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Analisis keragaman genetik mutan perlu dilakukan untuk melihat sejauh mana perubahan genetik yang terjadi dibanding varietas asalnya. Mikrosatelit merupakan penanda molekuler yang dapat dimanfaatkan dalam analisis keragaman genetik mutan karena keberadaannya yang melimpah dalam genom tanaman, reproduksibilitas tinggi polimorfisme tinggi, dan bersifat kodominan. Tujuan dari penelitian ini yaitu untuk menganalisis keragaman genetik genotipe mutan cabai hasil iradiasi sinar gamma menggunakan penanda mikrosatelit serta memperoleh informasi tingkat polimorfisme dari penanda mikrosatelit yang digunakan. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan November 2020 hingga Februari 2021 di Laboratorium Biologi Molekuler BB Biogen Bogor. Sebanyak sepuluh genotipe mutan cabai hasil iradiasi varietas Lingga generasi M2 yang menunjukkan perubahan pada ukuran buah dianalisis keragaman genetiknya menggunakan 27 penanda mikrosatelit. Kontruksi pohon filogenetik dan matriks kesamaan genetik dibuat menggunakan perangkat lunak NTSYS versi 2.1 sedangkan analisis polimorfisme marka dilakukan mengggunakan PowerMarker 3.25. Analisis filogenetik menunjukkan adanya pemisahan antara varietas Lingga dan genotipe mutan menjadi dua klaster pada koefisien kemiripan genetik 0,57. Dari kesepuluh genotipe mutan yang dianalisis terdapat tiga genotipe mutan dengan kemiripan genetik terendah dari varietas Lingga yaitu L275, L312, dan L352 dan satu genotipe dengan kemiripan genetik paling tinggi dengan varietas Lingga yaitu L106. Analisis tingkat polimorfisme menunjukkan bahwa terdapat enam penanda mikrosatelit dengan tingkat informativitas tinggi (PIC >0,7) yang dapat digunakan untuk menganalisis keragaman genetik mutan maupun sebagai alat bantu seleksi pada generasi selanjutnya.

The genetic diversity of Pakistani dromedary camels is poorly documented. The present study evaluated the genetic variations of two well-known Pakistani camel breeds, Mareecha and Barela, that are well-adapted to the Cholistan desert climate. Camel can serve as a beneficial participant in the food supply chain by providing milk, meat and other food products for the livelihood of pastoral peoples. To explore a new world of resources, greater attention to needed to create standard procedures to genetically characterize, classify and identify camel breeds in the country. For this purpose, 66 unrelated animals of the Mareecha (n=35) and Barela (n=31) breeds were genotyped using a set of 12 labelled microsatellite loci. DNA fragment sizes were determined in an ABI 3130 Genetic Analyzer. All microsatellite markers were successfully amplified and exhibited a polymorphic nature, with an average Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) of 0.72 and 0.70 in Mareecha and Barela, respectively. A total of 107 alleles with an average of 8.91 alleles per locus were identified by these markers in both breeds. CMS15 was highly polymorphic with 13 alleles, while VOLP-032 was the lowest with two loci. The Fit and Fis values were low but high population differentiation (17%) was observed in both breeds, due to the migrations of pastoral people to different remote areas during climate fluctuations., Genetska raznolikost pakistanskih jednogrbih deva slabo je dokumentirana. Ova studija procijenila je genetske varijacije dviju dobro poznatih pasmina pakistanskih deva - mareecha i barela - koje su vrlo dobro prilagođene klimi pustinje Cholistan. Deva može poslužiti kao koristan sudionik u lancu opskrbe hranom, osiguravajući mlijeko, meso i druge prehrambene proizvode za život pastira. Da bi se istražio novi svijet resursa, potrebno je više pozornosti za obavljanje standardnih postupaka za genetsku karakterizaciju, razvrstavanje i identifikaciju pasmina deva u zemlji. U tu svrhu, ukupno 66 životinja koje nisu u srodstvu pasmine mareecha (n=35) i barela (n=31) genotipizirane su uporabom 12 označenih mikrosatelitskih lokusa. Veličine fragmenata DNK određene su u ABI 3130 genetskom analizatoru. Svi mikrosatelitski markeri uspješno su pojačani i pokazali su polimorfnu narav s prosječnim sadržajem polimorfnih informacija (PIC) od 0,72 i 0,70 za mareecha, odnosno barela pasminu. Ukupno 107 alela s prosječno 8,91 alelom po lokusu u obje pasmine identificirano je tim markerima. CMS15 bio je vrlo polimorfan s 13 alela dok je VOLP-032 bio najniži s 2 lokusa. Fit i Fis vrijednosti bile su niske, ali je uočena velika diferencijacija populacije (17 %) za obje pasmine koje su posljedica migracije pastira u različite udaljene krajeve tijekom promjena klime.

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most frequent malignant tumour of head and neck. Prognostic and predictive information as an individual imprint of molecular-genetic analysis of HNSCC will help to determine the best indivicual treatment. And in case of surgical appraoch the optimal resection with adequate quality of life and long-term survival. Study of early cancerogenesis in our project is based on knowledge, that histological normal mucosa next to tumor shows preneoplastic molecular alterations. Molecular genetic changes in a histological normal mucosa harbouring a tumor may play a principal role in revealing of early cancerogenesis process. Molecular-genetic analysis of cancerogenesis in HNSCC reveals prognostic and predictive factors, which are necessary for evaluation and decission for the best individual treatment. This is the concept of tailored medicine The text summarizes current knowledge of early cancerogenesis in HNSCC and presents molecular-biological trends, which are necessary to discover details of early cancerogenesis and thus to get a tool for better detection as well as treatment of malignant disease. The study is based on fragment analysis of microsatelites lesions in tumor tissue in comparison to adjacent mucosa and the healthy mucosa. Results show significant molecular-biological...

The diploma thesis is focused on the verification of inheritance of selected microsatellites from the microsatellite panel of the MHC locus in camels. The theoretical part deals with the characteristics of the genus Camelus. Special focus is given to adaptation mechanisms allowing camels to survive in conditions that are inhospitable for other livestock species. Microsatellites which are also described became an excellent choice not only in parentage analysis. The practical part was based on fragment analysis in genetic analyser ABI PRISM 3500, which preceded DNA isolation, multiplex PCR amplification and gel electrophoresis. Using GeneMapper 5 software, amplified fragment sizes were calculated and mendelian segregation verified. For assembly microsatellite panel four microsatellite markers were selected, M29_I, M35_II, M41_III a M42_III. The least polymorphic was microsatellite M29_I of the MHC I region and the most polymorphic was microsatellite M42_III of the MHC III region. In general, microsatellites from the microsatellite panel can be considered reliable for verifying the origin of the alleles and can be further used to reveal polymorphism of the MHC region of camels.

Upaya pengembangan perbenihan teripang pasir bagi kelestarian populasi di alam dan pengembangan budidaya patut dilakukan. Upaya ini diperlukan mengingat semakin intensifnya penangkapan teripang di alam yang dapat menimbulkan terganggunya kelestarian populasi ini. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengevaluasi performa pertumbuhan benih teripang pasir, mendapatkan informasi keragaman genetik dan mengestimasi laju inbreeding dari 3 sumber induk teripang yang berbeda. Tiga sumber induk berasal dari perairan Bali, Sulawesi Selatan, dan Maluku Tenggara masing-masing sebanyak 20 ekor dianalisis menggunakan mikrosatelit (SSR/Simple Sequence Repeats) dengan 3 lokus, yaitu Hsc-28; Hsc-49 dan Hsc-59. Proses pembenihan mengikuti pedoman teknis yang sudah ada dengan beberapa modifikasi. Hasil yang diperoleh menunjukkan bahwa panjang dan bobot benih umur 6 bulan yang dihasilkan dari induk Maluku Tenggara relatif lebih tinggi (5,67 ± 0,76 cm; 13,26 ± 5,63 g) dibandingkan dengan benih dari induk Sulawesi Selatan (4,75 ± 0,91 cm; 6,3 ± 2,22 g) dan Bali (4,85 ± 0,64 cm; 6,2 ± 3,6 g). Hasil analisis mikrosatelit menunjukkan bahwa keragaman genetik induk teripang pasir dari ke tiga populasi tidak berbeda nyata. Hal ini berdasarkan nilai differensiasi genetik (FST= 0,2475 atau 24,75%). Laju nilai inbreeding dalam populasi induk teripang pasir cukup tinggi (FIT= 0,4237 atau 42,37%) dibandingkan dengan laju inbreeding antar populasi (FIS) adalah 0,2342 atau 23,42%. The effort of sea cucumber seed production for culture development have to be carried out. This effort is also required due to the intensive exploration of sea cucumber in the nature which could threaten of its sustainability. The aims of this research is to evaluate sea cucumber juveniles growth performance, to obtain the information on genetic variation, and to estimate the rate of inbreeding from three different sea cucumber broodstock sources. Three sources of sea cucumber were collected from Bali, South Sulawesi, and Southeast Moluccas. The total of 20 pcs from each area were analyzed by microsatellite (SSR Simple Squence Repeat) with 3 locus namely Hsc-28; Hsc-49 dan Hsc-59. Hatchery production of sea cucumber seed followed the existing manual with some modifications. Result of the experiment showed that the length and weight of 6 months old juveniles produced by Southeast Moluccas’s broodstock were relatively higher (5.67 ± 0.76 cm; 13.26 ± 5.63 g) compared to the juveniles produced by South Sulawesi’s broodstock (4.75 ± 0.91 cm; 6.30 ± 2.22 g) and Bali’s broodstock ( 4.85 ± 0.64 cm; 6.2 ± 3.6 g). Results of microsatellite analysis showed that genetic variation of the three broodstock populations was not significant different. It is based on the genetic differentiation value (FST= 0.2475 or 24.75%. The result of inbreeding rate within the broodstock of sea cucumber population was high (FIT= 0.4237 or 42.37%) compare to the rate value of inter population (FIS= 0.2342 or 23.42%.

Penelaahan keragaman genetik pada induk dan turunan ikan kerapu sunu, Plectropomus leopardus merupakan informasi penting dalam proses pemuliaan melalui seleksi konvensional dan penggunaan marka genetik. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan informasi keragaman genetik ikan kerapu sunu dengan metode marka mikrosatelit untuk mendukung program pemuliaan bagi kepentingan penyediaan induk unggul. Sebanyak 10 sampel dari setiap generasi (F-0, F-1, F-2, F-3) ikan kerapu sunu dianalisis menggunakanempat lokus mikrosatelit (PLL4; PLL08; PLL04; PLL5). Seleksi pada keturunan pertama dan kedua (F-1 dan F-2) dilakukan dengan metode konvensional, yaitu memilih ikan berdasarkan pertumbuhan yang cepat. Setelah mendapatkan marka tumbuh cepat pada ikan turunan kedua, maka seleksi untuk turunan ketiga (F-3) dilakukan dengan aplikasi marka penanda tumbuh cepat. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa polimorfisme alel dari keempat lokus mikrosatelit yang diamati pada empat generasi ikan kerapu sunu menunjukkan tingkat variasi yang tinggi dengan nilai PIC>0,5. Keragaman genetik (Ho/He) mengalami penurunan dari F-0 hingga F-3. Namun demikian, nilai indeks fiksasi (0,13410) menunjukkan bahwa keragaman genetik keempat populasi ikan kerapu sunu adalah tidak berbeda nyata. Dengan demikian, ikan kerapu sunu generasi F-1 hingga F-3 masih layak dijadikan induk dalam mendukung program pemuliaan untuk menghasilkan induk unggul.

The large mammal species, that constitute a significant part of Anatolia's high biodiversity are a group that needs to be protected primarily because it is threatened in this region as well as all over the world. Among these species the wolf has wide distribution in Anatolia and plays a key role in the ecosystems as being one of the primary predator species. Although the wolves known to have a viable population in Anatolia, the greatest threat on populations is human pressure. Within the scope of this thesis study, the wolf population in Turkey has been studied with different approaches both in the region and the country, and studies have been carried out on the spatial ecology and the existing population structure. Long-term camera-trap surveys were conducted in the protected areas in Kastamonu province, to evaluate the parameters such as habitat use, activity patterns and the relationship between the wolf and its potential prey species. The results indicates that there is a significant temporal relationship with the wolf and two preys, red deer and wild boar. In the scope of the thesis, a current distribution map of the species was established by using the model approach which is questioned with the current distribution data of natural factors and other determinants known to be directly influenced on the distribution of the species. In addition, environmental factors that play an active role in the emergence of the distribution have been evaluated. As a result the current distribution of the species has been updated, especially in Thrace and Southeastern Anatolia, and the resultant distribution has been found to be largely dependent on elevation, richness of the potential prey resources and human impact. Additionally, in order to minimize the human - wolf conflict, which is one of the top priority issues to be resolved for sustainable management and to take protective measures for the wolves population, the parameters that reveal the conflict have been examined. In this context, as a result of this constructed model, a human - wolf conflict risk map has been established in Turkey and it has been revealed which factors triggered the human - wolf conflict in countrywide. The output obtained here demonstrates that the human-wolf conflict in Eastern Anatolia has reached high risk values and the risk of conflict is largely due to altitude, land use and road network density. At the last phase of the study, the current structure of the population distributed throughout Turkey was questioned using microsatellite DNA markers. Genetic diversity and genetic variation analyzes were performed on 12 microsatellite loci of DNA samples (n = 35) obtained from individuals in different regions in the number and quality that can represent the existing wolf population. As a result of this study, Anatolian Diagonal, which shaped Anatolian biogeography to a significant extent, has been determined to be effective on wolf population structure as it is for many species. It is envisaged that the outputs will contribute to the studies carried out on the wolves within the scope of species protection and action plans conducted throughout the country, such as the distribution and population structure in Turkey, the human-wolf conflict risk map and the relation with the prey species at the regional scale. Anadolu’nun yüksek biyoçeşitliliğinin önemli bir parçasını oluşturan büyük memeli türler, tüm dünyada olduğu gibi bu coğrafyada da tehdit altında olması nedeniyle öncelikli olarak korunması gereken bir gruptur. Bu grupta yer alan ve dünya genelinde olduğu gibi Anadolu coğrafyasında da geniş bir dağılıma sahip olan kurt, bulunduğu ekosistemlerin hakim avcı türü konumunda olması nedeniyle kilit bir rol üstlenmektedir. Anadolu’da sağlıklı bir populasyon yapısına sahip olan kurtların buna rağmen populasyonları üzerindeki en büyük tehditin insan baskısı olduğu bilinmektedir. Bu tez çalışması kapsamında Türkiye’deki kurt populasyonu hem bölgesel hem de ülke genelinde farklı yaklaşımlarla incelenmiş ve türün alansal ekolojisi ve mevcut populasyon yapısı ile ilgili çalışmalar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kastamonu ilinde bulunan korunan alanlarda yürütülen uzun dönem fotokapan örneklemeleri ile türün alan kullanımı ve aktivite parametreleri gibi özelliklerinin yanı sıra, bulunduğu ortamdaki trofik yapıyı oluşturan potansiyel av kaynakları ile arasındaki bağıntılar alansal ve zamansal olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Burada elde edilen sonuçlar türün kızıl geyik ve yaban domuzu ile aralarında zamansal olarak anlamlı bir bağıntı olduğunu göstermiştir. Tez kapsamında Türkiye ölçeğinde yürütülen çalışmalarda türün dağılımı üzerinde doğrudan etkisi olduğu bilinen doğal etkenler ve diğer belirleyici faktörlerin mevcut yayılış verileri ile birlikte sorgulandığı model yaklaşımı kullanılarak türe ait güncel bir dağılım haritası oluşturulmuştur. Buna ek olarak türün dağılımının ortaya çıkmasında etkin rol oynayan çevresel etkenler değerlendirilmiştir. Bu çalışma sonucunda türün özellikle Trakya ve Güneydoğu Anadolu’daki mevcut dağılımı güncellenmiş ve sonuç olarak ortaya çıkan dağılımın büyük ölçüde yükseklik, potansiyel av kaynaklarının zenginliği ile insan etkisine bağlı olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Kurt populasyonunun sürdürülebilir yönetimi ve koruma çalışmaları için çözülmesi gereken en öncelikli konulardan biri olan insan-kurt çatışmasını asgari düzeye indirmek ve koruma önlemleri alabilmek amacıyla çatışmayı ortaya çıkaran parametreler incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda kurgulanan modelin sonucunda Türkiye’de insan – kurt çatışması risk haritası oluşturulmuş ve Türkiye ölçeğinde gerçekleşen insan - kurt çatışmasının hangi unsurlar tarafından tetiklendiği araştırılmıştır. Burada elde edilen çıktı, özellikle Doğu Anadolu’da insan-kurt çatışmasının yüksek risk değerlerine ulaştığını göstermiş ve çatışma riskinin büyük oranda yükseklik, arazi kullanımı ve yol ağı yoğunluğuna bağlı olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Çalışmanın son aşamasında türün Türkiye geneline dağılmış populasyonunun mevcut yapısı mikrosatelit DNA işaretleri kullanılarak sorgulanmıştır. Burada mevcut kurt populasyonunu temsil edebilecek sayı ve nitelikte farklı bölgelerdeki bireylerden elde edilen DNA örneklerinin (n=35) 12 mikrosatelit lokusu üzerinde gözlenen genetik çeşitlilik ve genetik farklılaşma analizleri gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu çalışma sonucunda Anadolu biyocoğrafyasını önemli ölçüde şekillendiren Anadolu Diyagonali’nin birçok tür için olduğu gibi kurt populasyon yapısı üzerinde de etkili olabileceği görülmüştür. Çalışma kapsamında ortaya konan türün Türkiye’deki dağılımı ve populasyon yapısı, insan-kurt çatışması risk haritası ve bölgesel ölçekte ortaya konan av türleri ile olan ilişkileri gibi çıktıların ülke genelinde gerçekleştirilen tür koruma ve eylem planları kapsamında kurtlar ile ilgili yürütülen çalışmalara katkıda bulunacağı öngörülmektedir.

Genetic improvement needs the existence and precise estimation of genetic variability, and microsatellites are a molecular marker of choice for its assessment. Rhode Island Red (RIR) is a brown-egger chicken breed. A RIR population, selected on the basis of 40-week part-period egg production for 30 generations, maintained as a closed flock to develop multi-colored strains for backyard farming, were studied to determine genetic variability and heterozygosity using microsatellite markers. Genomic DNA from 76 randomly selected birds was analyzed at 10 microsatellite loci, alleles were separated on 3.4% MetaPhor Agarose, sized using Quantity-One software and analyzed by POPGENE v1.32. Nine loci demonstrated polymorphism resolving 30 alleles, the average number of alleles/ locus being 3.00 ± 1.41. Allele numbers varied from two to six and size ranged from 102 to 320bp. The average polymorphic information content and Nei’s heterozygosity were 0.3134 ± 0.064 and 0.4119 ± 0.2575, respectively, suggesting these loci to be moderately polymorphic and informative. The observed (Na) and effective number (Ne) of alleles and Shannon’s index averaged 3.0000 ± 1.4142, 2.0324 ± 0.9416 and 0.7342 ± 0.4649, respectively. Ne was less than Na at most loci, indicating the prevalence of heterozygosity at these loci. Mean expected heterozygosity was higher than mean observed heterozygosity at most loci, indicating that the population was not in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium but was under the influence of some forces such as selection, etc. The same was also demonstrated by Chi-square and G-square tests. It may be inferred that long-term selection for 40-week part-period egg production has resulted in Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium at the studied microsatellite loci, thereby suggesting a probable association between these microsatellite loci and layer economic traits in RIR chicken, and this might be useful in marker assisted selection for egg production in future., Genetsko poboljšanje traži postojanu i preciznu procjenu genetske varijabilnosti. S tom svrhom moguće je koristiti mikrosatelite kao molekularne biljege. Crveni rodajland je pasmina kokoši koja nese smeđa jaja, a ovo je istraživanje provedeno u populaciji koja je kroz 30 generacija selekcionirana na osnovi 40-tjedne proizvodnje jaja. Populacija je održavana kao zatvoreno jato namijenjeno za razvoj višebojnih linija koje bi se držale u dvorišnom tipu uzgoja. Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi genetsku varijabilnost i heterozigotnost primjenom mikrosatelitskih biljega. Genomska DNA od 76 slučajno odabranih kokoši analizirana je na 10 mikrosatelitskih lokusa. Aleli su razlučeni na 3,4 % MetaPhor agarozi, a njihova veličina i analiza određeni su pomoću Quantity-One i POPGENE v1.32 računalnih programa. Devet lokusa bilo je polimorfno pokazujući 30 alela, pri čemu je prosječni broj alela/lokusu iznosio 3,00 ± 1,41. Broj alela kretao se od 2 do 6, a veličina u rasponu 102 do 320 bp. Prosječna informativnost polimorfizma i Neieva heterozigotnost iznosili su 0,3134 ± 0,064 te 0,4119 ± 0,2575, što pokazuje da su promatrani lokusi umjereno polimorfni i informativni. Opaženi (Na) i efektivni broj (Ne) alela te Shannonov indeks imali su prosječne vrijednosti 3,0000 ± 1,4142, zatim 2,0324 ± 0,9416 i 0,7342 ± 0,4649. Ne je bio manji od Na na većini lokusa upujući na prevalenciju heterozigotnosti na tim lokusima. Na većini lokusa srednja očekivana heterozigotnost bila je veća u odnosu na srednju opaženu heterozigotnost, što je pokazalo da populacija nije bila u Hardy-Weinbergovoj ravnoteži već je bila pod utjecajem nekih sila kao npr. selekcije ili drugo. Isto je potvrđeno Hi-kvadrat i G-kvadrat testovima. Može se zaključiti da je dugotrajna selekcija s obzirom na 40-tjednu proizvodnju jaja rezultirala Hardy-Weinbergovom neravnotežom na istraženim mikrosatelitskim lokusima što upućuje na moguću povezanost između tih mikrosatelitskih lokusa i gospodarski važnih obilježja nesivosti kod kokoši crvenog rodajlanda. Navedeno bi moglo biti korisno u budućoj selekciji potpomognutoj s biljezima za proizvodnju jaja.

Keberlanjutan budidaya kerapu sunu (Plectropomus leopardus) sangat ditentukandari ketersediaan benih yang berkualitas secara fenotip maupun genotip. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengkonfirmasi gen pengontrol tumbuh cepat sebagai indikator atau penyandi seleksi dalam produksi benih kerapu sunu P. leopardus. Penelitian dilakukan melalui tiga tahapan, meliputi: proses pemeliharaan larva, persiapan benih uji, dan evaluasi karakter kuantitatif sebagai gen penyandi tumbuh cepat pada benih kerapu sunu. Konfirmasi gen penyandi tumbuh cepat yang telah diperoleh pada lokus PL-03 dari microsatelit/SSRs (Simple Sequence Repeats), selanjutnya digunakan untuk penyandi dalam seleksi pada benih yang diproduksi melalui metode analisis amplifikasi PCR. Konfirmasi adanya gen penyandi yang digunakan sebagai indikator tumbuh cepat pada benih kerapu sunu selanjutnya dianalisis dengan metode SSCP (Single Strand Confirmation Polyacrilamide). Hasil yang diperoleh menunjukkan bahwa gen penyandi tumbuh cepat pada benih kerapu sunu dapat ditunjukkan dengan locus PL-03 dan terekspresi pada fragmen DNA 370 bp. Keakurasian ini juga ditunjukkan pada karakter fenotip (pertumbuhan) selama budidaya di keramba jaring apung (KJA). Calon induk kerapu sunu yang membawa gen tumbuh cepat yang dihasilkan sudah mencapai ukuran panjang rata-rata 38,5±2,47 cm dan bobot 968,0 g dengan jumlah ikan sebanyak 180 ekor. Dibandingkan dengan individu ikan yang tidak membawa gen penyandi DNA370 bp mempunyai panjang dan bobot rata-rata sebesar 34,6±2,0 cm dan 734,4 g.

Langkah awal program pemuliaan adalah koleksi dan pengenalan karakter materi pemuliaan tersebut. Hasil karakterisasi digunakan sebagai dasar pertimbangan metode pelaksanaan program pemuliaan yang akan dilakukan. Koleksi material genetik untuk program pemuliaan ikan mas menghasilkan lima strain yang dominan dibudidaya di wilayah Jawa Barat dan Banten, yakni strain Rajadanu, Sutisna, Majalaya, Wildan, dan Sinyonya. Pengenalan karakter material genetik ikan mas hasil koleksi dilakukan melalui dua pendekatan, yaitu fenotipe menggunakan metode truss morfometrik dan genotipe menggunakan metode mikrosatelit DNA. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa variasi keragaan fenotipe kelima strain ikan mas relatif sesuai dengan variasi keragaan genotipenya. Selain mengelompokkan antar strain, hasil analisis genotipe juga menunjukkan bahwa tingkat keragaman genetik kelima strain ikan mas yang diindikasikan dengan nilai heterozigositas (Ho) relatif rendah, yaitu berkisar antara 0,08-0,20 dengan jarak genetik antar strain berada dalam kisaran 0,420-0,582.The first step in a fish breeding program is the collection and characterization of the breeding subject. The results of characterization are used as a baseline to select suitable potential methods used in the breeding program. The samples of genetic materials of five strains of common carp (Rajadanu, Sutisna, Majalaya, Wildan, and Sinyonya) were obtained from West Java and Banten Province. The characterization of collected genetic materials of the common carp species followed the phenotype and genotype approaches. Phenotypic characterization used truss morphometric method while genotype characterization applied DNA microsatellite method. The results showed that the phenotypic variation of the common carp had a close fit with its genotypic variation. In addition, the genotype analysis also showed that the genetic diversity level of the strains was relatively low indicated by the narrow ranges of heterozygosity values (Ho) (0.08-0.20) and genetic distance among strains (0.420-0.582).

Lecanosticta acicola is a heterothallic ascomycete that causes brown spot needle blight (BSNB) on native and non-native Pinus spp. in many regions of the world. The aim of this thesis was to elucidate the origin of L. acicola populations in Europe and consider the reproductive mode of the pathogen in affected areas. In order to study the population genetics of L. acicola, eleven polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed. In addition, mating type markers that amplify both mating type idiomorphs (MAT1-1 and MAT1-2) were designed and the protocols for their applications were optimised. Collections of diseased material were obtained from 17 host species in Asia, Europe and America. In total, 201 isolates from diseased pine needles were obtained. All isolates were screened with the microsatellite markers and the mating type idiomorph determined with the mating type markers. For 87 individuals, part of the Translation Elongation Factor 1-alfa gene was sequenced. The isolates from Central America were unique, highly diverse and most likely represent a new cryptic species. The isolates from East Asia formed a discrete group. Two distinct populations were identified in both North America and Europe. Approximate Bayesian Computation analyses strongly suggest independent introductions of two populations from North America into Europe. Microsatellite data and mating type distributions showed the presence of sexual reproduction in North America and in Europe. Results from this thesis have showed that European populations of L. acicola originate from North America. This is the first study of L. acicola populations on a global scale.

2014 ABSTRAK MUSDALIFA MANSUR (I 111 10 001). Evaluasi Kemurnian Genetik Sapi Bali Menggunakan DNA Penciri Mikrosatelit Lokus HEL9 Di Kabupaten Barru. Dibimbing oleh Lellah Rahim sebagai pembimbing utama dan Muhammad Ihsan Andi Dagong sebagai pembimbing anggota. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui tingkat kemurnian sapi Bali di Kabupaten Barru berdasarkan identifikasi fenotipe dengan menggunakan DNA penciri mikrosatelit lokus HEL9. Sampel darah di ekstraksi dengan menggunakan Kit DNA ekstraksi Genjet Genomic DNA Extraction (Thermo Scientific), diamplifikasi dengan teknik PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). Analisis polimorfisme meliputi frekuensi alel dan genotipe, heterozigositas pengamatan (Ho), heterozigositas harapan (He) dan kesetimbangan Hardy Weinberg. Alel yang ditemukan adalah alel A dan alel B. Dari hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bentuk tanduk dominan pada jantan adalah silak bajeg sedeangkan bentuk tanduk dominan pada betina adalah silak manggulgangsa. Genotipe yang ditemukan yaitu AB (100%). Pada populasi sapi Bali di kabupaten Barru diperoleh nilai heterozigositas pengamatan (Ho) adalah 1 dan nilai heterozigositas harapan (He) adalah 0.5031. Nilaichi- square pada penelitian ini tidak memenuhi syarat untuk di hitung dan tidak berada dalam keseimbangan Hardy- Weinberg. Kata Kunci : Sapi Bali, Mikrosatelit, Frekuensi Alel, HEL9

Cilj ovog rada je upoznavanje s komunikacijskim mikrosatelitima. Tema je obrađena kroz tri faze. U prvoj, obavljen je općeniti pregled komunikacijskih satelita tako da su obrađeni svi glavni podsustavi i objašnjene njihove funkcije. Opisane su općenite karakteristike komunikacijskih satelita, njihove putanje i lansiranje, transponder, napajanje, antenski sustav, i na kraju, navedeni su temeljni izrazi potrebni za proračun veze. U drugom dijelu naglasak je upravo na mikrosatelitima, konkretno, CubeSat mikrosatelitima, koji su podskupina komunikacijskih. Navedene su prednosti i nedostaci, te posebnosti na koje se nailazi u radu s njima. Također, obrađene su specifične tehnologije razvijene upravo za njihove podsustave snage i pogona, kao i razvoj i primjena u praksi. Iz raspoloživih podataka, u trećem dijelu, odrađen je proračun veze ručno i uz pomoć radiofrekvencijskog propagacijskog kalkulatora za odabrani model mikrosatelitskog komunikacijskog sustava. The aim of this work is the introduction to communications microsatellites. The topic is processed through three stages. In the first, a general review of communications satellites is conducted so that all major subsystems and their functions are covered. It includes a description of general characteristics, orbits, launch system, transponder, power supply, antenna subsystem and in the end, the basic terms needed for the link budget. In the second part, the emphasis is on microsatellites, specifically CubeSat microsatellites, which are a subset of the former. Their advantages and disadvantages are covered, as well as the special features encountered while working with them. Also, technologies developed specifically for them are described in the form of power and propulsion subsystems and along with them, the development and CubeSat applications. Using the available data, in the third part, the link power budget is calculated step by step and also using the radiofrequency propagation calculator for the selected model of microsatellite communication system.

Cilj ovog rada je upoznavanje s komunikacijskim mikrosatelitima. Tema je obrađena kroz tri faze. U prvoj, obavljen je općeniti pregled komunikacijskih satelita tako da su obrađeni svi glavni podsustavi i objašnjene njihove funkcije. Opisane su općenite karakteristike komunikacijskih satelita, njihove putanje i lansiranje, transponder, napajanje, antenski sustav, i na kraju, navedeni su temeljni izrazi potrebni za proračun veze. U drugom dijelu naglasak je upravo na mikrosatelitima, konkretno, CubeSat mikrosatelitima, koji su podskupina komunikacijskih. Navedene su prednosti i nedostaci, te posebnosti na koje se nailazi u radu s njima. Također, obrađene su specifične tehnologije razvijene upravo za njihove podsustave snage i pogona, kao i razvoj i primjena u praksi. Iz raspoloživih podataka, u trećem dijelu, odrađen je proračun veze ručno i uz pomoć radiofrekvencijskog propagacijskog kalkulatora za odabrani model mikrosatelitskog komunikacijskog sustava.

In available literature there is no recommended set of microsatellite markers in the improvement of cabbage cultivars (Brassica oleracea conv. capitata) to distinguish F1 hybrids and self-pollinated plants with a parental genotype. That is why microsatellite markers used to other Brassicas had been searched in this work. Tested microsatellite markers were studied for their ability of distinguishing F1 hybrids in seven cabbage cultivars. Two of 23 microsatellite markers were able to distinguish F1 hybrids in six cabbage cultivars. No microsatellite marker was able to distinguish F1 hybrid and parental genotypes of one cultivar, 'A'.

Balai Penelitian Pemuliaan Ikan (BPPI) telah membentuk ikan mas Rajadanu tahan infeksi koi herpesvirus (KHV) dan tumbuh cepat melalui program seleksi. Ikan mas Rajadanu dihasilkan dari kegiatan seleksi bersamaan pada karakter ketahanan terhadap KHV dan pertumbuhan. Seleksi karakter ketahanan terhadap KHV dilakukan dengan menggunakan marka Cyca-DAB1*05 dan seleksi karakter pertumbuhan cepat dilakukan dengan metode seleksi individu. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi pewarisan marka Cyca-DAB1*05 dan keragaman genotipe ikan mas varietas Rajadanu tahan infeksi KHV dan tumbuh cepat generasi ketiga (F3). Sebanyak 44 individu ikan mas Rajadanu F3 digunakan pada penelitian ini. Evaluasi marka Cyca-DAB1*05 dilakukan dengan metode PCR menggunakan primer spesifik marka Cyca-DAB1*05. Analisis keragaman genotipe dilakukan menggunakan tiga lokus mikrosatelit (MFW6, MFW7, dan MFW9). Data alel mikrosatelit dianalisis menggunakan program Fstat dan Arlequin. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa semua individu pada populasi ikan mas Rajadanu F3 membawa marka Cyca-DAB1*05. Ikan mas Rajadanu F3 memiliki keragaman genotipe yang relatif rendah. Nilai rata-rata heterozigositas teramati (0,31) lebih kecil daripada rata-rata heterozigositas harapan (0,46). Nilai positif pada indeks fiksasi (0,32) menunjukkan status inbreeding pada populasi tersebut. Hasil penelitian ini dapat menjadi acuan, baik dalam kegiatan manajemen induk maupun dalam program seleksi selanjutnya dengan tujuan untuk mempertahankan keragaman genetik dan meminimasi tekanan inbreeding ikan mas Rajadanu tahan infeksi KHV dan tumbuh cepat.Research Institute for Fish Breeding (RIFB) has created Rajadanu common carp resistant to koi herpesvirus (KHV) infection and fast growth through selection program. Rajadanu common carp has been produced by independent culling selection on resistant to KHV and fast growth characters. Selection on resistant to KHV and fast growth character was conducted using Cyca-DAB1*05 marker and mass-selection method respectively. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inheritance of Cyca-DAB1*05 as a marker and the genotype variation of Rajadanu common carp resistant to KHV infection and fast growth. A total of 44 fish were used for this study. Evaluation of Cyca-DAB1*05 marker was conducted by PCR method using specific primer to Cyca-DAB1*05 marker. Analysis of genotype variation was conducted using three microsatellite loci (MFW6, MFW7, and MFW9). Microsatellite allele data was analyzed using Fstat and Arlequin software. The result showed that all of F3 Rajadanu common carp were positive carrying Cyca-DAB1*05 marker. Genetic variation of this population was relatively low. The average observed heterozygosity (Ho=0.31) was lower than the average expected heterozygosity (He=0.46). Positive value of fixation index (0.32) showed inbreeding status in this population. The result of this study can be use as reference for broodstock management and next selection program to maintain the genetic diversity and to minimize inbreeding depression level of Rajadanu common carp resistant to KHV infection and fast growth.

Informasi tentang keragaman genetik sangat dibutuhkan pada program pemuliaan melalui kegiatan seleksi untuk menghasilkan induk unggul, seperti pada pembentukan ikan mas Rajadanu tahan infeksi koi herpes virus (KHV). Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi variasi genetik ikan mas varietas Rajadanu tahan infeksi KHV generasi F0 dan F1 dengan menggunakan marka molekuler mikrosatelit. Populasi F0 dan F1 dihasilkan dari kegiatan seleksi bersamaan (independent culling) pada karakter pertumbuhan dan ketahanan terhadap KHV. Seleksi karakter pertumbuhan dilakukan dengan metode seleksi individu (mass selection), sedangkan seleksi karakter ketahanan terhadap KHV dilakukan dengan mengidentifikasi individu yang membawa marka MHC II spesifik pada alel Cyca-DAB1*05. Sebanyak sepuluh individu ikan mas dari setiap populasi digunakan untuk analisis variabilitas mikrosatelit menggunakan tiga lokus mikrosatelit (MFW6, MFW7, dan MFW9). Data alel mikrosatelit diolah menggunakan program Microsoft excel dan dianalisis menggunakan program Fstat dan Arlequin. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa jumlah alel dari tiap lokus pada masingmasing populasi bervariasi, yaitu berkisar antara 2-5 alel. Rata-rata jumlah alel dan rata-rata heterozigositas teramati pada populasi F0 tidak berbeda dengan populasi F1. Rata-rata jumlah alel pada kedua populasi sebesar 3,33 alel dengan rata-rata nilai heterozigositas teramati sebesar 0,47. Inbreeding teridentifikasi pada populasi F0 dan F1, kedua populasi mempunyai tingkat inbreeding yang relatif sama. Populasi ikan mas tahan KHV pada penelitian ini memiliki keragaman genetik yang relatif rendah sehingga diperlukan monitoring variasi genetik dan skema pemijahan yang baik pada kegiatan seleksi selanjutnya untuk menghasilkan ikan mas tahan KHV yang unggul.Information on genetic diversity is needed in breeding program through selective breeding to produce superior broodstocks, such as on production of Rajadanu strain of common carp resistant to KHV infection. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genetic variation in F0 and F1 of Rajadanu strain of common carp resistant to KHV infection using microsatellite marker. The F0 and F1 populations have been produced by independent culling method on growth and resistant to KHV characters. Selection on growth character was conducted by mass selection method, while selection on resistant to KHV character was conducted by identification the individual of common carp that carrying MHC II marker specific on CycaDAB1*05 allele. Ten individuals representing each population were analyzed for microsatellite variability using three microsatellite loci (MFW6, MFW7, and MFW9). Microsatellite allele data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, Fstat, and Arlequin software. The result showed that the number of alleles per loci in each population varied ranging from 2 to 5 alleles. The average number of alleles and the average observed heterozygosity in F0 was similar to that of F1. The average number of alleles in both populations was 3.33, while the average observed heterezygosity was 0.47. The F0 and F1 populations showed inbreeding level; inbreeding level in both populations was relatively similar. Common carp populations in this study had relatively low genetic variation, so that monitoring of genetic variation and good spawning scheme were needed on next selection program to produce a superior common carp resistant to KHV.

The aim of this work was a research of the genetic variability of natural populations of Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis noxia (Aphididae) by means of microsatellite markers and markers for EPIC-PCR. First goal was to introduce the methods and optimise them for Diuraphis noxia. In the follow-up pilot study, specimens from 47 lines representing 12 populations from all over the world were analysed. Having used microsatellite markers, I proved expected variability among individual populations and within them. The highest genetic variability was detected between Chile and Algeria using markers for cytochrome C in EPIC-PCR. These findings can be used for further studies of the genetic variability of the aphid Diuraphis noxia.

The noble crayfish (Astacus astacus) is one of two native species of crayfish living in this country who are all over our country strictly protecte, because they are identified as critically endangered species. In Europe it is one of five native species of crayfish, reported by IUCN as an endangered species that needs protection management. Its population was dramatically reduced due to crayfish plagues, which carry non-native crayfish species from North America, who were introduced in the past in Europe and later to the Czech Republic. In the past, have been isolated and described microsatellite markers for crayfish (Koiv et al., 2008a). As part of this work was tested using the eight microsatellite markers on samples obtained from the czech population of crayfish. Testing was performed on 53 samples from six populations of crayfish. Test samples were subjected to isolation of DNA from tissues of the third walking legs using DNA Lego Kit. Then test isolate DNA electrophoresis on agarose gel. Testing the temperature cycle of PCR amplification based on the original publication Koiv et al., (2008a), followed by PCR cycles were adjusted according to the quality of PCR products obtained in our laboratory. Primer annealing temperature 60°C was chosen as the best for six tested loci i.e. Aas 3666, Aas 3115, Aas 790, Aas 1198, Aas 3950 and Aas 766, for two other loci Aas 2489 and Aas 3040 was chosen 55°C annealing temperature. The resulting PCR products were tested on agarose gel and subsequently fragment analysis on an automatic sequencer Beckman Coulter CEQ8000 determining the lenght of PCR products in multiplex consisting of several loci. In the individual loci were in our 53 samples found from 1 to 13 alleles ? one of the loci was monomorphic in all samples analyzed. The moravian population in the Boskovice tank showed the greatest variability, the average number of alleles per locus 3.86, then the north bohemian population from Jaroměř 3.43 alleles per locus. Zelenohorská population of 3 alleles at a locus and Světlohorská population of 2.57 alleles per locus. The lowest average number of alleles per locus had a population from Landštejn 2.43. The aim of this bachelor thesis was to develop a literature search of methods use in molecular biology studies of crayfish and also validate the use of eight microsatellite markers have described for the noble crayfish. In laboratory conditions were succesfully optimized using seven microsatellite markers from the eight described. These microsatellite markers should be used for population studies, or for determining parentage (paternity) in breeding experiments. The verification of the applicability of microsatellite markers have been evaluate and some fundamental characteristics of the population, usability testing and optimization of microsatellite markers, however, was done only on a very small number of samples, because these characteristics have only a very limited explanatory power.

Su ürünleri yetiştiriciliğinde eldeki stokların genetik yapısını tanımlamak, biyolojik çeşitliliğin korunması ve çiftliklerden doğaya kaçışın etkilerinin en aza indirilmesinin yanında, uygulanan seleksiyon yoluyla ıslah programlarının da uzun vadede yararlı sonuçlar ortaya çıkarması gibi açılardan önemlidir. Çalışmada iki kuluçkahanenin anaç stoklarının (Akvatek 149, Egemar 81 adet) genetik yapısı mikrosatelit polimorfizmi açısından karşılaştırılmış, lokuslara ait parametrelerin populasyonlara göre değiştiği gözlenmiştir. İncelenen 12 adet lokusun allel sayıları populasyonlar ayrı ayrı ele alındığında 3 ile 17 arasında değişmektedir. Akvatek için en polimorfik lokus DLA0064 ($H _G$=0.9697, $H _B$=0.8479), Egemar için DLA0070 ($H _G$=0.8333, $H _B$=0.8433) olarak belirlenmiştir. Tüm sonuçlara göre mikrosatelit polimorfizminin populasyonlara göre değiştiği söylenebilir., Determination of genetic structure of available aquaculture stocks is an important subject for protecting biodiversity and reducing effects of escapes from farms and also for getting good results for long term from selective breeding. in the study broodstock (Akvatek 149, Egemar 81) of two hatcheries were compared using microsatelite polymorphism, changes in parameters for loci depending on the population were observed. Allel numbers of 12 loci that were investigated were between 3 and 17 when populations considered seperately. DLA0064 was found to be the most polymorphic locus for Akvatek $H _0$=0.9697, $H _E$=0.8479) and DLA0070 was found to be the most polymorphic locus for Egemar ($H _0$=0.8333, $H _E$=0.8433). According to all results, it can be said that microsatellite polymorphism might show changes depending on the populations.

Die Hypokaliämische Periodische Paralyse (HypoPP) der Burmakatze ist eine durch generalisierte Muskelschwächen gekennzeichnete, anfallartig auftretende Erbkrankheit. Die Klärung des ursächlichen Gendefekts und die Entwicklung eines Gentests sind wichtige Voraussetzungen, um betroffene Tiere sowie Anlageträger frühzeitig erkennen und von der Zucht ausschließen zu können. Ausgehend vom klinisch vergleichbaren Krankheitsbild der HypoPP des Menschen wurde die alpha-Untereinheit des muskulären Dihydropyrin-sensitiven spannungsabhängigen Calciumionenkanals (CACNA1S) als funktionelles Kandidatengen abgeleitet. Mittels Assoziationsanalyse wurde die Beteiligung dieses Gens am Krankheitsgeschehen bei 64 Proben einer von HypoPP betroffenen Burmakatzenfamilie mit sieben erkrankten Tieren überprüft. Durch Ableitung degenerativer Primer anhand konservierter Bereiche der Gensequenzen anderer Spezies und Primerwalking wurde die komplette mRNA des felinen CACNA1S (Accession Nummer DQ128075) aus Muskelzellen isoliert. Anhand der mRNA-Sequenz wurden Primer zur Amplifikation genomischer Fragmente entwickelt. Ein DNA-Amplifikat (Accession Nummer DQ128065) wurde als Sonde zur Fluoreszenz-in-situ-Hybridisierung (FISH) in Chromosomenpräparaten eingesetzt, wodurch das CACNA1S-Gen der Katze physikalisch auf dem felinen Chromosom F1q22 kartiert wurde. Durch vergleichende Sequenzierung von fünf Amplifikaten der DNA von drei Katzen dieser Burmakatzenfamilie und einer Europäischen Kurzhaarkatze konnten insgesamt 44 genetische Polymorphismen identifiziert werden. Für den Mikrosatellit GIKA001 mit (AC)n-Motiv in Exon9 sowie die SNPs Intron17+46, Intron31+185, Intron36+482 und Exon44+188 wurden Nachweis-verfahren durch Fragmentlängenanalyse im DNA-Sequenzierautomat bzw. PCR-RFLPs entwickelt. Innerhalb der Burmakatzen traten nur drei Allele bzw. vier Genotypen des bei Katzen anderer Rassen hochpolymorphen GIKA001 auf. Die Häufigkeiten der SNP-Genotypen zwischen Burma- und anderen Katzen unterschieden sich signifikant (p < 0,05). Anhand der SNPs wurden in 20 Subfamilien innerhalb der Burmakatzenfamilie die Haplotypen CCCC, TCCT und CATC identifiziert. Zwischen den Häufigkeiten bestimmter Allele der untersuchten genetischen Marker bei von HypoPP betroffenen Tieren und klinisch symptomfreien Katzen waren mit dem Fishers Exakt Test keine signifikanten Unterschiede festzustellen (p > 0,05)., The hypokalaemic periodic paralysis (HypoPP) in Burmese cats is a heredity disease characterized by episodic muscle weakness. Affected animals show clinical signs of a polymyopathy associated with head nodding, neck ventroflexion and limb stiffness. The identification of the causal mutation and the development of a gene test is the prerequisite to identify both affected animals and carriers to exclude them from breeding. By using the similar disease pattern of human HypoPP as a model, the feline gene for the alpha-subunit of the dihydropyridine sensitive calcium channel CACNA1S was selected as a candidate gene putatively responsible for the HypoPP of the Burmese cats. The involvement of CACNA1S was studied by association mapping of DNA samples from 64 cats belonging to a HypoPP affected Burmese cat family. The isolation of the full-length CACNA1S mRNA was achieved by PCR with degenerated primers derived from conserved CACNA1S sequences of other species and subsequent primer walking (accession number DQ128075). Full length mRNA served as template to design primers for amplification of genomic fragments of CACNA1S. The CACNA1S gene was physically mapped on feline chromosome F1q22 by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using a genomic fragment as probe (accession number DQ128065). Comparative sequencing of three samples of the Burmese cat family and one sample of a European Shorthair led to the identification of 44 genetic polymorphisms in five amplicons. Genetic markers were developed on the basis of a fragment length analysis of the (AC)n motif microsatellite GIKA00, which is located in exon 9, and the four SNPs Intron17+46, Intron31+185, Intron36+482, and Exon44+188 using PCR-RFLPs. Despite the fact that the microsatellite GIKA001 is high polymorphic in other cats, only three alleles and four genotypes of were found in the Burmese cat family. Differences of frequencies of SNP genotypes among Burmese and other cats were significant (p < 0.05). At all 3 SNP haplotypes (CCCC, TCCT, and CATC) were identified in 20 subfamilies of the Burmese cat family. Using Fisher s exact test no significant differences between allele frequencies of genetic markers in HypoPP affected cats and animals without symptoms were found (p > 0.05).

Anadolu çok çeşitli iklim koşullarına sahip olması, bölgeden bölgeye büyük farklılıklar gösteren jeolojik yapısı ve Afrika, Avrupa ve Asya arasında doğal bir köprü oluşturması nedeni ile bir çok canlı türünün evriminde önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Bal arıları geçirdikleri evrim sırasında Anadolu’nun yerel iklim koşullarına ve florasına uyum sağlayarak çeşitli ırk ve ekotipleri oluşturmuşlardır. Bu ırk ve ekotiplerin morfometrik ve genetik farkları incelendiğinde, balarılarının gerek morfometrik özelliklerinde, gerekse alozim, mitokondri DNA’sı ve mikrosatelitler açısından büyük bir çeşitlilik gözlenmiştir. Alozimlerde ve mikrosatelitlerde gözlenen alttürlere özgü çok sayıda nadir alel Anadolu’da bal arılarının uzun bir süredir evrimleşmekte olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu büyük çeşitlilik bal arılarının ileride meydana gelebilecek çevre değişimlerine uyum sağlayabilmeleri ve Dünyada ve Türkiye’de bal arıları ile yapılacak genetik ıslah çalışmaları için gereklidir ve korunmalıdır. Türkiye’de bulunan yerel balarısı ırkların yabancı ırklarla değiştirilmesi uygulamasının önüne geçilmelidir. Balarısı alttürlerinin ve ekotiplerinin bulundukları bölgelerde ıslah edilerek arıcıların hizmetine sunulması, ülkemizdeki balarısı genetik çeşitliliğinin günümüzde ve gelecekte yararlanılmak üzere korunması için en uygun çözüm gibi görünmektedir. Anatolia has played an important role in the evolution of many animal and plant species, because of the climatic conditions and topographical formations varying from region to region, and because of its situation between Asia, Africa and Europe as a natural bridge. Honey bees formed a variety of races and ecotypes in adapting to the local flora and climates in Anatolia during their evolution. When the morphometrical and genetical differences between these races and ecotypes were studied, a great diversity in both morphometrical, and genetical traits such as allozymes, mtDNA, and microsatellites. Race and ecotype specific numerious rare and diagnostic alleles in allozymes and microsatellites indicate that honey bees have been evolving in Anatolia for a long period. This great diversity is needed and must be protected in order to enable honey bees to adapt to possible environmental changes in the future and to improve honey bees genetically through breeding programs in the world as well as in Turkey. The practice of replacing of honey bees native to Turkey by races from abroad should be prevented. The most appropriate solution for the current and future utilization of the genetic diversity of honey bees in Turkey seems to be breeding and improving native honey bee races and ecotypes localy and offering such breeds to the service of beekeepers.