanced when this information came from the monkey's peripersonal working space. In contrast with the classical view, our findings indicate that multimodal coding emerges in AIP from partially-mixed selectivity of individual neurons for a variety of information relevant for planning actions directed to both physical objects and other subjects. • AIP exhibited mixed selectivity for observed objects and executed/observed actions. • AIP include cells with suppressed response during different conditions and tasks. • Pragmatic coding underlies AIP mixed selectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Information from direct experience and observation of others is integrated in the brain to enable appropriate responses to environmental stimuli. Fear memory can be acquired by observing a conspecific’s distress. However, it remains unclear how prior fear observation affects self-experienced fear learning. In this study, we tested whether prior observation of a conspecific receiving contextual fear conditioning affects subsequent self-experienced fear conditioning and how neuronal ensembles represent the integration of the observation and self-experience. Test mice observed demonstrator mice experiencing fear conditioning on day 1 and directly experienced fear conditioning on day 2. Contextual fear memory was tested on day 3. The prior observation of fear conditioning promoted subsequent self-experienced fear conditioning in a hippocampus-dependent manner. We visualized hippocampal neurons that were activated during the observation and self-experience of fear conditioning and found that self-experienced fear conditioning preferentially activated dorsal CA1 neurons that were activated during the observation. When mice observed and directly experienced fear conditioning in different contexts, preferential reactivation was not observed in the CA1, and fear memory was not enhanced. These findings indicate that dorsal CA1 neuronal ensembles that were activated during both the observation and self-experience of fear learning are implicated in the integration of observation and self-experience for strengthening fear memory.

When watching someone performs an action, mirror neurons are activated in a way that is very similar to the activation that occurs when actually performing that action. Previous single-sample case studies indicate that hand-action observation training may lead to activation and remodeling of mirror neuron systems, which include important language centers, and may improve language function in aphasia patients. In this randomized-block-design experiment, we recruited 24 aphasia patients from, Zhongda Hospital, Southeast University, China. The patients were divided into three groups where they underwent hand-action observation and repetition, dynamic-object observation and repetition, or conventional speech therapy. Training took place 5 days per week, 35 minutes per day, for 2 weeks. We assessed language function via picture naming tests for objects and actions and the Western Aphasia Battery. Among the participants, one patient, his wife and four healthy student volunteers underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging to analyze changes in brain activation during hand-action observation and dynamic-object observation. Results demonstrated that, compared with dynamic-object observation, hand-action observation led to greater performance with respect to the aphasia quotient and affiliated naming sub-tests and a greater Western Aphasia Battery test score. The overall effect was similar to that of conventional aphasia training, yet hand-action observation had advantages compared with conventional training in terms of vocabulary extraction and spontaneous speech. Thus, hand-action observation appears to more strongly activate the mirror neuron system compared with dynamic-object observation. The activated areas included Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and the supramarginal gyrus. These results suggest that hand-action observation combined with repetition might better improve language function in aphasia patients compared with dynamic-object observation combined with repetition. The therapeutic mechanism of this intervention may be associated with activation of additional mirror neuron systems, and may have implications for the possible repair and remodeling of damaged nerve networks. The study protocol was approved by the Ethical Committee of Nanjing Medical University, China (approval number: 2011-SRFA-086) on March 11, 2011. This trial has been registered in the ISRCTN Registry (ISRCTN84827527).

Event-related desynchronization (ERD), as a proxy for mirror neuron activity, has been used as a neurophysiological marker for motor execution after mirror visual feedback (MVF). Using EEG, this study investigated ERD upon the immediate effects of single-session MVF in unimanual arm movements compared with the ERD effects occurring without a mirror, in two groups: stroke patients with left hemiplegia and their healthy counterparts. During EEG recordings, each group performed one session of mirror therapy training in three task conditions: with a mirror, with no mirror, and with a covered mirror. An asymmetry index was calculated from the subtraction of the event-related spectrum perturbations between the C3 and C4 electrodes located over the sensorimotor cortices contralateral and ipsilateral to the moved arm. Results of the effect of task versus group in contralateral and ipsilateral motor areas showed that there was a significant effect of task condition at the contralateral motor area in the high beta band (17–35 Hz) at C3. High beta ERD showed that the suppression was greater over the contralateral hemisphere than it was over the ipsilateral hemisphere in both study groups. The magnitude of low beta (12–16 Hz) ERD in patients with stroke was more suppressed in contralesional C3 under the no mirror compared to that of the covered mirror and similarly more suppressed in ipsilesional C4 ERD under the no mirror compared to that of the mirror condition. The correlation analysis revealed that the magnitude of ERSP power correlated significantly with arm severity in the low and high beta bands in patients with stroke, and a higher asymmetry index in the low beta band was associated with higher arm functioning under the no-mirror condition. There was a shift in sensorimotor ERD toward the contralateral hemisphere as induced by MVF accompanying unimanual movement in both stroke patients and healthy controls. The use of ERD in the low beta band as a neurophysiological marker to indicate the relationships between the amount of MVF-induced ERD attenuation and motor severity, and the outcome indicator for improving stroke patients’ neuroplasticity in clinical trials using MVF are warranted to be explored in the future.

Given the rising incidence of stroke, several technology‐driven methods for rehabilitation have recently been developed. Virtual reality (VR) is a promising therapeutic technology among them. We recently developed a neuroscientifically grounded VR system to aid recovery of motor function poststroke. The developed system provides unilateral and bilateral upper extremity (UE) training in a fully immersive virtual environment that may stimulate and activate mirror neurons (MNs) in the brain necessary for UE rehabilitation. Twenty‐three participants were randomized to a VR group (n = 12) to receive VR intervention (8 h within 2 weeks) plus 8‐h occupational therapy (OT) or a control group (n = 11) to receive time‐matched OT alone. Treatment effects on motor recovery and cortical reorganization were investigated using the Barthel Index (BI), Fugl‐Meyer Upper Extremity (FM‐UE), and resting‐state fMRI. Both groups significantly improved BI (P < 0.05), reflecting the recovery of UE motor function. The VR group revealed significant improvements on FM‐UE scores (P < 0.05) than the control group. Neural activity increased after the intervention, particularly in the brain areas implicating MNs, such as in the primary motor cortex. Overall, results suggested that using a neuroscientifically grounded VR system might offer additional benefits for UE rehabilitation in patients receiving OT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To compare and to examine the effectiveness of mirror therapy and modified constraint induced movement therapy (mCIMT) on upper extremity in subacute stroke patients. Background: Stroke or cerebral vascular accident is sudden dead of the brain cells due to inadequate blood flow. The WHO defines stroke as rapidly developing clinical signs of focal disturbance of cerebral function, with symptoms lasting for 24hrs or longer or leading to death, with no apparent cause other than of vascular origin. The most common consequence of stroke is loss of upper limb function. The protocol planned for improving the function of upper limb are mirror therapy and modified constraint induced movement therapy (mCIMT). Mirror therapy is a simple and inexpensive treatment which uses the visual information activating the premotor and motor cortex of the brain. This is explained by activation of so called mirror-neuron system. Whereas mCIMT utilises the redundant pathway in brain through neuro plasticity. Methodology: A total of 30 participants with subacute stroke were selected. The inclusion criteria are both gender of age 55-70 years and duration of 2-12 months of post stroke. Participants with mini mental state examination score<24, uncontrolled systemic hypertension, severe shoulder subluxation, previous stroke and severe cardiac failure were excluded. The outcome measures were measured using Upper Extremity Functional Index (UEFI) and Fugl Meyer Upper Extremity Scale. Procedure: All 30 participants with sub-acute stroke were divided into two groups. Both the group individuals were assessed for pre test using Fugl Meyer Upper Extremity Scale and Upper Extremity Functional Index Scale. Group A (15) was assigned to mirror therapy for 5 days a week, for 4 weeks and rest intervals was given. Similarly group B (15) was assigned to modified constraint induced movement therapy for 5 days a week, for 4 weeks. Both the groups were given conventional therapy for 20 mins. At the end of study subjects were assessed for post test using UEFI and Fugl Meyer upper extremity scale. Results: The Modified Constraint Induced Movement (mCIMT) is more effective than Mirror Therapy in improving the hemiparetic upper extremity in subacute stroke patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Up now, the communication between brains of different humans or animals has been confirmed and confined by the sensory medium and motor facilities of body. Recently, direct brain-to-brain communication (DBBC) outside the conventional five senses has been verified between animals and humans. Nevertheless, no empirical studies or serious discussion have been performed to elucidate the mechanism behind this process. The validation of DBBC has been documented via recording similar pattern of action potentials occurring in the brain cortex of two animals. With regard to action potentials in brain neurons, the magnetic field resulting from the action potentials created in neurons is one of the tools where the brain of one animal can affect the brain of another. It has been shown that different animals, even humans, have the power to understand the magnetic field. Cryptochrome, which exists in the retina and in different regions of the brain, has been confirmed to be able to perceive magnetic fields and convert magnetic fields to action potentials. Recently, iron particles (Fe3O4) believed to be functioning as magnets have been found in various parts of the brain, and are postulated as magnetic field receptors. Newly developed supersensitive magnetic sensors made of iron magnets that can sense the brain's magnetic field have suggested the idea that these Fe3O4 particles or magnets may be capable of perceiving the brain's extremely weak magnetic field. The present study suggests that it is possible the extremely week magnetic field in one animal's brain to transmit vital and accurate information to another animal's brain.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that has undergone tremendous growth over the last decade due to methodological advantages over other measures of brain activation. The action-observation network (AON), a system of brain structures proposed to have “mirroring” abilities (e.g., active when an individual completes an action or when they observe another complete that action), has been studied in humans through neural measures such as fMRI and electroencephalogram (EEG); however, limitations of these methods are problematic for AON paradigms. For this reason, fNIRS is proposed as a solution to investigating the AON in humans. The present review article briefly summarizes previous neural findings in the AON and examines the state of AON research using fNIRS in adults. A total of 14 fNIRS articles are discussed, paying particular attention to methodological choices and considerations while summarizing the general findings to aid in developing better protocols to study the AON through fNIRS. Additionally, future directions of this work are discussed, specifically in relation to researching AON development and potential multimodal imaging applications.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that has undergone tremendous growth over the last decade due to methodological advantages over other measures of brain activation. The action-observation network (AON), a system of brain structures proposed to have "mirroring" abilities (e.g., active when an individual completes an action or when they observe another complete that action), has been studied in humans through neural measures such as fMRI and electroencephalogram (EEG); however, limitations of these methods are problematic for AON paradigms. For this reason, fNIRS is proposed as a solution to investigating the AON in humans. The present review article briefly summarizes previous neural findings in the AON and examines the state of AON research using fNIRS in adults. A total of 14 fNIRS articles are discussed, paying particular attention to methodological choices and considerations while summarizing the general findings to aid in developing better protocols to study the AON through fNIRS. Additionally, future directions of this work are discussed, specifically in relation to researching AON development and potential multimodal imaging applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Opera is a performing art in which music plays the leading role, and the acting of singers has a synergistic effect with the music. The mirror neuron system represents the neurophysiological mechanism underlying the coupling of perception and action. Mirror neuron activity is modulated by the appropriateness of actions and clarity of intentions, as well as emotional expression and aesthetic values. Therefore, it would be reasonable to assume that an opera performance induces mirror neuron activity in the audience so that the performer effectively shares an embodied performance with the audience. However, it is uncertain which aspect of opera performance induces mirror neuron activity. It is hypothesized that although auditory stimuli could induce mirror neuron activity, audiovisual perception of stage performance is the primary inducer of mirror neuron activity. To test this hypothesis, this study sought to correlate opera performance with brain activity as measured by electroencephalography (EEG) in singers while watching an opera performance with sounds or while listening to an aria without visual stimulus. We detected mirror neuron activity by observing that the EEG power in the alpha frequency band (8–13 Hz) was selectively decreased in the frontal-central-parietal area when watching an opera performance. In the auditory condition, however, the alpha-band power did not change relative to the resting condition. This study illustrates that the audiovisual perception of an opera performance engages the mirror neuron system in its audience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Chinese Medical Equipment Journal is the property of Chinese Medical Equipment Journal Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)