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Abstract Since their inception, frequency combs generated in microresonators, known as microcombs, have sparked significant scientific interests. Among the various applications leveraging microcombs, soliton microcombs are often preferred due to their inherent mode-locking capability. However, this choice introduces additional system complexity because an initialization process is required. Meanwhile, despite the theoretical understanding of the dynamics of other comb states, their practical potential, particularly in applications like sensing where simplicity is valued, remains largely untapped. Here, we demonstrate controllable generation of sub-combs that bypasses the need for accessing bistable regime. And in a graphene-sensitized microresonator, the sub-comb heterodynes produce stable, accurate microwave signals for high-precision gas detection. By exploring the formation dynamics of sub-combs, we achieved 2 MHz harmonic comb-to-comb beat notes with a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) greater than 50 dB and phase noise as low as − 82 dBc/Hz at 1 MHz offset. The graphene sensitization on the intracavity probes results in exceptional frequency responsiveness to the adsorption of gas molecules on the graphene of microcavity surface, enabling detect limits down to the parts per billion (ppb) level. This synergy between graphene and sub-comb formation dynamics in a microcavity structure showcases the feasibility of utilizing microcombs in an incoherent state prior to soliton locking. It may mark a significant step toward the development of easy-to-operate, systemically simple, compact, and high-performance photonic sensors. Graphical Abstract

Since their inception, frequency combs generated in microresonators, known as microcombs, have sparked significant scientific interests. Among the various applications leveraging microcombs, soliton microcombs are often preferred due to their inherent mode-locking capability. However, this choice introduces additional system complexity because an initialization process is required. Meanwhile, despite the theoretical understanding of the dynamics of other comb states, their practical potential, particularly in applications like sensing where simplicity is valued, remains largely untapped. Here, we demonstrate controllable generation of sub-combs that bypasses the need for accessing bistable regime. And in a graphene-sensitized microresonator, the sub-comb heterodynes produce stable, accurate microwave signals for high-precision gas detection. By exploring the formation dynamics of sub-combs, we achieved 2 MHz harmonic comb-to-comb beat notes with a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) greater than 50 dB and phase noise as low as − 82 dBc/Hz at 1 MHz offset. The graphene sensitization on the intracavity probes results in exceptional frequency responsiveness to the adsorption of gas molecules on the graphene of microcavity surface, enabling detect limits down to the parts per billion (ppb) level. This synergy between graphene and sub-comb formation dynamics in a microcavity structure showcases the feasibility of utilizing microcombs in an incoherent state prior to soliton locking. It may mark a significant step toward the development of easy-to-operate, systemically simple, compact, and high-performance photonic sensors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The excitation of microresonators using focused intensity modulated light, known as photothermal excitation, is gaining significant attention due to its capacity to accurately excite microresonators without distortions, even in liquid environments, which is driving key advancements in atomic force microscopy and related technologies. Despite progress in the development of coatings, the conversion of light into mechanical movement remains largely inefficient, limiting resonator movements to tens of nanometers even when milliwatts of optical power are used. Moreover, how photothermal efficiency depends on the relative position of a microresonator along the propagation axis of the photothermal beam remains poorly studied, hampering the understanding of the conversion of light into mechanical motion. Here, photothermal measurements are performed in air and water using cantilever microresonators and a custom‐built picobalance, to determine how photothermal efficiency changes along the propagation beam axis. It is identified that far out‐of‐band laser emission can lead to visual misidentification of the beam waist, resulting in a drop of photothermal efficiency of up to one order of magnitude. The measurements also unveil that the beam waist is not always the position of highest photothermal efficiency, and can reduce the efficiency up to 20% for silicon cantilevers with trapezoidal cross section.

Real-time characterization of microresonator dynamics is important for many applications. In particular, it is critical for near-field sensing and understanding light--matter interactions. Here, we report camera-facilitated imaging and analysis of standing wave patterns in optical ring resonators. The standing wave pattern is generated through bidirectional pumping of a microresonator, and the scattered light from the microresonator is collected by a short-wave infrared (SWIR) camera. The recorded scattering patterns are wavelength dependent, and the scattered intensity exhibits a linear relation with the circulating power within the microresonator. By modulating the relative phase between the two pump waves, we can control the generated standing waves' movements and characterize the resonator with the SWIR camera. The visualized standing wave enables subwavelength distance measurements of scattering targets with nanometer-level accuracy. This work opens broad avenues for applications in on-chip near-field (bio) sensing, real-time characterization of photonic integrated circuits, and backscattering control in telecom systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-polarization coupling between transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) whispering-gallery modes in an optical microresonator produces effects such as coupled-mode induced transparency (CMIT). The detailed analytical theory of this coupling indicates that the TE-to-TM and TM-to-TE couplings may have different strengths. Using an experimental setup centered around a hollow bottle resonator and polarization-sensitive throughput detection, that had been used in previous CMIT experiments, this asymmetry was confirmed and studied. By fitting the throughput spectra of both polarizations to the numerical output of a basic model, the asymmetry parameter defined as the ratio of the coupling amplitudes was determined from the output power in the polarization orthogonal to that of the input. The results of many experiments give a range for this ratio, roughly from 0.2 to 4, that agrees with the range predicted by the detailed theory. An analytical approximation of this ratio shows that the main reason for the asymmetry is a difference in the axial orders of the coupled modes. In some experimental cases, the orthogonal output is not well fitted by the model that assumes a single mode of each polarization, and we demonstrate that this fitting discrepancy can be the result of additional mode interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emerging high-resolution 3D printing technique called two-photon polymerization (2PP) enables to print devices bottom-up rapidly, contrary to the top–down lithography-based fabrication methods. In this work, various polymer microbeams are 3D printed and their resonant characteristics are analyzed to understand the origin of damping. The 2PP printed polymer resonators have shown less damping than other polymer devices reported earlier, with tensile-stressed clamped–clamped beams reaching a record quality factor of 1819. The resonant energy loss was dominant by bulk friction damping. These results pave the path towards using 3D printed microresonators as mass sensors with improved design and fabrication flexibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a traveling wave microresonator, the cascaded four‐wave mixing (FWM) between optical modes allows the generation of frequency combs, including intriguing dissipative Kerr solitons (DKS). This study explores the quantum fluctuations of frequency combs and reveal the continuous‐variable quantum entanglement between different comb lines of the DKS states. The entanglement of DKS exhibits two distinct characteristics. For modes located at the spectral edge with a small number of excitations, different comb modes with multiple colors become entangled due to photon‐pair generation and coherent photon conversion stimulated by the FWM. Notably, a sudden disappearance of quantum entanglement in the center of the DKS spectrum is observed, which is attributed to the self‐locking phenomena in the FWM network. These findings demonstrate the prominent quantum nature of DKS, which is of fundamental significance in quantum optics and has the potential to be utilized in quantum networking and distributed quantum sensing applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optical microresonators have proven to be especially useful for sensing applications. In most cases, the sensing mechanism is dispersive, where the resonance frequency of a mode shifts in response to a change in the ambient index of refraction. It is also possible to conduct dissipative sensing, in which absorption by an analyte causes measurable changes in the mode linewidth and in the throughput dip depth. If the mode is overcoupled, the dip depth response can be more sensitive than the linewidth response, but overcoupling is not always easy to achieve. We have recently shown theoretically that using multimode input to the microresonator can enhance the dip-depth sensitivity by a factor of several thousand relative to that of single-mode input and by a factor of nearly 100 compared to the linewidth sensitivity. Here, we experimentally confirm these enhancements using an absorbing dye dissolved in methanol inside a hollow bottle resonator. We review the theory, describe the setup and procedure, detail the fabrication and characterization of an asymmetrically tapered fiber to produce multimode input, and present sensing enhancement results that agree with all the predictions of the theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comprehensive understanding of the linear/nonlinear dynamic behavior of wireless microresonators is essential for micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) design optimization. This study investigates the dynamic behaviour of a magnetoelectric (ME) microresonator, using a finite element method (FEM) and machine learning algorithm. First, the linear/nonlinear behaviour of a fabricated thin-film ME microactuator is assessed in both the time domain and frequency spectrum. Next, a data driven system identification (DDSI) procedure and simulated annealing (SA) method are implemented to reconstruct differential equations from measured datasets. The Duffing equation is employed to replicate the dynamic behavior of the ME microactuator. The Duffing coefficients such as mass, stiffness, damping, force amplitude, and excitation frequency are considered as input parameters. Meanwhile, the microactuator displacement is taken as the output parameter, which is measured experimentally via a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) device. To determine the optimal range and step size for input parameters, the sensitivity analysis is conducted using Latin hypercube sampling (LHS). The peak index matching (PIM) and correlation coefficient (CC) are considered assessment criteria for the objective function. The data-driven developed models are subsequently employed to reconstruct/predict mode shapes and the vibration amplitude over the time domain. The effect of driving signal nonlinearity and total harmonic distortion (THD) is explored experimentally under resonance and sub-resonance conditions. The vibration measurements reveal that as excitation levels increase, hysteresis variations become more noticeable, which may result in a higher prediction error in the Duffing array model. The verification test indicates that the first bending mode reconstructs reasonably with a prediction accuracy of about 92 percent. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates that the simulated annealing approach is a promising tool for modeling the dynamic behavior of MEMS systems, making it a strong candidate for real-world applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development and investigation of miniature narrow-line coherent light sources based on microresonators with low-power-consumption whispering gallery modes (WGMs) is an actual trend in modern photonics. Raman WGM microlasers can operate at wavelengths inaccessible to traditional laser media and provide a huge pump frequency tuning range. Here, we propose and theoretically study multicascade Raman microlasers based on soft tellurite TeO2–WO3–Bi2O3 glass WGM microresonators (microspheres) which can operate in the near-IR and mid-IR with the pump in the telecommunication range. Thanks to a large Raman gain (120 times exceeding the maximum Raman gain of silica glass) and a huge Raman frequency shift of 27.5 THz for this glass, the Raman waves at 1.83 µm, 2.21 µm, 2.77 µm, and 3.7 µm in the first, second, third, and fourth cascades, respectively, are theoretically demonstrated with a pump at 1.57 µm. We analyze in detail the influence of different factors on the characteristics of the generated Raman waves, such as microsphere diameters, Q-factors, pump powers, and detuning of the pump frequency from exact resonance. We also solve a thermo-optical problem to show that the temperature of a soft glass microresonator heated due to partial thermalization of pump power remains below the glass transition temperature. To the best of our knowledge, mid-IR tellurite glass Raman WGM microlasers have not been studied before. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-Q optical microresonators are particularly efficient practical tools of modern applied optics and photonics. Using them, one inevitably faces the problem of thermal effects. Accurate determination of effective thermal parameters of high-Q microresonators (effective thermal relaxation rate and optical absorption rate) is of particular importance for developing microresonator-based devices. Our investigation looks into diverse methodologies to estimate these effective parameters for such systems, ultimately revealing a divergence between the commonly employed simplified model, the direct numerical approach, and classical analytical formulas. We introduce a novel approach to calculate effective parameters based on the decomposition of the thermal field into microresonator thermal modes, which inherently considers the intricate geometry and material anisotropy inherent in microresonators, as well as the influence of external conditions. The method for the accurate determination of the effective thermal parameters of the microresonator for corresponding thermal modes is developed. As a result of applying this method, we modified the classical approach for the simulation of thermal effects in optical microresonators for better agreement with the numerical simulations. By accounting for the complexities of microresonator shapes, material properties, and external factors, our proposed method contributes to a more accurate understanding of thermal dynamics and enhances the predictive capabilities of simulations for these systems. We demonstrated the application of this method on the example of integrated microring resonators, but it can be used to analyze thermal effects in other microresonator platforms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accurate, rapid, and specific detection of DNA strands in solution is becoming increasingly important, especially in biomedical applications such as the trace detection of COVID-19 or cancer diagnosis. In this work we present the design, elaboration and characterization of an optofluidic sensor based on a polymer-based microresonator which shows a quick response time, a low detection limit and good sensitivity. The device is composed of a micro-racetrack waveguide vertically coupled to a bus waveguide and embedded within a microfluidic circuit. The spectral response of the microresonator, in air or immersed in deionised water, shows quality factors up to 72,900 and contrasts up to 0.9. The concentration of DNA strands in water is related to the spectral shift of the microresonator transmission function, as measured at the inflection points of resonance peaks in order to optimize the signal-over-noise ratio. After functionalization by a DNA probe strand on the surface of the microresonator, a specific and real time measurement of the complementary DNA strands in the solution is realized. Additionally, we have inferred the dissociation constant value of the binding equilibrium of the two complementary DNA strands and evidenced a sensitivity of 16.0 pm/µM and a detection limit of 121 nM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Kerr microresonator frequency comb, combined with an ultrafast photodiode, has been utilized to generate millimeter- and terahertz-waves with low-phase-noise. This new light source shows promise for wireless communication above the 100 GHz band, where a high signal-to-noise ratio carrier signal is necessary to achieve high data rates. In this study, two efficient wireless link architectures based on a microresonator comb are demonstrated. The experiment shows that simultaneous modulation and detection of multiple comb lines leads to more than 10 times stronger modulation signal strength compared to two-line detection at the receiver. The successful transmission of complex modulation formats up to 64 quadrature amplitude modulation confirms that the microresonator comb and the proposed modulation method are effective for modern wireless communication.

As a novel portable and robust broadband coherent light source, mid-infrared (MIR) Kerr microresonator-based frequency combs (microcombs) have prospective applications in the precision spectroscopy of molecules and biochemical sensing. The mature integrated silicon photonics platform is well suited for the MIR microcombs study because silicon has both large linear and nonlinear refractive index, but the transparency window of the platform is limited by the cladding material. Here, we numerically demonstrate the generation of a broadband MIR comb in a silicon microring resonator, harnessing the large-cross-section air-cladding waveguide to alleviate the absorption loss. The effects of higher order nonlinearities are also investigated, which show that the effect of five-photon absorption around the pump wavelength (4.78 $\mu$m) is negligible while an octave-spanning (3.5-8 $\mu$m) Raman-Kerr comb line can be obtained with the assistance of Raman effect and a quite pure Kerr frequency soliton comb can also be achieved at large detuning. The proposed structure can be compatible with the CMOS technology, thus can be a very promising solution to the MIR integrated photonics.

Cross-polarization coupling between transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) whispering-gallery modes in an optical microresonator produces effects such as coupled-mode induced transparency (CMIT). The detailed analytical theory of this coupling indicates that the TE-to-TM and TM-to-TE couplings may have different strengths. Using an experimental setup centered around a hollow bottle resonator and polarization-sensitive throughput detection, that had been used in previous CMIT experiments, this asymmetry was confirmed and studied. By fitting the throughput spectra of both polarizations to the numerical output of a basic model, the asymmetry parameter defined as the ratio of the coupling amplitudes was determined from the output power in the polarization orthogonal to that of the input. The results of many experiments give a range for this ratio, roughly from 0.2 to 4, that agrees with the range predicted by the detailed theory. An analytical approximation of this ratio shows that the main reason for the asymmetry is a difference in the axial orders of the coupled modes. In some experimental cases, the orthogonal output is not well fitted by the model that assumes a single mode of each polarization, and we demonstrate that this fitting discrepancy can be the result of additional mode interactions.

A scheme is proposed for converting a transport photonic qubit into a stationary qubit represented by the electronic states of quantum dots (QDs). The choice of the basis states of a qubit in the form of antisymmetric combinations of the excited states of an array of QDs ensures their stability with respect to photon/phonon relaxation processes. The formation of these states is due to the Stark and Förster interactions between electrons localized in the QDs. An algorithm for the controlled transformation (recording) of a photon state into the electronic states of QDs using optical and electrostatic fields is considered. The possibility of tuning the frequency of the electronic transitions in the QDs in a gallium arsenide nanostructure using metal gates and a charged cantilever needle is studied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The discovery of stable and broad frequency combs in monochromatically pumped high-Q optical Kerr microresonators caused by the generation of temporal solitons can be regarded as one of the major breakthroughs in nonlinear optics during the last two decades. The transfer of the soliton–comb concept to χ (2) microresonators promises lowering of the pump power, new operation regimes, and entering of new spectral ranges; scientifically, it is a big challenge. Here we represent an overview of stable and accessible soliton–comb regimes in monochromatically pumped χ (2) microresonators discovered during the last several years. The main stress is made on lithium niobate-based resonators. This overview pretends to be rather simple, complete, and comprehensive: it incorporates the main factors affecting the soliton–comb generation, such as the choice of the pumping scheme (pumping to the first or second harmonic), the choice of the phase matching scheme (natural or artificial), the effects of the temporal walk off and dispersion coefficients, and also the influence of frequency detunings and Q-factors. Most of the discovered nonlinear regimes are self-starting—they can be accessed from noise upon a not very abrupt increase in the pump power. The soliton–comb generation scenarios are not universal—they can be realized only under proper combinations of the above-mentioned factors. We indicate what kind of restrictions on the experimental conditions have to be imposed to obtain the soliton–comb generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mid-infrared (MIR) frequency combs based on integrated photonic microresonators (micro combs) have attracted increasing attention in chip-scale spectroscopy due to their high spectral resolution and broadband wavelength coverage. However, up to date, there are no perfect solutions for the effective generation of MIR micro combs because of the lack of proper MIR materials as the core and cladding of the integrated microresonators, thereby hindering accurate and flexible dispersion engineering. Here, we have firstly demonstrated a MIR micro comb generation covering from 6.94 μm to 12.04 μm based on a sandwich-integrated all-ChG microresonator composed of GeAsTeSe and GeSbSe as the core and GeSbS as cladding. The novel sandwich microresonator is proposed to achieve a symmetrically uniform distribution of the mode field in the microresonator core, precise dispersion engineering, and low optical loss, which features a wide transmission window, high Kerr nonlinearity, and hybrid-fabrication flexibility on a silicon wafer. A MIR Kerr frequency comb with a 5.1 μm bandwidth has been numerically demonstrated, assisted by dispersive waves. Additionally, a feasible fabrication scheme is proposed to realize the on-demand ChG microresonators. These demonstrations characterize the advantages of integrated ChG photonic devices in MIR nonlinear photonics and their potential applications in MIR spectroscopy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, we demonstrate dispersion engineering of silicon nitride waveguide resonators with atomic layer deposition (ALD). We conducted theoretical and experimental analyses on the waveguide dispersion with air cladding, hafnium oxide (HfO2) cladding, and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) cladding. By employing ALD HfO2 as the cladding layer, the dispersion of waveguide can be tuned to a finer degree in the normal regime at a wavelength of 1550 nm. On the other hand, using ALD Al2O3 cladding provides the waveguide dispersion that spans regimes in normal, near-zero, and anomalous dispersion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stabilization and manipulation of laser frequency by means of an external cavity are nearly ubiquitously used in fundamental research and laser applications. While most of the laser light transmits through the cavity, in the presence of some back-scattered light from the cavity to the laser, the self-injection locking effect can take place, which locks the laser emission frequency to the cavity mode of similar frequency. The self-injection locking leads to dramatic reduction of laser linewidth and noise. Using this approach, a common semiconductor laser locked to an ultrahigh-Q microresonator can obtain sub-Hertz linewidth, on par with state-of-the-art fiber lasers. Therefore it paves the way to manufacture high-performance semiconductor lasers with reduced footprint and cost. Moreover, with high laser power, the optical nonlinearity of the microresonator drastically changes the laser dynamics, offering routes for simultaneous pulse and frequency comb generation in the same microresonator. Particularly, integrated photonics technology, enabling components fabricated via semiconductor CMOS process, has brought increasing and extending interest to laser manufacturing using this method. In this article, we present a comprehensive tutorial on analytical and numerical methods of laser self-injection locking, as well a review of most recent theoretical and experimental achievements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Transparency and perfect absorption are two contradictory terms; a perfect absorber never permits waves to transmit through. However, this statement only remains true in the linear regime, where the nonlinearity has been omitted and the physical system like the perfect absorber is not affected by the incoming waves. Here we experimentally demonstrate an intriguing self-induced transparency effect in a perfectly absorbing optical microcavity, which perfectly absorbs any incoming waves at the low power level, but allows a portion of waves to be transmitted at the higher power due to the nonlinear coupling between the fundamental and its second harmonic modes. Moreover, the asymmetric scattering nature of the microcavity enables a chiral and unidirectional reflection in one of the input ports, this leads to asymmetric and chiral coherent control of the perfect absorption states through phase varying. More importantly, such chiral behaviors also empower the chiral emission of second-harmonic generation with a high distinct ratio in the transparency state. These results pave the way for controllable transparency in a wide range of fields in optics, microwaves, acoustics, mechanics, and matter waves.

Optical filtering with low crosstalk effect and high drop efficiency is of great importance in multi-channel filter structures. We propose a dual-channel drop filter of single photons with high drop efficiency in a configuration with a bus waveguide and two drop waveguides, where these waveguides are mediately coupled by two single-mode whispering gallery resonators with a qubit. By adjusting the waveguide-resonator and qubit-resonator couplings, the crosstalk effects between different peak wavelengths are suppressed, and multi-wavelength filtering with high drop efficiency is availably performed. Therefore, the proposed two-channel filter can provide potential applications in optical communication, such as multiplexers, routers, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We theoretically and numerically investigate magnetophotonic microresonators formed by a magnetic layer sandwiched between two reflective multilayers with different layer arrangements. Quasicrystals with the Fibonacci layer sequence and aperiodic structures with the Thue–Morse sequence are all compared to the conventional photonic crystal Bragg microresonators. The magneto-optical spectral properties of such magnetophotonic structures are completely different from each other and from a uniform magnetic film. In multilayered structures of various order types, microresonator modes are excited. The feature of multilayered structures with arrangements different from a periodic one is that they support the excitation of the multiple microresonator modes in a limited visible and near-infrared spectral range. The wavelengths of the two microresonator modes in a regular photonic crystal differ by more than one octave. This feature of the quasi-crystalline and aperiodic microresonators is important for applications in devices based on the Faraday effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optical microresonators have proven to be especially useful for sensing applications. In most cases, the sensing mechanism is dispersive, where the resonance frequency of a mode shifts in response to a change in the ambient index of refraction. It is also possible to conduct dissipative sensing, in which absorption by an analyte causes measurable changes in the mode linewidth and in the throughput dip depth. If the mode is overcoupled, the dip depth response can be more sensitive than the linewidth response, but overcoupling is not always easy to achieve. We have recently shown theoretically that using multimode input to the microresonator can enhance the dip-depth sensitivity by a factor of several thousand relative to that of single-mode input and by a factor of nearly 100 compared to the linewidth sensitivity. Here, we experimentally confirm these enhancements using an absorbing dye dissolved in methanol inside a hollow bottle resonator. We review the theory, describe the setup and procedure, detail the fabrication and characterization of an asymmetrically tapered fiber to produce multimode input, and present sensing enhancement results that agree with all the predictions of the theory.

The development and investigation of miniature narrow-line coherent light sources based on microresonators with low-power-consumption whispering gallery modes (WGMs) is an actual trend in modern photonics. Raman WGM microlasers can operate at wavelengths inaccessible to traditional laser media and provide a huge pump frequency tuning range. Here, we propose and theoretically study multicascade Raman microlasers based on soft tellurite TeO2–WO3–Bi2O3 glass WGM microresonators (microspheres) which can operate in the near-IR and mid-IR with the pump in the telecommunication range. Thanks to a large Raman gain (120 times exceeding the maximum Raman gain of silica glass) and a huge Raman frequency shift of 27.5 THz for this glass, the Raman waves at 1.83 µm, 2.21 µm, 2.77 µm, and 3.7 µm in the first, second, third, and fourth cascades, respectively, are theoretically demonstrated with a pump at 1.57 µm. We analyze in detail the influence of different factors on the characteristics of the generated Raman waves, such as microsphere diameters, Q-factors, pump powers, and detuning of the pump frequency from exact resonance. We also solve a thermo-optical problem to show that the temperature of a soft glass microresonator heated due to partial thermalization of pump power remains below the glass transition temperature. To the best of our knowledge, mid-IR tellurite glass Raman WGM microlasers have not been studied before.

High-Q optical microresonators are particularly efficient practical tools of modern applied optics and photonics. Using them, one inevitably faces the problem of thermal effects. Accurate determination of effective thermal parameters of high-Q microresonators (effective thermal relaxation rate and optical absorption rate) is of particular importance for developing microresonator-based devices. Our investigation looks into diverse methodologies to estimate these effective parameters for such systems, ultimately revealing a divergence between the commonly employed simplified model, the direct numerical approach, and classical analytical formulas. We introduce a novel approach to calculate effective parameters based on the decomposition of the thermal field into microresonator thermal modes, which inherently considers the intricate geometry and material anisotropy inherent in microresonators, as well as the influence of external conditions. The method for the accurate determination of the effective thermal parameters of the microresonator for corresponding thermal modes is developed. As a result of applying this method, we modified the classical approach for the simulation of thermal effects in optical microresonators for better agreement with the numerical simulations. By accounting for the complexities of microresonator shapes, material properties, and external factors, our proposed method contributes to a more accurate understanding of thermal dynamics and enhances the predictive capabilities of simulations for these systems. We demonstrated the application of this method on the example of integrated microring resonators, but it can be used to analyze thermal effects in other microresonator platforms.

Globally, the long-haul transmission of ultra-high bandwidth data is enabled through coherent communications. Driven by the rapid pace of growth in interconnectivity over the last decade, long-haul data transmission has reached capacities on the order of tens to hundreds of terabits per second, over fiber reaches which may span thousands of kilometers. Data center communications operate in regimes featuring shorter reaches and higher cost sensitivity. While integrated microresonator frequency combs are poised to revolutionize light sources used for high-speed data transmission over fiber, recent progress has focused largely on coherent detection schemes. Furthermore, though state-of-the-art intensity modulators are advancing in speed, it has not been demonstrated in the literature if microresonator-based comb lines can accommodate higher intensity modulated direction data (IMDD) line rates in tandem with these advancements. In this manuscript, we demonstrate the use of microresonator frequency combs pumped with a single laser for the transmission of high-speed IMDD data. We demonstrate error-free transmission of 30 Gbs−1 per comb non-return-to-zero data over fiber lengths of 6 km, as well as bit error rates under the forward error correction limit for propagation through 20 km of optical fiber. 60 Gbs−1 and 42 Gbs−1 pulse modulation amplitude 4 (PAM4) data modulated on each frequency comb line is further quantified to have a bit error rate under the forward error correction limit for fiber reaches of up to 6 km and 20 km respectively. The results showcase CMOS-compatible microresonator frequency comb modulated using IMDD formats as a promising technology for high-speed transmission in the data center transceiver industry.

The design of thermoelastic damping (TED) affected by the phase-lagging non-Fourier heat conduction effects becomes significant but challenging for enlarging the quality factor of widely-used microresonators operating in extreme situations, including ultra-high excitation frequency and ultra-low working temperature. However, there does not exist a rational method for designing the TED in the framework of non-Fourier heat conduction law. This work, therefore, proposes a design framework to achieve low thermoelastic dissipation of microresonators governed by the phase-lagging heat conduction law. The equation of motion and the heat conduction equation for phase-lagging TED microresonators are derived first, and then the non-Fourier TED design problem is proposed. A topology optimization-based rational design method is used to resolve the design problem. What is more, a two-dimensional (2D) plain-strain-based finite element method (FEM) is developed as a solver for the topology optimization process. Based on the suggested rational design technique, numerical instances with various phase lags are investigated. The results show that the proposed design method can remarkably reduce the dissipation of microresonators by tailoring their substructures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transparency and perfect absorption are two contradictory terms; a perfect absorber never permits waves to transmit through. However, this statement only remains true in the linear regime, where the nonlinearity has been omitted and the physical system like the perfect absorber is not affected by the incoming waves. Here we experimentally demonstrate an intriguing self-induced transparency effect in a perfectly absorbing optical microcavity, which perfectly absorbs any incoming waves at the low power level, but allows a portion of waves to be transmitted at the higher power due to the nonlinear coupling between the fundamental and its second harmonic modes. Moreover, the asymmetric scattering nature of the microcavity enables a chiral and unidirectional reflection in one of the input ports, this leads to asymmetric and chiral coherent control of the perfect absorption states through phase varying. More importantly, such chiral behaviors also empower the chiral emission of second-harmonic generation with a high distinct ratio in the transparency state. These results pave the way for controllable transparency in a wide range of fields in optics, microwaves, acoustics, mechanics, and matter waves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All-optical control of silicon photonic devices plays a key role in on-chip all-optical computing, switching and signal processing. However, due to the weak intrinsic nonlinear effects of silicon, current integrated devices are limited by high power consumptions. Here, an all-optical controllable optomechanical microring resonator (OMMR) is proposed and fabricated on the silicon platform. Due to the mechanical Kerr effect induced by the optical gradient force (OGF), we realize seamless wavelength tuning over a range of 2.56 nm which is 61% of the free-spectral range, with a high tuning efficiency of 80 GHz/mW. By controlling the pump power, the OMMR indicates three working regions, which are the cutoff region, amplified region and saturate region. Accordingly, this function is similar to a transistor. Furthermore, the dynamic properties of the OMMR are investigated. By analyzing the dynamic responses, we demonstrate that the OMMR is driven by the OGF, rather than other nonlinear effects. The method simplifies the experimental setup, compared with measuring the intrinsic mechanical frequency of the OMMR. This all-silicon device is energy-efficient and compatible with complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) processing. We believe that this work is important for on-chip all-optial signal processing and beneficial to futher studies on integrated optomechanics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All-optical control of silicon photonic devices plays a key role in on-chip all-optical computing, switching and signal processing. However, due to the weak intrinsic nonlinear effects of silicon, current integrated devices are limited by high power consumptions. Here, an all-optical controllable optomechanical microring resonator (OMMR) is proposed and fabricated on the silicon platform. Due to the mechanical Kerr effect induced by the optical gradient force (OGF), we realize seamless wavelength tuning over a range of 2.56 nm which is 61% of the free-spectral range, with a high tuning efficiency of 80 GHz/mW. By controlling the pump power, the OMMR indicates three working regions, which are the cutoff region, amplified region and saturate region. Accordingly, this function is similar to a transistor. Furthermore, the dynamic properties of the OMMR are investigated. By analyzing the dynamic responses, we demonstrate that the OMMR is driven by the OGF, rather than other nonlinear effects. The method simplifies the experimental setup, compared with measuring the intrinsic mechanical frequency of the OMMR. This all-silicon device is energy-efficient and compatible with complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) processing. We believe that this work is important for on-chip all-optial signal processing and beneficial to futher studies on integrated optomechanics.

A comprehensive understanding of the linear/nonlinear dynamic behavior of wireless microresonators is essential for micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) design optimization. This study investigates the dynamic behaviour of a magnetoelectric (ME) microresonator, using a finite element method (FEM) and machine learning algorithm. First, the linear/nonlinear behaviour of a fabricated thin-film ME microactuator is assessed in both the time domain and frequency spectrum. Next, a data driven system identification (DDSI) procedure and simulated annealing (SA) method are implemented to reconstruct differential equations from measured datasets. The Duffing equation is employed to replicate the dynamic behavior of the ME microactuator. The Duffing coefficients such as mass, stiffness, damping, force amplitude, and excitation frequency are considered as input parameters. Meanwhile, the microactuator displacement is taken as the output parameter, which is measured experimentally via a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) device. To determine the optimal range and step size for input parameters, the sensitivity analysis is conducted using Latin hypercube sampling (LHS). The peak index matching (PIM) and correlation coefficient (CC) are considered assessment criteria for the objective function. The data-driven developed models are subsequently employed to reconstruct/predict mode shapes and the vibration amplitude over the time domain. The effect of driving signal nonlinearity and total harmonic distortion (THD) is explored experimentally under resonance and sub-resonance conditions. The vibration measurements reveal that as excitation levels increase, hysteresis variations become more noticeable, which may result in a higher prediction error in the Duffing array model. The verification test indicates that the first bending mode reconstructs reasonably with a prediction accuracy of about 92 percent. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates that the simulated annealing approach is a promising tool for modeling the dynamic behavior of MEMS systems, making it a strong candidate for real-world applications.

The accurate, rapid, and specific detection of DNA strands in solution is becoming increasingly important, especially in biomedical applications such as the trace detection of COVID-19 or cancer diagnosis. In this work we present the design, elaboration and characterization of an optofluidic sensor based on a polymer-based microresonator which shows a quick response time, a low detection limit and good sensitivity. The device is composed of a micro-racetrack waveguide vertically coupled to a bus waveguide and embedded within a microfluidic circuit. The spectral response of the microresonator, in air or immersed in deionised water, shows quality factors up to 72,900 and contrasts up to 0.9. The concentration of DNA strands in water is related to the spectral shift of the microresonator transmission function, as measured at the inflection points of resonance peaks in order to optimize the signal-over-noise ratio. After functionalization by a DNA probe strand on the surface of the microresonator, a specific and real time measurement of the complementary DNA strands in the solution is realized. Additionally, we have inferred the dissociation constant value of the binding equilibrium of the two complementary DNA strands and evidenced a sensitivity of 16.0 pm/µM and a detection limit of 121 nM.

Objective: Single-mode operation is very important for laser emissivity; to exceed the emissivity of a single laser, the phase locking of all lasers in an array can be achieved only when the laser array is coupled and operated in single-mode. Methods: In this study, a single-mode laser emitted along the waveguide was realized through cross-coupling microspheres connected to a straight waveguide. Whispering-gallery modes were formed at the equators of the two microspheres when their resonance conditions were simultaneously satisfied. Compared with a single microcavity, the FSR of the coupled microcavities was significantly increased owing to the Vernier effect. Moreover, when the waveguide was coupled with the microspheres in the weak field of the resonance modes, the whispering-gallery modes near the equator were significantly suppressed, and a new quadrilateral mode was formed. Result: The energy in the coupling microspheres was concentrated in the stable quadrilateral mode and the Q factor was high (∼104). The single-mode laser energy in the waveguide accounted for 82 % of the total optical radiation energy of the device. This work has application prospects in laser switches and on-chip light sources.

Generation of nonlinear frequency combs in χ(3) optical microresonators has attracted tremendous research interest during the last decade. Recently, realization of the microcomb owing to χ(2) optical nonlinearity in the microresonator promises new breakthroughs and is a big scientific challenge. Moreover, it is of high scientific interest that the presence of both second- and third-order nonlinearities results in complex cavity dynamics. In particular, the role of χ(3) nonlinearity in the generation of the quadratic microcomb is still far from being well understood. Here, we demonstrate the interaction between the second- and third-order nonlinearity in the lithium niobate microresonator, which can provide a new way of phase matching to control the mode-locking condition and pulse number for the quadratic microcomb. Our results verify that the Kerr nonlinearity can benefit the quadratic microcomb. The principle can be further extended to other material platforms to provide more manipulation methods for comb generation based on χ(2) nonlinearity at mid-infrared.

Optical whispering-gallery microresonators have proven to be especially useful as chemical sensors. Most applications involve dispersive sensing, such as the frequency shift of resonator modes in response to a change in the ambient index of refraction. However, the response to dissipative interaction can be even more sensitive than the dispersive response. Dissipative sensing is most often conducted via a change in the mode linewidth owing to absorption in the analyte, but the change in the throughput dip depth of a mode can provide better sensitivity. Dispersive sensing can be enhanced when the input to the microresonator consists of multiple fiber or waveguide modes. Here, we show that multimode input can enhance dip-depth dissipative sensing by an even greater factor. We demonstrate that the multimode-input response relative to single-mode-input response using the same fiber or waveguide can be enhanced by a factor of more than one thousand, independent of the mode linewidth, or quality factor (Q), of the mode. We also show that multimode input makes the dip-depth response nearly one hundred times more sensitive than the linewidth-change response. These enhancement factors are predicted by making only two measurements of dip depth in the absence of an analyte: one with the two input modes in phase with each other, and one with them out of phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On-chip bright quantum sources with multiplexing ability are extremely high in demand for integrated quantum networks with unprecedented scalability and complexity. Here, we demonstrate a bright and broadband biphoton quantum source with spectral multiplexing generated in a lithium niobate microresonator system. Without introducing the conventional domain poling, the on-chip microdisk produces photon pairs covering a broad bandwidth promised by natural phase matching in spontaneous parametric down conversion. Experimentally, the multiplexed photon pairs are characterized by 30 nm bandwidth limited by the filtering system, providing over 40 multiplexing channels with a 0.8 nm channel spacing. Meanwhile, the generation rate reaches 5.13 MHz/µW with a coincidence-to-accidental ratio up to 804, and the quantum source manifests a high purity with a heralded single photon correlation gH(2)(0) = 0.0098 ± 0.0021. Furthermore, the energy-time entanglement is demonstrated with an excellent interference visibility of 96.5% ± 2%. Such a quantum source at the telecommunication band paves the way for high-dimensional entanglement and future integrated quantum information systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dual-comb spectroscopy (DCS) is a powerful tool in molecular spectroscopy benefiting from the advantages of high resolution and short measurement time. The recently developed soliton microcomb (SMC) can potentially transfer the dual-comb method to an on-chip platform. In this paper, we demonstrate DCS using two frequency scanning SMCs, termed scanning dual-microcomb spectroscopy (SDMCS). The two SMCs are generated by an auxiliary-assisted thermal balance scheme, and the pump laser frequency sweeps over one free spectral range of the microresonator (∼49 GHz) using a feedback control system. The proposed SDMCS has a spectral resolution of 12.5 MHz, which is determined by the minimum sweeping step of the pump laser. Using this SDMCS system, we perform three types of gas molecule absorption spectroscopy recognition and gas concentration detection. This study paves the way for integrated DCS with a high signal-to-noise ratio, high spectral resolution, and fast acquisition rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microresonator-based temperature sensors offer stable and high-resolution temperature detection. However, typical temperature-sensing techniques based on resonators suffer from design complexity and low sensitivity. In this study, we present a simple high-sensitivity temperature sensor that comprises a sealed electrostatically actuated clamped–clamped silicon microbeam resonator. The sensor’s high sensitivity is attributed to the thermal-strain effects due to the mismatch between the thermal expansion coefficients of the composite materials. And the sensitivity is further enhanced by operating the resonator near the buckling zone via in situ Joule heating. In addition, The sensor operates at a single drive frequency that corresponds to the resonant frequency at the maximum temperature. A change in temperature induces a thermal strain that shifts the resonant frequency, which changes the output voltage. This considerably simplifies the readout system from the typical frequency-tracking method to the proposed amplitude tracking method. The encapsulated sensor achieves a minimum detectable temperature of 0.0196 °C and an absolute temperature coefficient of frequency of 1757 ppm/°C. These results demonstrate the great potential of the proposed sensor for efficient resonant thermal sensing with high resolution, enhanced sensitivity and a simplified readout scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whispering-gallery-mode (WGM) resonators are powerful instruments for single-molecule sensing in biological and biochemical investigations. WGM sensors leveraged by plasmonic nanostructures, known as optoplasmonic sensors, provide sensitivity down to single atomic ions. In this article, we describe that the response of optoplasmonic sensors upon the attachment of single protein molecules strongly depends on the intensity of WGM. At low intensity, protein binding causes red shifts of WGM resonance wavelengths, known as the reactive sensing mechanism. By contrast, blue shifts are obtained at high intensities, which we explain as thermo-optoplasmonic (TOP) sensing, where molecules transform absorbed WGM radiation into heat. To support our conclusions, we experimentally investigated seven molecules and complexes; we observed blue shifts for dye molecules, amino acids, and anomalous absorption of enzymes in the near-infrared spectral region. As an example of an application, we propose a physical model of TOP sensing that can be used for the development of single-molecule absorption spectrometers.

The discovery of stable and broad frequency combs in monochromatically pumped high-Q optical Kerr microresonators caused by the generation of temporal solitons can be regarded as one of the major breakthroughs in nonlinear optics during the last two decades. The transfer of the soliton–comb concept to χ(2) microresonators promises lowering of the pump power, new operation regimes, and entering of new spectral ranges; scientifically, it is a big challenge. Here we represent an overview of stable and accessible soliton–comb regimes in monochromatically pumped χ(2) microresonators discovered during the last several years. The main stress is made on lithium niobate-based resonators. This overview pretends to be rather simple, complete, and comprehensive: it incorporates the main factors affecting the soliton–comb generation, such as the choice of the pumping scheme (pumping to the first or second harmonic), the choice of the phase matching scheme (natural or artificial), the effects of the temporal walk off and dispersion coefficients, and also the influence of frequency detunings and Q-factors. Most of the discovered nonlinear regimes are self-starting—they can be accessed from noise upon a not very abrupt increase in the pump power. The soliton–comb generation scenarios are not universal—they can be realized only under proper combinations of the above-mentioned factors. We indicate what kind of restrictions on the experimental conditions have to be imposed to obtain the soliton–comb generation.

Mid-infrared (MIR) frequency combs based on integrated photonic microresonators (micro combs) have attracted increasing attention in chip-scale spectroscopy due to their high spectral resolution and broadband wavelength coverage. However, up to date, there are no perfect solutions for the effective generation of MIR micro combs because of the lack of proper MIR materials as the core and cladding of the integrated microresonators, thereby hindering accurate and flexible dispersion engineering. Here, we have firstly demonstrated a MIR micro comb generation covering from 6.94 μm to 12.04 μm based on a sandwich-integrated all-ChG microresonator composed of GeAsTeSe and GeSbSe as the core and GeSbS as cladding. The novel sandwich microresonator is proposed to achieve a symmetrically uniform distribution of the mode field in the microresonator core, precise dispersion engineering, and low optical loss, which features a wide transmission window, high Kerr nonlinearity, and hybrid-fabrication flexibility on a silicon wafer. A MIR Kerr frequency comb with a 5.1 μm bandwidth has been numerically demonstrated, assisted by dispersive waves. Additionally, a feasible fabrication scheme is proposed to realize the on-demand ChG microresonators. These demonstrations characterize the advantages of integrated ChG photonic devices in MIR nonlinear photonics and their potential applications in MIR spectroscopy.

In this work, we demonstrate dispersion engineering of silicon nitride waveguide resonators with atomic layer deposition (ALD). We conducted theoretical and experimental analyses on the waveguide dispersion with air cladding, hafnium oxide (HfO2) cladding, and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) cladding. By employing ALD HfO2 as the cladding layer, the dispersion of waveguide can be tuned to a finer degree in the normal regime at a wavelength of 1550 nm. On the other hand, using ALD Al2O3 cladding provides the waveguide dispersion that spans regimes in normal, near-zero, and anomalous dispersion.