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BACKGROUND: Construction of meat analogs based on pea protein isolate (PPI) alone by high moisture extrusion (HME) is diffocult as a result of the lack of anisotropic structures. In the present study, 0%–15% of whey protein (WP) was introduced to PPI to make hybrid blends, which were used to construct HME extrudates. RESULTS: WP enhanced the hardness, adhesive, cohesiveness and gumminess of the extrudates and facilitated the formation of a distinct anisotropic structure of PPI. The fibrous degrees of the extrudates containing 10% and 15% WP were around 1.50. The addition of WP, which has more ‐SH groups, increased the disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonding in the extrudates, leading to a denser cross‐linked structure. Particle size distribution and Fourier transform infrared analysis showed that WP induced more compact structured aggregates and more β‐sheet structures in the extrudates. Furthermore, the higher hydration capacity of WP may also help form a dilute melt and generate a more pronounced plug flow, assisting the formation of fiber structures of PPI. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrates that WP is a potential modifier, which could be used to improve the structure of PPI‐based meat analogs. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, consumption habits are changing for different reasons, and animal products are being replaced by plant‐based analogs. Some of these analogs are classified as ultra‐processed foods (UPFs) according to NOVA criteria (food classification system). Within this scenario, little is known about consumers' sensory response regarding these new products. One main challenge of plant‐based UPFs is imitating both the sensory characteristics and the hedonic experience of meat consumption. Although numerous studies explore the sensory profile of ultra‐processed vegan products, we found no comparisons between the sensory profiles of plant‐based analogs and their corresponding meat products. The present study aimed to compare the dynamic sensory profiles, specifically focusing on flavor and texture attributes, of animal‐based food (beef and chicken meat) and their corresponding commercial ultra‐processed plant‐based meat analogs (seitan and Mediterranean chick'n pieces) and to establish the adequacy of the intensity of certain sensory characteristics (attributes) and their impact on the acceptability of meat analogs. This was conducted using the time‐intensity technique with fourteen trained panelists and just about right scales with 59 consumers, evaluating the acceptability of the products with a 7‐point hedonic scale. The dynamic perception results for the analogs significantly differed from those of beef and chicken, specifically showing higher intensity in "nonmeat" attributes such as gumminess, mushroom flavor, vegetable flavor, and spiciness. The attributes that characterize the chicken analog are more suitable than the attributes that characterize seitan. The acceptability of seitan was not significantly influenced by the attribute suitability results. However, poor juiciness showed a significant penalty on its acceptance for the chicken analog. These identified differences highlight the need to evaluate and adjust the sensory characteristics of plant‐based products that attempt to imitate traditional meat products. Practical Application: The time‐intensity technique was effective in identifying differences in the consumption experience between meat and the respective plant‐based analogs. Inadequate taste and texture characteristics can decrease the acceptability of the analogs. The identification of these characteristics is crucial for the food industry to understand consumer preferences regarding meat substitutes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The increasing demand for plant‐based food products by consumers along with the growing global population requires the discovery of novel and sustainable protein sources to address environmental challenges and meet nutritional requirements. Among various plant proteins, mung bean protein (MBP) exhibits several unique characteristics that make it a valuable ingredient in the field of plant‐based food analogs. This literature review aims to express the unique structure and composition of MBP, in addition to its physicochemical, functional, and nutritional properties. Furthermore, its potential applications in novel meat, dairy, and egg analogs are highlighted to meet the growing demand for sustainable, nutritious, and delicious plant‐based food alternatives. Structurally, MBP consists of a complex arrangement of amino acids, forming a globular protein with distinct functional properties. Its composition is also rich in essential amino acids, particularly leucine and lysine, making it a promising protein source for plant‐based diets. From a techno‐functional perspective, MBP exhibits remarkable gelling, emulsifying, foaming, and binding properties, which are necessary for the development of stable emulsions, airy foams, firm gels, and cohesive textures in various plant‐based food formulations. Moreover, MBP and its derivatives can possess notable bio‐functional properties, including antioxidant activity and anti‐inflammatory benefits, as well as cholesterol‐lowering, anti‐obesity, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and anticancer effects. Consequently, the production of food analogs based on MBP not only improves the techno‐functional attributes of the final products but also can promote consumer health and well‐being.

As consumer demand for meat analogs continues to grow, various plant proteins are being explored for their production. This study uses isolated mung bean protein (IMBP) to replace isolated soy protein (ISP), investigating the effects of IMBP content (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%) on the physicochemical and textural properties of high-moisture meat analogs (HMMAs) and exploring the potential of IMBP in the development and production of meat analogs. The results show that IMBP can bind water and cause protein denaturation, thus requiring more time and higher temperatures to be formed compared to HMMAs without IMBP. Additionally, increasing the IMBP content improves the gelling ability, thereby increasing the input of specific mechanical energy. As the IMBP content increases, the fibrous structure of the HMMA also increases. When the IMBP content reaches 40–50%, the most meat-like fibrous structure is observed. The water-holding capacity, water absorption capacity, springiness, and cohesiveness are negatively correlated with the IMBP content, while the oil absorption capacity is positively correlated with it. The integrity index and nitrogen solubility index show opposite trends with the increase in the IMBP content. When the IMBP content is 50%, the springiness and chewiness are the lowest, and the cutting strength is also the lowest, but the sample has a rich fibrous content, indicating that the HMMA with 50% IMBP content is soft and juicy. In conclusion, IMBP has the potential to be a substitute for ISP in the production of HMMAs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The escalating environmental impact of traditional livestock farming, particularly beef production, has spurred the search for sustainable meat alternatives. This study introduces a novel Plant-Based Tissue Engineering (PBTE) approach, to replicate the complex structure and sensory experience of whole-muscle cuts of meat using plant-based ingredients. Leveraging principles of tissue engineering and advanced food manufacturing technologies, PBTE deconstructs meat into its fundamental components: muscle, fat, and connective tissue, and reconstructs them using a combination of plant proteins, fats and polysaccharide materials. The muscle component is reassembled to mimic the anisotropic fibrous structure of beef, while the fat component is engineered through lipid encapsulation within a hydrocolloid matrix. Advanced manufacturing techniques, including additive manufacturing and robotics, are utilized for precise spatial configuration and assembly of these components. Our findings demonstrate that PBTE can effectively replicate the mechanical integrity, texture, and sensory attributes of traditional meat, presenting a promising alternative that could significantly reduce the environmental footprint of meat production. This approach aligns with the principles of Soft Matter in the manipulation of artificial structures and materials for mimicking naturally occurring designs, such as whole cut meat foods. It also holds substantial potential for revolutionizing the alternative protein industry by catering to a broader consumer base, including flexitarians and meat-eaters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the rheological behavior of highly concentrated proteins is critical for the development of meat analogs. To enhance their sensory appeal, plant oil is often added during extrusion. The objective of this study was to gain a better understanding of how oil affects the rheological properties of gluten. Gluten doughs with different oil contents (0% to 6%) were prepared by adding emulsified and non-emulsified oil. Rheological measurements were performed under extrusion-relevant conditions using a closed cavity rheometer. In addition, the oil phase was visualized by CLSM imaging before and after rheological measurements. It was found that the complex modulus |G*| of the wheat gluten decreased with increasing oil concentration. When oil was added as emulsion, |G*| was significantly higher compared to when non-emulsified oil was added. The CLSM images revealed that the oil droplet size increased with increasing oil concentration. The doughs with emulsified oil had significantly smaller oil droplets. The results suggest that oil droplets act as fillers, weakening the protein matrix. By reducing the oil droplet size, this weakening effect could be reduced. Therefore, we concluded that the oil droplet size is a critical parameter influencing the rheological properties of oil-containing wheat gluten doughs under extrusion-relevant conditions.

Interest and investment in cultivated meat are increasing because of the realization that it can effectively supply sufficient food resources and reduce the use of livestock. Nevertheless, accurate information on the specific technologies used for cultivated meat production and the characteristics of cultivated meat is lacking. Authorization for the use of cultivated meat is already underway in the United States, Singapore, and Israel, and other major countries are also expected to approve cultivated meat as food once the details of the intricate process of producing cultivated meat, which encompasses stages such as cell proliferation, differentiation, maturation, and assembly, is thoroughly established. The development and standardization of mass production processes and safety evaluations must precede the industrialization and use of cultivated meat as food. However, the technology for the industrialization of cultivated meat is still in its nascent stage, and the mass production process has not yet been established. The mass production process of cultivated meat may not be easy to disclose because it is related to the interests of several companies or research teams. However, the overall research flow shows that equipment development for mass production and cell acquisition, proliferation, and differentiation, as well as for three-dimensional production supports and bioreactors have not yet been completed. Therefore, additional research on the mass production process and safety of cultivated meat is essential. The consumer’s trust in the cultivated meat products and production technologies recently disclosed by some companies should also be analyzed and considered for guiding future developments in this industry. Furthermore, close monitoring by academia and the government will be necessary to identify fraud in the cultivated meat industry.

This study aimed to analyze the leading research materials and research trends related to livestock food in Asia in recent years and propose future research agendas to ultimately contribute to the development of related livestock species. On analyzing more than 200 relevant articles, a high frequency of studies on livestock species and products with large breeding scales and vast markets was observed. Asia possesses the largest pig population and most extensive pork market, followed by that of beef, chicken, and milk; moreover, blood and egg markets have also been studied. Regarding research keywords, “meat quality” and “probiotics” were the most common, followed by “antioxidants”, which have been extensively studied in the past, and “cultured meat”, which has recently gained traction. The future research agenda for meat products is expected to be dominated by alternative livestock products, such as cultured and plant-derived meats; improved meat product functionality and safety; the environmental impacts of livestock farming; and animal welfare research. The future research agenda for dairy products is anticipated to include animal welfare, dairy production, probiotic-based development of high-quality functional dairy products, the development of alternative dairy products, and the advancement of lactose-free or personalized dairy products. However, determining the extent to which the various research articles’ findings have been applied in real-world industry proved challenging, and research related to animal food laws and policies and consumer surveys was lacking. In addition, studies on alternatives for sustainable livestock development could not be identified. Therefore, future research may augment industrial application, and multidisciplinary research related to animal food laws and policies as well as eco-friendly livestock production should be strengthened.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the recent development of meat analog, industrialization, and the related legal changes worldwide. Summarizing the current status of the industrialization of meat analog, studies on plant-based meat, mycoprotein, and edible insects were mainly conducted to investigate their sensory properties (texture, taste, flavor, and color resembling meat), nutritional and safety evaluations, acquisition method of meat alternatives, and commercialization. Cultured meat is mainly studied for developing muscle satellite cell acquisition and support techniques or materials for the formation of structures. However, these technologies have not reached the level for active industrialization. Even though there are differences in the food categories and labeling between countries, it is common to cause confusion or to relay false information to consumers; therefore, it is important to provide accurate information. In this study, there were some differences in the food classification and food definition (labeling) contents for each country and state depending on the product shape or form, raw materials, and ingredients. Therefore, this study can provide information about the current research available on meat alternatives, improve regulation, and clarify laws related to the meat analog industry, which can potentially grow alongside the livestock industry.

The escalating environmental impact of traditional livestock farming, particularly beef production, has spurred the search for sustainable meat alternatives. This study introduces a novel Plant-Based Tissue Engineering (PBTE) approach, to replicate the complex structure and sensory experience of whole-muscle cuts of meat using plant-based ingredients. Leveraging principles of tissue engineering and advanced food manufacturing technologies, PBTE deconstructs meat into its fundamental components: muscle, fat, and connective tissue, and reconstructs them using a combination of plant proteins, fats and polysaccharide materials. The muscle component is reassembled to mimic the anisotropic fibrous structure of beef, while the fat component is engineered through lipid encapsulation within a hydrocolloid matrix. Advanced manufacturing techniques, including additive manufacturing and robotics, are utilized for precise spatial configuration and assembly of these components. Our findings demonstrate that PBTE can effectively replicate the mechanical integrity, texture, and sensory attributes of traditional meat, presenting a promising alternative that could significantly reduce the environmental footprint of meat production. This approach aligns with the principles of Soft Matter in the manipulation of artificial structures and materials for mimicking naturally occurring designs, such as whole cut meat foods. It also holds substantial potential for revolutionizing the alternative protein industry by catering to a broader consumer base, including flexitarians and meat-eaters.

There is growing consumer and food industry interest in plant protein-based foods. However, quality evolution of plant protein-based meat analog (MA) is still a rarely studied subject. In this study, wheat and rice flour-based batter systems were used to coat plant protein-based MA, and were partially fried (at 180 °C, 1 min) in canola oil, subsequently frozen (at −18 °C) and stored for 7 days. Microwave heating (MH), infrared heating (IH), air frying (AF) and deep-fat frying (DFF) processes were employed on parfried frozen MA products, and their quality evolution was investigated. Results revealed that the fat content of MH-, IH- and AF-treated products was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than DFF-treated counterparts. Batter coatings reduced fat uptake in DFF of MA-based products. Both the batter formulations and cooking methods impacted the process parameters and quality attributes (cooking loss, moisture, texture, color) of MA-based coated food products. Moreover, the post-cooking stability of moisture and textural attributes of batter-coated MA-based products was impacted by both the batter formulations and cooking methods. Glass transition temperature (Tg) of MA-based products' crust ranged from −20.0 °C to −23.1 °C, as determined with differential scanning calorimetry. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that surface structural–chemical evolution of MA-based products was impacted by both the coating formulations and cooking methods. Overall, AF has been found as a suitable substitute for DFF in terms of studied quality attributes of meat analog-based coated products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As consumer demand for meat analogs continues to grow, various plant proteins are being explored for their production. This study uses isolated mung bean protein (IMBP) to replace isolated soy protein (ISP), investigating the effects of IMBP content (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%) on the physicochemical and textural properties of high-moisture meat analogs (HMMAs) and exploring the potential of IMBP in the development and production of meat analogs. The results show that IMBP can bind water and cause protein denaturation, thus requiring more time and higher temperatures to be formed compared to HMMAs without IMBP. Additionally, increasing the IMBP content improves the gelling ability, thereby increasing the input of specific mechanical energy. As the IMBP content increases, the fibrous structure of the HMMA also increases. When the IMBP content reaches 40–50%, the most meat-like fibrous structure is observed. The water-holding capacity, water absorption capacity, springiness, and cohesiveness are negatively correlated with the IMBP content, while the oil absorption capacity is positively correlated with it. The integrity index and nitrogen solubility index show opposite trends with the increase in the IMBP content. When the IMBP content is 50%, the springiness and chewiness are the lowest, and the cutting strength is also the lowest, but the sample has a rich fibrous content, indicating that the HMMA with 50% IMBP content is soft and juicy. In conclusion, IMBP has the potential to be a substitute for ISP in the production of HMMAs.

Meat analogs are anticipated to alleviate environmental and animal welfare concerns as the demand for meat rises. High moisture extrusion is commonly employed to produce meat analogs, and its flavor could influence consumers’ choice. To improve the development and market demand of extruded meat analogs, flavor precursors and natural spices have been used in high moisture extrusion process to directly improve the flavor profile of extruded meat analogs. Although there have been many studies on the flavor of high moisture extruded meat analogs, flavor composition and influencing factors have not been summarized. Thus, this review systematically provides the main pleasant and unpleasant flavor-active substances with 79 compounds, as well as descriptive the influence of flavor-active compounds, chemical reactions (such as lipid oxidation and the Maillard reaction), and fiber structure formation (based on extrusion process, extrusion parameters, and raw materials) on flavor of extruded meat analogs. Flavor evaluation of extruded meat analogs will toward multiple assessment methods to fully and directly characterize the flavor of extruded meat analogs, especially machine learning techniques may help to predict and regulate the flavor characteristics of extruded meat analogs.

Meat is typically considered as a significant source of high-quality protein along with other nutritional advantages and sensory characteristics. However, production and consumption of meat have been linked to human health issues such as an increased risk of zoonoses, chronic illness, and air pollution-related health issues. Plant proteins (PP) may replace meat to generate carbon efficient meat analogs (MA) products that are both nutritionally and structurally comparable to meat. Food scientists are currently investigating alternative PP raw materials including pulses to prepare MAs because of their high nutritional content, including essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, as well as their low-calorie count. MAs such as emulsion type sausages, burgers and patties and steak-like meats, which are prepared using extrusion, shear cell technology, and freeze structuring are available in the markets. However, scientists are still working on bioavailability and consumer acceptance of MAs despite having high fiber and less or no cholesterol. This review discusses different sources of PP, types of MAs available in the market, the effect of different PP on the structure and quality of MAs, nutritional aspects, and challenges, bioavailability, and consumer acceptance of MAs.

Polysaccharides have been used in the production of plant-based meat analogs to replicate the texture of real meat. However, there has been no study that comprehensively compares the effects of different polysaccharides, and a limited number of polysaccharides have been evaluated. Thus, we aimed to identify the most suitable polysaccharide and concentration for plant-based patties. Plant-based patties were manufactured by blending different concentrations (0%, 1%, and 2%) of six polysaccharides with other ingredients, and the quality characteristics and sensory properties were evaluated. The L* values of plant-based patties reduced during the cooking process resembled the color change of beef patty (BP). In particular, a 2% κ-carrageenan-added patty (Car-2) exhibited the lowest L* value among the plant-based patties, measured at 44.05 (p < 0.05). Texture parameters exhibited high values by adding 2% κ-carrageenan and locust bean gum, which was close to BP. In the sensory evaluation, Car-2 showed higher scores for sensory preferences than other plant-based patties. Based on our data, incorporating 2% κ-carrageenan could offer a feasible way of crafting plant-based meat analogs due to its potential to enhance texture and flavor. Further studies are required to evaluate the suitability of polysaccharides in various types of plant-based meat analogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we investigated the effects of proteins on the properties of soy protein concentrate‐based meat analogs under high‐moisture extrusion conditions. The rheological properties of soy protein concentration‐sodium alginate (SPC‐SA) and soy protein isolate‐SPC‐SA (SPI‐SPC‐SA), pea protein isolate‐SPC‐SA (PPI‐SPC‐SA), and zein‐SPC‐SA were evaluated, and the texture properties, microstructure, water absorption, and cooking properties of the resulting protein–meat analogs were characterized after addition of the protein raw materials. Results obtained indicated that the raw material containing 30% SPI had the best viscoelasticity, and the hardness and chewiness of resulting meat analog analogs were the highest when 30% SPI was added, along with the largest volume and best water absorption after cooking. The degree of texturization and toughness of meat analogs were the highest when PPI and zein were 30 and 50%, respectively. Results from this study showed that the texture properties of soy protein concentrate‐based meat analogs were improved by adding proteins to raw material, thus providing a theoretical basis for further development of soy protein concentrate‐based meat analogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, Spirulina platensis protein-based emulsion gels were investigated as fat substitutes in meat analogs and compared with conventional fat sources like palm oil, oleogel, and soybean oil. Evaluating parameters such as cooking loss, shrinkage, texture, appearance, and moisture distribution across various cooking methods. Emulsion gels imparted superior juiciness to meat analogs whereas palm oil and oleogel led to drier meat textures. Besides they also resulted in comparable cooking loss and shrinkage to traditional fats, indicating preferred fat options for incorporation of emulsion gels. The novel emulsion gel-filled meat analogs exhibited robust tolerance across three distinct cooking methods, boiling, steaming, and deep-frying. Steamed meat analogs exhibited brighter MRI signals, while fried counterparts displayed peripheral hollowing, attributed to steam's energy transfer and humidity-induced water migration, respectively. Overall, the study underscores the efficacy of these fat analogs in meat analogs, offering insights into their potential as viable alternatives in food formulations. • Spirulina platensis protein-based emulsion gels are novel fat substitutes in meat analogs. • Emulsion gels impart superior juiciness and tenderness to meat analogs. • Emulsion gel-filled meat analogs can withstand steaming, boiling, and frying cooking methods. • The energy transfer and humidity-induced water migration give a high hydrogen proton signal. • Emulsion gels as fat substitutes own comparable cooking loss and shrinkage to traditional fats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Inconsistencies exist in devices, deconvolution parameters and details given. • No consensus on protein secondary structure evolution during the high moisture extrusion-cooking process. • β-sheets, aggregation and flexibility of proteins appear to partially explain extrudate fibration. Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is often used by researchers to understand the texturization mechanisms of plant proteins. High Moisture Extrusion-Cooking (HMEC) is the main process used for their texturization by heating, mechanical shearing, and subsequent cooling of a high-moisture mixture, which causes denaturation and restructuration of proteins, resulting in an anisotropic product, commonly called "meat analog". Researchers try to link the properties of extrudates to the secondary conformation of proteins, which are supposed to aggregate and align in the flow direction within the die. This review will attempt to show the reasons for studying the secondary structures of plant proteins in HMEC-textured products, and compare and discuss the different methods applied to prepare samples and analyze them by FTIR. A focus will be put on the different methods of spectra analysis (i.e., peak deconvolution, and reference tables used), for which a total of around 60 scientific papers have been carefully analyzed to illustrate the disparity of reference tables used in the literature. A discussion will summarize the various hypotheses currently found in the literature, and provided by FTIR to explain the texturization mechanisms of plant proteins through HMEC. Finally, advice such as comparing results with other amide bands and other analysis methods and following published procedures, are provided as an outlook for future improvements in FTIR data quality, processing and interpretation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of carvacrol added to patties stored at 4 °C for 14 days, previously pressurized and vacuum-cooked (HPP-SVCOOK), was investigated. Three formulations were prepared (veal, plant-based product, and hybrid product). An emulsion made with olive and linseed oils was added. The physicochemical and microbiological qualities were assessed. Microbial tests indicated negligible growth of spoilage organisms in treated patties. No significant effect of carvacrol on the microbial loads of patties was noticed. Sulfite-reducing clostridia and Enterobacteriaceae were absent in the treated patties, whereas, in the treated veal and hybrid samples, 3 and 2 units of log cfu/g reduction for lactic acid bacteria and molds and yeasts were noted, respectively. On day 7 of storage, veal patties exhibited a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the L* (53.9–49.3), hardness (32.3–21.4 N), springiness (0.8–0.7 N), cohesiveness (0.49–0.46), and chewiness (12.2–7.1) and a hike in the a* value (5.3–9.4). No significant changes in L* (59.1–58.6), a* (8.57–8.61), hardness (11.6–10.6 N), or cohesiveness (0.27–0.26) were observed in plant-based patties over the storage times, whereas reductions in springiness (0.5–0.4), chewiness (1.9–1.3), and b* (26.6–29.1) were noted in them. In hybrid patties, the L* (53.9–52.5) and b* values (24.9–24.3) were consistent but had a significant decrease in a* value (5.9–3.5) along the days of storage under study. The texture parameters of the hybrid patties altered were similar to those of veal patties during the 14-day storage time. In all samples, pH decreased with storage time. HPP-SVCOOK was effective on rendering safe and shelf-stable, ready-to-eat patties regardless of their matrix formulation. The addition of carvacrol had limited effects on the textural qualities of the HPP-SVCOOK products. Future studies need to be undertaken to assess the treated patties' consumer acceptability and sensory profile. The study provides the basis for the development of novel meat-based and plant-based products that are microbiologically safe, with minimum physicochemical alterations during storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study identified the effect of the type and concentration of vegetable oil on the quality of meat analogs and analyzed the differences in their physiochemical characteristics. Various vegetable oils, such as castor oil, orange oil, palm oil, shortening, and margarine, were added to meat analogs. The meat analog was prepared by adding 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 g of each vegetable oil based on 100 g of textured vegetable protein. The cooking loss, water content, liquid-holding capacity, texture, and antioxidant content of the meat analogs were assessed, and a sensory evaluation was performed. The meat analog with orange oil had a higher water content than the others, regardless of the amount of added oil, and it had a relatively high liquid-holding capacity. The DPPH(2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity of the meat analog with orange oil was higher than that of the others. The sensory evaluation also showed a decrease in soy odor and an increase in juiciness. Therefore, adding orange oil improves the preference, juiciness, soy odor, and quality of meat analogs. Our results demonstrate that orange oil has positive effects on the productivity of meat analogs and can help to improve meat analog consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: With the change in consumers' lifestyles, the global demand for meat analogs is growing rapidly. However, soy has many drawbacks as a raw material to produce meat analogs, such as its allergy potential (glycinin and β‐conglycinin) and some unpredictable alterations in genetic DNA, proteins, and biochemical processing due to genetic modification. This paper aims to study the physicochemical and textural properties of meat analogs obtained under different pea protein contents and extrusion types to explore the potential of applying pea protein to meat analogs. Results: High‐moisture meat analog (HMMA) is superior to low‐moisture meat analog (LMMA) based on the physical properties (integrity index and nitrogen solubility index) and texture properties (texture profile analysis and cutting strength). The higher the amount of pea protein added, the higher the degree of sample texturization. At low‐moisture extrusion cooking (LMEC), higher isolated pea protein content is accompanied by lower water holding capacity and higher texturization. Hydrophobic interactions play a slightly greater role than disulfide bonds in stabilizing the protein structure of the extrudates. The type of extrusion significantly affected the free sulfhydryl and disulfide bond content of the extrudate, while the source of raw material has an important relationship with protein solubility and free sulfhydryl content. Dodecyl sulfated gel electrophoresis (SDS‐PAGE) showed that most of the protein subunits remained after extrusion. Conclusions: Extrusion types and isolated pea protein contents showed significant effects on the properties of meat analogs, and isolated pea protein has great potential for application in the production of meat analogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Demand for plant-based meat is increasing as the flexitarian diet becomes popular. Many meat analog products in the market are made from soy and wheat proteins, but other protein sources can be used. Alternate legume proteins can be an economically and functionally viable option. This review discusses qualities of traditional meat analog proteins (soy and wheat gluten), pea protein, and emerging pulse proteins (chickpea, faba bean, lentil, mung bean). Raw traits of protein are important for texturization via extrusion. This review focuses specifically on protein sedimentation coefficients, amino acid composition, least gelation concentration, denaturation temperature, water and oil absorption capacity, viscosity and flow temperature. Product qualities (protein solubility, water holding capacity, amino acid composition, digestibility and texture) of meat analogs based on various protein sources are also discussed. Physicochemical properties of each protein should be considered before extrusion, as their functionality can vary even when from the same botanical source. The analysis and methods used for transitioning from soy and wheat gluten to pea can be useful in the utilization of additional pulse proteins. The quality of pea based textured vegetable protein is heavily dependent on processing parameters such as specific mechanical energy, moisture, and temperature. However in general, pea protein based texturized products have a lower cutting strength, and less chewiness than soy or gluten based products due to differences in protein sub-units and also cold and hot water swelling (or gelling) properties that can be potentially manipulated by using functionality modifiers. • Peas are fast emerging as a plant protein source for texturization via extrusion. • Characteristics of pea and other new legumes must be considered versus traditional wheat and soy proteins for extrusion. • Established analysis techniques can be used to make advancements in use of legume proteins. • Due to differences in their physico-chemistry, texturization of pea protein will need process and formulation adjustments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study determined the effects of physicochemical and microbial properties of emulsion as a fat replacer in meat analogs during freezing storage. Meat analogs were prepared with different fat replacers: vegetable oil (O) for control, oil in water emulsion (E), and non-emulsified oil in water emulsion (EC) for emulsion control. After that, meat analogs were stored for 0.5, one, three, and six months at −18 °C and −60 °C. The results showed that the drip loss of all samples was not significantly different (p > 0.05). However, the liquid holding capacity of EC and E was significantly higher than that of O (p < 0.05). Additionally, the microstructures of meat analogs of E and EC were smaller with denser pore sizes than O. This explains the significantly lower hardness of E and EC compared to O (p < 0.05). Overall, E showed superior physiochemical and sensory quality. During the storage, the stability of chemical properties, such as volatile basic nitrogen and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, showed no significant changes (p > 0.05). Moreover, the microbial studies (total viable counts and Escherichia coli count) suggested that meat analogs did not deteriorate during the preparation and storage. Thus, this study suggests that emulsion-type fat replacers influence meat analogs' physicochemical and sensorial properties. However, these properties are not influenced by the storage temperature and duration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing demand to produce high quality-meat analog based on plant -based protein.. producing meat analog which is rich in tenderness and juiciness is one of the recent challenges in this field. In this survey, flaxseed protein concentrate was used at levels (0, 1, 2, 4, and 5%) as a novel ingredient to develop plant -based meat during the high moisture extrusion in combination with pea protein isolate and the physicochemical properties, The functional, textural, and sensory characteristic of the produced meat analogs were investigated. The results showed that the addition of flaxseed protein concentrate had a significant effect on the amount of protein, carbohydrate, fat, and pH in the samples (p˂0.05) and improved the functional properties such as increasing cooking yield(%) and reducing expressible moisture(%). textural parameters and brightness and redness parameters of the sample were significantly reduced by the addition of flaxseed protein concentrate (p˂0.05). The use of flaxseed protein concentrate significantly increased (p˂0.05).the taste and overall acceptance of the control sample(T1) respectively from 3 and 3, 4 to 4.8 and 4.6 in T5 sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we review the physicochemical phenomena occurring during the structuring processes in the manufacturing of plant-based meat analogs via high-moisture-extrusion (HME). After the initial discussion on the input materials, we discuss the hypotheses behind the physics of the functional tasks that can be defined for HME. For these hypotheses, we have taken a broader view than only the scientific literature on plant-based meat analogs but incorporated also literature from soft matter physics and patent literature. Many of these hypotheses remain to be proven. Hence, we hope that this overview will inspire researchers to fill the still-open knowledge gaps concerning the multiscale structure of meat analogs.

In this study, the techno-functional and physical attributes of various commercially available pulse protein isolates were compared with those of soy protein isolate to evaluate their potential application as replacer for soy proteins in liquid and solid food formulations such as meat and dairy analogs. The water holding capacity, oil holding capacity, gelation properties, emulsifying properties, and color of faba bean (FPI), pea (PPI), lentil (LPI), and soy (SPI) protein isolates were therefore measured. SPI had a significantly higher water holding capacity (7.6 g/g) than the pulse protein isolates (2.2–5.1 g/g), but similar oil holding capacities were identified for SPI, FPI, and LPI. Especially LPI was more effective in droplet size reduction already at low concentrations (0.1–0.2%) compared to all other tested proteins, whereas FPI showed similar droplet size reduction efficiencies than SPI at higher concentrations (2–5%). Nevertheless, all of the plant proteins were capable of forming relatively small oil droplets (D32 = 1–3 µm) at a protein-to-oil ratio of 1:10. Finally, FPI exhibited similar minimum gelling concentrations to SPI, and especially LPI had a low coloring potential.

There is growing consumer and food industry interest in plant protein-based foods. However, quality evolution of plant protein-based meat analog (MA) is still a rarely studied subject. In this study, wheat and rice flour-based batter systems were used to coat plant protein-based MA, and were partially fried (at 180 °C, 1 min) in canola oil, subsequently frozen (at −18 °C) and stored for 7 days. Microwave heating (MH), infrared heating (IH), air frying (AF) and deep-fat frying (DFF) processes were employed on parfried frozen MA products, and their quality evolution was investigated. Results revealed that the fat content of MH-, IH- and AF-treated products was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than DFF-treated counterparts. Batter coatings reduced fat uptake in DFF of MA-based products. Both the batter formulations and cooking methods impacted the process parameters and quality attributes (cooking loss, moisture, texture, color) of MA-based coated food products. Moreover, the post-cooking stability of moisture and textural attributes of batter-coated MA-based products was impacted by both the batter formulations and cooking methods. Glass transition temperature (Tg) of MA-based products’ crust ranged from −20.0 °C to −23.1 °C, as determined with differential scanning calorimetry. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy analysis revealed that surface structural–chemical evolution of MA-based products was impacted by both the coating formulations and cooking methods. Overall, AF has been found as a suitable substitute for DFF in terms of studied quality attributes of meat analog-based coated products.

Polysaccharides have been used in the production of plant-based meat analogs to replicate the texture of real meat. However, there has been no study that comprehensively compares the effects of different polysaccharides, and a limited number of polysaccharides have been evaluated. Thus, we aimed to identify the most suitable polysaccharide and concentration for plant-based patties. Plant-based patties were manufactured by blending different concentrations (0%, 1%, and 2%) of six polysaccharides with other ingredients, and the quality characteristics and sensory properties were evaluated. The L* values of plant-based patties reduced during the cooking process resembled the color change of beef patty (BP). In particular, a 2% κ-carrageenan-added patty (Car-2) exhibited the lowest L* value among the plant-based patties, measured at 44.05 (p < 0.05). Texture parameters exhibited high values by adding 2% κ-carrageenan and locust bean gum, which was close to BP. In the sensory evaluation, Car-2 showed higher scores for sensory preferences than other plant-based patties. Based on our data, incorporating 2% κ-carrageenan could offer a feasible way of crafting plant-based meat analogs due to its potential to enhance texture and flavor. Further studies are required to evaluate the suitability of polysaccharides in various types of plant-based meat analogs.

The present study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical, sensory, and safety differences among meat-based and plant-based dry-cured fermented sausages. Different commercial meat- and plant-based dry-cured fermented spreadable sausages were evaluated, considering different quality parameters: pH, aW, moisture, fat and protein content, lipid oxidation, instrumental texture, and sensory attributes. Within the meat-based category, some significant physicochemical differences attributed to the different formulations were detected. The a w showed how some of the dry-cured sausages could allow the development of pathogenic bacteria, independently of their meat or plant origin. On the other hand, similarities were detected between meat- and plant-based sausages, with the most important differences identified in sensory terms of flavor and texture. The acceptability of the meat-based sample was 3.80 over 5 and the plant-based one roughly was over 2. Thus, the scientific evaluation of a novel plant-based sausage did not reach the expectations of the consumers who compared it with the meat-based original product. Some physicochemical characteristics that may be improved were noted, and some safety issues that should be addressed in further studies. • The methodology employed described the grade of imitation of a plant-based analog. • The pH and a w of the plant-based analog may compromise microbiologically the product. • Lipid oxidation levels of the plant-based analog might imply a safety issue. • The method used shows key traits to evaluate for developing better meat analogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to unravel the multifractal properties of internal microstructure in relation to textural evolution of meat-analog (MA) based coated fried foods. Wheat and rice flour-based batters were used to coat MA model that was deep fried at 180 °C for 2, 4 and 6 min in canola oil. Internal pore microstructures were investigated by X-ray microtomography based multifractal analysis (MFA) and texture were assessed by mechanical texture analyzer. Results showed that batter coatings greatly influenced the formation of internal microstructure during frying as well as post-frying mass redistribution and textural evolution. The frying time impacted the evolution of micropores, and porosity showed a positive correlation with the fat content of MA-based fried products. Porous, low-moisture and high-fat containing coated fried MA-based product demonstrated higher textural stability. Internal microstructure (pore distribution) of fried MAs were heterogenous and possessed multifractal scaling behavior, as depicted by MFA outcomes (Singularity & Rényi spectra). Strong correlation observed between moisture-fat, texture, porosity and selected multifractal parameters (Δα, Δfα, R-L, D 1 , D 2 , ΔD). • X-ray images can nondestructively characterize the internal structure of fried meat analog (MA). • Coatings and frying time influence the moisture-fat profile and pore distribution in fried foods. • Pores formation and distributions are associated with mass and textural evolution. • Porous matrix created brittle and crispy texture in MA-based fried products. • Homogenous micropore distribution favored stable textural qualities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative meat products provide help to reduce the consumption of meat; however, consumers are concerned with the nutritional quality of the novel and traditional plant-based burgers. The objective is to analyse the nutritional profile of commercially available burgers in the U.S. in the categories of beef, imitation, and veggie. We generated a database of burger products by investigating Mintel and company websites, which resulted in the inclusion of imitation (n = 28), veggie (n = 89), and conventional beef (n = 41) burgers. We analysed the nutritional composition (serving size, kcal, macro and micronutrients, vitamins, and minerals) across the three burger types. Beef burgers provided significantly more calories, fat (total fat, saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol), and protein while providing less sodium and fibre compared to alternative burgers. As consumers begin to make conscious decisions to reduce meat consumption, either for health or sustainability reasons, they need to be aware that these products are not nutritionally equivalent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand for protein-rich, plant-based foods has driven the development of meat analogs that closely mimic the texture and mouthfeel of animal meat. While plant-based fibrils and electrospun silk fibroin fibers have been explored for texture enhancement and scaffolding in both meat analogs and cell-based meats, the use of wet-spun fibroin protein fibers as a food ingredient remains underexplored. This study investigates the potential of wet-spun recombinant fibroin fibers to enhance the textural properties of meat analogs. Short fibers, with varying tensile strengths and diameters, were incorporated into a commercial ground pork analog to create improved patty samples. The results showed that adding hydrophilic, 30 μm-diameter, 3-mm short protein fibers at 1% (w/w) significantly increased the springiness of the pork analog by 45%. Additionally, fiber sheets designed to mimic the endomysium structure of intramuscular connective tissue were integrated into the minced pork analog using a three-dimensional needle punching technique. This approach successfully recreated the interlacing endomysium structure found in whole-muscle pork, yielding a texture that closely matched the slice shear force, springiness, and cohesiveness of traditional pork. In conclusion, the incorporation of wet-spun protein fibers offers a promising strategy to enhance the textural qualities of meat analogs, making them more comparable to animal meat and potentially more appealing to consumers seeking high-quality plant-based alternatives., (© 2025 Spiber_Inc and The Author(s). Journal of Texture Studies published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Many people are increasingly interested in a vegetarian or vegan diet. Looking at the research and the available options in the market, there are two generations of products based on typical proteins, such as soy or gluten, and newer generation proteins, such as peas or faba beans, or even proteins based on previously used feed proteins. In the review, we present the characteristics of several proteins that can be consumed as alternatives to first-generation proteins used in vegan foods. In the following part of the work, we describe the research in which novel protein sources were used in terms of the product they are used for. The paper describes protein sources such as cereal proteins, oilseeds proteins coming from the cakes after oil pressing, and novel sources such as algae, insects, and fungus for use in meat analog products. Technological processes that can make non-animal proteins similar to meat are also discussed, as well as the challenges faced by technologists working in the field of vegan products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The definition of meat analog refers to the replacement of the main ingredient with other than meat. It also called a meat substitute, meat alternatives, fake or mock meat, and imitation meat. The increased importance of meat analog in the current trend is due to the health awareness among consumers in their diet and for a better future environment. The factors that lead to this shift is due to low fat and calorie foods intake, flexitarians, animal disease, natural resources depletion, and to reduce greenhouse gas emission. Currently, available marketed meat analog products are plant-based meat in which the quality (i.e., texture and taste) are similar to the conventional meat. The ingredients used are mainly soy proteins with novel ingredients added, such as mycoprotein and soy leghemoglobin. However, plant-based meat is sold primarily in Western countries. Asian countries also will become a potential market in the near future due to growing interest in this product. With the current advance technology, lab-grown meat with no livestock raising or known as cultured meat will be expected to boost the food market in the future. Also, insect-based products will be promising to be the next protein resource for human food. Nevertheless, other than acceptability, cost-effective, reliable production, and consistent quality towards those products, product safety is the top priority. Therefore, the regulatory frameworks need to be developed alongside.

This study investigated meat analogs produced using low-moisture extrusion from oat and pea protein blends at ratios 20:80, 30:70, 50:50, and 70:30. Response surface methodology was used to assess the effect of blend composition, screw speed (200–1200 rpm), barrel temperature (135–160 °C), and moisture content (25–35%) on the properties of extruded meat analogs. Blend composition had a relatively stronger effect on water holding capacity, water solubility index, bitterness, cohesiveness, and springiness, while extrusion conditions had more influence on hardness, fibrousness, and moistness. As the oat content increased from 20% to 70% the maximum sensory fibrousness increased from 7.2 to 8.6 on a scale of 0–9. Although the mean water holding capacity decreased from 2.1 to 1.4 g g−1, the mean sensory moistness remained around 4.1. Cereal taste dominated over legumes with the mean intensities 3.9 and 2.0, however, the differences between oat-pea blends were small. In general, the extruded meat analogs had a mild flavor and high fibrousness, and the developed response surface models can be used to tune the properties further. This confirms that oat protein in combination with pea is a practical alternative to soy and gluten proteins for the production of meat analogs.

The effect of carvacrol added to patties stored at 4 °C for 14 days, previously pressurized and vacuum-cooked (HPP-SVCOOK), was investigated. Three formulations were prepared (veal, plant-based product, and hybrid product). An emulsion made with olive and linseed oils was added. The physicochemical and microbiological qualities were assessed. Microbial tests indicated negligible growth of spoilage organisms in treated patties. No significant effect of carvacrol on the microbial loads of patties was noticed. Sulfite-reducing clostridia and Enterobacteriaceae were absent in the treated patties, whereas, in the treated veal and hybrid samples, 3 and 2 units of log cfu/g reduction for lactic acid bacteria and molds and yeasts were noted, respectively. On day 7 of storage, veal patties exhibited a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the L* (53.9–49.3), hardness (32.3–21.4 N), springiness (0.8–0.7 N), cohesiveness (0.49–0.46), and chewiness (12.2–7.1) and a hike in the a* value (5.3–9.4). No significant changes in L* (59.1–58.6), a* (8.57–8.61), hardness (11.6–10.6 N), or cohesiveness (0.27–0.26) were observed in plant-based patties over the storage times, whereas reductions in springiness (0.5–0.4), chewiness (1.9–1.3), and b* (26.6–29.1) were noted in them. In hybrid patties, the L* (53.9–52.5) and b* values (24.9–24.3) were consistent but had a significant decrease in a* value (5.9–3.5) along the days of storage under study. The texture parameters of the hybrid patties altered were similar to those of veal patties during the 14-day storage time. In all samples, pH decreased with storage time. HPP-SVCOOK was effective on rendering safe and shelf-stable, ready-to-eat patties regardless of their matrix formulation. The addition of carvacrol had limited effects on the textural qualities of the HPP-SVCOOK products. Future studies need to be undertaken to assess the treated patties’ consumer acceptability and sensory profile. The study provides the basis for the development of novel meat-based and plant-based products that are microbiologically safe, with minimum physicochemical alterations during storage.

This study identified the effect of the type and concentration of vegetable oil on the quality of meat analogs and analyzed the differences in their physiochemical characteristics. Various vegetable oils, such as castor oil, orange oil, palm oil, shortening, and margarine, were added to meat analogs. The meat analog was prepared by adding 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 g of each vegetable oil based on 100 g of textured vegetable protein. The cooking loss, water content, liquid-holding capacity, texture, and antioxidant content of the meat analogs were assessed, and a sensory evaluation was performed. The meat analog with orange oil had a higher water content than the others, regardless of the amount of added oil, and it had a relatively high liquid-holding capacity. The DPPH(2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging activity of the meat analog with orange oil was higher than that of the others. The sensory evaluation also showed a decrease in soy odor and an increase in juiciness. Therefore, adding orange oil improves the preference, juiciness, soy odor, and quality of meat analogs. Our results demonstrate that orange oil has positive effects on the productivity of meat analogs and can help to improve meat analog consumption.

This study determined the effects of physicochemical and microbial properties of emulsion as a fat replacer in meat analogs during freezing storage. Meat analogs were prepared with different fat replacers: vegetable oil (O) for control, oil in water emulsion (E), and non-emulsified oil in water emulsion (EC) for emulsion control. After that, meat analogs were stored for 0.5, one, three, and six months at −18 °C and −60 °C. The results showed that the drip loss of all samples was not significantly different (p > 0.05). However, the liquid holding capacity of EC and E was significantly higher than that of O (p < 0.05). Additionally, the microstructures of meat analogs of E and EC were smaller with denser pore sizes than O. This explains the significantly lower hardness of E and EC compared to O (p < 0.05). Overall, E showed superior physiochemical and sensory quality. During the storage, the stability of chemical properties, such as volatile basic nitrogen and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, showed no significant changes (p > 0.05). Moreover, the microbial studies (total viable counts and Escherichia coli count) suggested that meat analogs did not deteriorate during the preparation and storage. Thus, this study suggests that emulsion-type fat replacers influence meat analogs’ physicochemical and sensorial properties. However, these properties are not influenced by the storage temperature and duration.

This study aimed to characterize the thermomechanical transitions of meat-analog (MA) based coated fried foods. Wheat and rice flour-based batters were used to coat the MA and fried at 180 °C in canola oil for 2, 4 and 6 min. Glass-transition-temperature (Tg) of the coatings were assessed by differential scanning calorimetry, directly after frying or after post-fry holding. Mechanical texture analyzer and X-ray microtomography were employed to assess textural attributes and internal microstructure, respectively. Batter-formulation substantially impacted the Tg of fried foods coating i.e., crust. Tg of fried foods crust were ranged between −20 °C to −24 °C. Tg was positively correlated with frying time and internal microporosity (%), whereas negatively correlated with moisture content. Internal microstructure greatly influenced the textural attributes (hardness, brittleness, crispiness). Post-fry textural stability considerably impacted by Tg. Negative Tg value explains post-fry textural changes (hard-to-soft, brittle-to-ductile, crispy-to-soggy) of MA-based coated products at room-temperature (25 °C) and under IR-heating (65 °C). • Formulations and frying time regulates glass-transition-temperature (Tg) of batter coated products. • Lower Tg value was observed for high-moisture containing fried products. • Moisture and fat both acts as plasticizer in meat-analog based batter coated fried product. • Internal microstructure greatly impacts the Tg of coated fried products. • Texture of fried products changes at a temperature higher than their intrinsic Tg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the effect of process parameters during high-moisture extrusion on system parameter (specific mechanical energy, SME) and product physical properties, blend of soy protein isolate, wheat gluten, and corn starch (50:40:10 w/w) was extruded using co-rotating twin screw extruder equipped with cooling die at 55 and 65% feed moisture, 150 and 170 °C barrel temperature, 150 and 200 rpm screw speed. The hardness and chewiness of products increased as all the extrusion process parameters became low. Among the tested range of process parameters in this study, a combination of high moisture (65%), high barrel temperature (170 °C), and low screw speed (150 rpm) generated the low SME input (less energy consumption) with high texturization degree of meat analogs. Layer and fibrous structure formation of the samples were influenced by variations in process parameters, primarily feed moisture and barrel temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, there has been growing interest in the development and production of plant-based and cell-based alternatives to farmed meat. Although promoted for their capacity to avoid or reduce the environmental, animal welfare, and, in some cases, public health problems associated with farmed meat production and consumption, little research has critically evaluated the broader potential public health and food systems implications associated with meat alternatives. This review explores key public health, environmental, animal welfare, economic, and policy implications related to the production and consumption of plant-based meat substitutes and cell-based meats, and how they compare to those associated with farmed meat production. Based on the limited evidence to date, it is unknown whether replacing farmed meats with plant-based substitutes would offer comparable nutritional or chronic disease reduction benefits as replacing meats with whole legumes. Production of plant-based substitutes, however, may involve smaller environmental impacts compared to the production of farmed meats, though the relative impacts differ significantly depending on the type of products under comparison. Research to date suggests that many of the purported environmental and health benefits of cell-based meat are largely speculative. Demand for both plant-based substitutes and cell-based meats may significantly reduce dependence on livestock to be raised and slaughtered for meat production, although cell-based meats will require further technological developments to completely remove animal-based inputs. The broader socioeconomic and political implications of replacing farmed meat with meat alternatives merit further research. An additional factor to consider is that much of the existing research on plant-based substitutes and cell-based meats has been funded or commissioned by companies developing these products, or by other organizations promoting these products. This review has revealed a number of research gaps that merit further exploration, ideally with independently funded peer-reviewed studies, to further inform the conversation around the development and commercialization of plant-based substitutes and cell-based meats.

Ready-to-eat (RTE) products elaborated from beef and meat analog, previously marinated (teriyaki and beer), were subjected to sous vide cooking at different combinations of temperature (70ºC and 80ºC) and time (60, 90 and 120 min for beef; 90, 120 and 150 min for meat analog). The sous vide cooking at 80ºC led to less cooking losses. The shear force values were approximately 50% lower in meat analog samples than in beef samples. The L* and a* value and sensory properties related to odor and color were similar in meat and meat analog products.

Many people are increasingly interested in a vegetarian or vegan diet. Looking at the research and the available options in the market, there are two generations of products based on typical proteins, such as soy or gluten, and newer generation proteins, such as peas or faba beans, or even proteins based on previously used feed proteins. In the review, we present the characteristics of several proteins that can be consumed as alternatives to first-generation proteins used in vegan foods. In the following part of the work, we describe the research in which novel protein sources were used in terms of the product they are used for. The paper describes protein sources such as cereal proteins, oilseeds proteins coming from the cakes after oil pressing, and novel sources such as algae, insects, and fungus for use in meat analog products. Technological processes that can make non-animal proteins similar to meat are also discussed, as well as the challenges faced by technologists working in the field of vegan products.

This study investigated the effects of microbial transglutaminase (TG) and sodium alginate (AL) on the water-binding, textural and oil absorption properties of soy patties as a representative meat analog. The addition of TG increased all textural parameters and decreased the expressible moisture of the product. Alternately, AL showed the high water-binding properties of soy patties but caused a decrease in the textural parameters of the product. Both TG and AL were effective in reducing oil absorption during the frying of the product, particularly TG, which was more effective than AL. Therefore, the results indicated that TG and AL were involved in the quality modification of soy-based meat analogs, and palatable eating quality was obtained by combining optimal levels of the two binding agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]