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Barvni vid metuljev je ključen za ustrezno prepoznavo cvetja za prehranjevanje, za uspešno prepoznavo partnerjev ter plenilcev in na koncu primernih odlagališč jajčec. Predpostavili smo, da je delovanje fotoreceptorjev plastično in nastavljivo z intrinzičnim sproščanjem nevromodulatorjev. Z uporabo elektrofizioloških znotrajceličnih meritev smo najprej določili nabor fotoreceptorjev, ki sestavljajo mozaik v mrežnici trikromatskih in tetrakromatskih vrst metuljev. Na barvni vid smo poizkusili vplivati preko aplikacije agonistov in antagonistov oktopaminergičnega in histaminergičnega sistema. Vpliv oktopamina in njegovega antagonista epinastina na receptorski signal smo vrednotili preko sprememb v stopnji neposredne sinaptične oponence med fotoreceptorji. Ta je posledica delovanja inhibitornih interfotoreceptornih povezav v lamini in meduli metuljev. Med tem ko oktopamin na spektralno občutljivost ni imel vpliva, so imele celice, tretirane z epinastinom povišano inhibicijo oponentne enote. Še večji vpliv na oponenco je imela aplikacija blokatorjev histaminergičnih kloridnih kanalov. Z uspešno aplikacijo antagonistov oktopamina smo pokazali, da je barvni vid metuljev na najzgodnejši stopnji uravnan z nevromodulatorji, z uspešno blokado histaminergičnih kanalov pa smo razvili metodo za analitično preučevanje barvne oponence med fotoreceptorji. The colour vision of butterflies is crucial for the proper identification of foraging flowers, for the successful identification of mates and predators, and ultimately for the suitable oviposition sites. We hypothesized that photoreceptor activity is plastic and adjustable by intrinsic neuromodulator release. Using electrophysiological intracellular measurements, we first determined the set of photoreceptors that make up the mosaic in the retina of trichromatic and tetrachromatic butterfly species. We attempted to influence colour vision through the application of agonists and antagonists of the octopaminergic and histaminergic systems. The effect of octopamine and its antagonist epinastine on the receptor signal was evaluated through changes in the degree of direct synaptic opponency between photoreceptors. This is due to the action of inhibitory interphotoreceptor connections in the lamina and medulla of butterflies. While octopamine had no effect on spectral sensitivity, epinastine-treated cells had increased inhibition of the opponent unit. The effect on opponency was even greater when histaminergic chloride channel blockers were applied. By successful application of octopamine antagonists, we have shown that colour vision in butterflies is regulated by neuromodulators at the earliest stage, and by successful blockade of histaminergic channels, we have developed a method for analytically studying colour opponency between photoreceptors.

The eyes of nymphalid butterflies, investigated with incident illumination, show colourful facet reflection patterns—the eye shine—which is uniform or heterogeneous, dependent on the species. Facet colours suggest that the ommatidia contain different sets of photoreceptors and screening pigments, but how the colours and the cell characteristics are associated has not been clearly established. Here, we analyse the retinae of two nymphalids, Apatura ilia , which has a uniform eyeshine, and Charaxes jasius, a species with a heterogeneous eye shine, using single-cell recordings, spectroscopy and optical pupillometry. Apatura has UV-, blue- and green-sensitive photoreceptors, allocated into three ommatidial types. The UV- and blue-sensitive cells are long visual fibres (LVFs), receiving opponent input from the green-sensitive short visual fibres (SVFs). Charaxes has an expanded set of photoreceptors, allocated into three additional, red-reflecting ommatidial types. All red ommatidia contain green-sensitive LVFs, receiving opponent input from red receptors. In both species, the SVFs do not receive any opponent input. The simple retina of Apatura with three ommatidial types and two colour-opponent channels can support trichromatic vision. Charaxes has six ommatidial types and three colour-opponent channels. Its expanded receptor set can support tetrachromatic vision. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Understanding colour vision: molecular, physiological, neuronal and behavioural studies in arthropods’.

Notranjski regijski park je območje v samem srcu Notranjske, ki ga odlikujejo številne naravne in kulturne vrednote, predvsem pa njegova velika pestrost flore in favne. Pokazatelj te diverzitete so dnevni metulji, ki so na tem območju zastopani s 126 med katerimi jih 90 obravnavamo v tej raziskavi med njimi so najpogostejše: Aporia crataegi, Gonepteryx rhamni, Leptidea sinapis, Coenonympha arcania, Lopinga achine, Maniola jurtina, Melitaea athalia ter Polygonia c-album. Prav tako so te vrste zelo dober pokazatelj ohranjenosti okolja, predvsem na račun kratkih generacijskih stadijev, majhnih generacij ter kompleksnih zahtev do okolja. V tam delu so predstavljeni rezultati popisov favne metuljev na 18 lokacijah raztresenih po celotnem parku. Vzorčenje je potekalo 3 leta in sicer v 2011, 2012 in 2013. Naloga vsebuje podrobnejše podatke o parku samem, s poudarkom na vrstni pestrosti metuljev. Prikazane so tudi vrste uvrščene na rdeči seznam ogroženih živalskih vrst RS, na obravnavnem območju smo jih našteli 16 ter 2 uvrščeni v Prilogo II direktive o habitatih. V delo pa je vključenih tudi nekaj smernic, za ohranitev naravnega prepleta s človekom, ki je eden poglavitnih razlogov za ohranjenost narave v tem delu Slovenije. Notranjska Regional Park is an area in the heart of south Slovenia, with a lot of unique natural sites and sites of cultural value, as well as a big diversity of flora and fauna. This diversity can be well seen through the number of butterflies, which are represented with 126 species, 90 of them were found during this research, among which the most common are Aporia crataegi, Gonepteryx rhamni, Leptidea sinapis, Coenonympha arcania, Lopinga achine, Maniola jurtina, Melitaea athalia ter Polygonia c-album. These insects are also a very good indicator of the current state of environment, mostly because of their short generation periods and complex habitat requirements. In this work we present the results of a three years long sampling (2011-2013) of the butterfly fauna on 18 different locations, scattered throughout the regional park. The next pages contain detailed information about Notranjska Regional Park focusing on butterfly diversity in the whole area as well as on the individual locations, with the emphasis on the species included on the red list of endangered species of Slovenia. We found 16 species included on this list of endangered species and 2 on the Supplement II of habitat directive. We also suggest a few measures on how to maintain the connection between people and nature, which is really strong in this area, and is one of the main reasons for preserved and diverse environment that characterizes this part of Slovenia.

Območje Dol pri Ljubljani je reliefno, geološko in vegetacijsko pestra pokrajina. Dnevni metulji veljajo za zelo dobre pokazatelje okoljskih sprememb, zato smo v naši diplomski nalogi želeli ugotoviti spremembe v favni metuljev v skoraj desetletnem obdobju. Naš cilj je bil popisati izbrana območja in vrste dnevnih metuljev ter podati naravovarstvene smernice, ki so pomembne za njihovo ohranjanje. Vzorčili smo v obdobju od aprila do septembra 2014, na 8 izbranih vzorčnih območjih ter naše ugotovitve nato primerjali s podatki podobne raziskave iz leta 2005/06. Popisali smo 44 različnih vrst dnevnih metuljev, med njimi vrsti škrlatni cekinček (Lycaena hippothoe) in primorski belin (Pieris mannii), ki spadata med ogrožene v slovenskem prostoru. Ugotovili smo zmanjšanje števila vrst v primerjavi s predhodno raziskavo. Med vsemi popisanimi vrstami so prevladovale splošno razširjene vrste, ki se pojavljajo na vseh tipih travniških habitatov. Najmanjše število vrst smo zabeležili na območjih, kjer prevladujejo vlažna travišča. Med vrstami, ki jih v primerjavi s predhodno raziskavo v naši raziskavi nismo uspeli zabeležiti, jih največ sodi med vrste suhih travnikov. Na novo so se pojavile predvsem tiste, ki so značilne za gozdne robove z mejicami in dobro presvetljene gozdove. Zaradi dokaj visoke vrstne pestrosti dnevnih metuljev na območju Dol pri Ljubljani, je potrebno za njihovo ohranitev upoštevati smernice njihovega varovanja in ohranjanja. Na podlagi ugotovljenih ogroženih in redkih vrst, ki so tu prisotne, lahko nekatera območja opredelimo kot naravovarstveno pomembna. Na njih bi bilo treba skrbno nadzorovati posege v naravno krajino, ki zmanjšujejo življenjski prostor te pomembne skupine žuželk. The region of Dol pri Ljubljani has a landscape of high relief, geological and vegetation diversity. Butterflies are known to be good indicators of environmental change, therefore in our diploma thesis we wanted to examine the changes in butterfly fauna in the time span of almost a decade. Our objective was to make an inventory of butterfly species of specified areas, compare them to previous studies and provide the environmental guidelines, essential for their conservation. We'd collected samples in the period from April to September 2014 in 8 different sample areas and we then compared our findings to data, obtained from a similar study, conducted in 2005/06. We observed 44 different species of butterflies, among which the purple-edged copper (Lycaena hippothoe) and the southern small white (Pieris mannii) are endangered in Slovenia. Compared to the previous study, there is a decline of the number of observed species. Among all species detected in the survey, the common species that occur in all types of meadow habitats predominate. The lowest number of the species was recorded in areas comprising wet meadows. Among species not re-found in our survey, most are inhabitants of dry meadow habitat. Newly observed species were mainly those, common at the forest clearings, hedges and sparse woods. Due to a relatively high diversity of butterflies in the Dol pri Ljubljani region, it is necessary to follow the protection and conservation guidelines in order to preserve them. Based on our discovery of endangered and rare species in the region, we can propose some areas of conservation importance. In these areas all interventions into natural landscape that reduce the habitat of this important class of insects, should be carefully monitored.

V nalogi preučujemo kraška travišča (Scorzoneretalia villosae) v občini Komen.Namen naloge je bil preučiti, s kakšno rabo so se ta travišča ohranila do danes in s kakšno usmerjeno rabo jih lahko ohranimo v prihodnje oz. kje so realne možnosti za uresničitev teh naravovarstvenih ciljev glede na stanje na področju sociosfere in na razmere v prostoru. Poseben poudarek je na kvalifikacijskih vrstah metuljev in ptic iz evropskega ekološkega omrežja Natura 2000, ki so vezane na kraška travišča. Na podlagi terenskega popisa rabe tal in ugotavljanja razširjenosti kraških travišč, popisa ptic in metuljev ter zgodovinske primerjave v rabi tal na treh raziskovanih ploskvah smo ugotovili, da so ta travišča še razširjena na naših raziskovanih ploskvah in da je pestrost ptic in metuljev zaenkrat še visoka. Rezultati popisov ptic in metuljev pa nas opozarjajo, da je optimalna stopnja pestrosti habitatov in mozaične strukture krajine že presežena. Trend zaraščanja v smeri gozda napreduje zelo hitro in kmetijstva v vlogi nekdanjega vzdrževalca kulturne krajine ni več. Na občinski ravni predlagamo nekatera območja in načine usmerjene kmetijske rabe, s pomočjo katerih bi lahko vsaj delno ohranili primerne habitate obravnavanih kvalifikacijskih vrst. In the Master's thesis we have analysed the karst grasslands (Scorzoneretalia villosae) within the Municipality of Komen in south-western Slovenia, close tothe border with Italy. The aim of the study was to analyse which land use had conserved these grasslands through to the present, with which land use canwe conserve them in the future and where the possibilities of realising ournature conservation goals lie when considering the current social and spatial conditions. Special attention is given to the qualifying species of butterflies and birds included in the EU ecological network Natura 2000 that are linked to the karst grasslands. In our study we surveyed the land use, estimated the presence of the karst grasslands, surveyed the birds and butterflies and made a historical comparison of land use within three researchplots. We found that within our plots the karst grasslands are still present and that the diversity of birds and butterflies is still high. However, the results from these surveys indicate that the point of optimal habitat diversity has already been passed. The trend in vegetational succession towards the forest is proceeding rapidly and agriculture is no longer maintaining the cultural landscape effectively. At the scale of the Municipality we recommend some areas and some practices of sustainable agricultural use which we believe could, at least partly, preserve appropriatehabitats for the considered species.

Prikazujemo sedem vrst metuljev, ki obžirajo hrastove liste: gobar (Lymantria dispar), zeleni hrastov zavijač (Tortrix viridana), mali zimski pedic (Operophthera brumata), veliki zimski pedic (Erannis defoliaria), hrastov sprevodni prelec (Thaumetopoea processionea), zlatoritka (Euproctis chrysorrhoea) in prstaničar (Malacosoma neustria). L. dispar in T. viridana sta se v submediteranskem in predpanonskem območju Slovenije pojavljala večkrat v močnejših gradacijah in povzročala škode. Naslednje dve vrsti pri nas povzročata manjše golobrste predvsem v naravnih sestojih doba v Prekmurju in Krakovskem gozdu ter v sestojih termofilnih hrastov v primorskem območju. T. processionea, E. chrysorrhoea ter M. neustria sporadično povzročajo poškodbe listja hrastov. Ugotavljajo, da se metulji defoliatorji pojavljajo v evropskih gozdovih vse pogosteje in začenjajo ponovno povzročati velike škode.Tudi pri nas ugotavljamo v zadnjih letih ponavljajoče se golobrste v hrastovih sestojih. Na kratko je prikazana morfologija, bionomija, opis poškodb, morebitne zamenjave, gostitelji, najpomembnejši naravni sovražniki inza nekatere omenjene vrste tudi vzroki za nastanek in nadaljevanje gradacij ter ogroženost sestojev. In the present contribution seven species of butterflies on oaks (Quercus spp.) are presented: gypsy moath (Lymantria dispar), European oak leaf roller (Tortrix viridana), winter moth (Operophthera brumata), mottled umber moth (Erannis defoliaria), oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea), browntail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea) and lackey moth (Malacosoma neustria).L. dispar and T. viridana have appeared several times in the sub-mediterranean and sub-pannonic areas of Slovenia and have caused damage. The next two species cause less significant defoliation mostly in natural pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) stands in Prekmurje and in the Krakovo forest as well as in thermophyllic oak stands in the coastal region. T. processionea, E. chrysorrhoea and M. neustria cause damage on oaks sporadically. Researchers state that butterflies which defoliate forests are appearing more frequently in Europe and are starting to cause extensive damagein forests again. Recently, in Slovenia the situation in oaks forests isthe same. A short description of the insects' morphology, bionomy, a description of damage, possible misidentifications, hosts, their most important natural enemies, causes of beginning or continuation of their outbreaks and their threat to forests are given.

In spring 2010, we encountered 60 butterfly species during field surveys centred mainly in the under - surv eyed southeastern part of the Republic of Macedonia. We visited 23 localities, where several interesting observations were made. Among these, new sites of some rare species such as Pontia chloridice , Pieris krueperi , Plebejus sephirus , Scolitantides orion , Tarucus balkanicus , Melitaea ornata , Carcharodus orientalis , and Erynnis marloyi should be mentioned. Such a high number of species observed indicates an overall high butterfly diversity of this region, particularly in the lower Vardar valley. Here, sever al specific habitats hosting rare and threatened species were discovered. The anthropogenic pressure on important butterfly habitat is still low in the surveyed area; however, the first signs of large scale abandonment are already visible.