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Contemporary teams often face complex problem-solving tasks. We theorized that two individual differences previously neglected in team research (cognitive motivation and maximizing) would be helpful for teams facing such situations. We tested this assertion on 81 teams participating in an escape-room simulation in which teams were locked into a pre-arranged room and had to solve various complex problems to escape the room as quickly as possible. The findings show that the average of the team members' cognitive motivation had a positive direct relation to team performance, while maximizing had a positive indirect relation to team performance via cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scant research has addressed how maximizing, or the tendency to seek the 'best' alternative and not settle (Schwartz et al., 2002; Simon, 1955), relates to adolescents' vocational behavior. In this exploratory study, high school seniors completed measures of maximizing, choice/commitment anxiety, career decidedness, and career exploration time. Seniors also expressed why they considered themselves maximizers or not and described reasons behind feelings of anxiety about career selection. Results showed that adolescents high in maximizing tendency also had heightened choice/commitment anxiety, higher decidedness, and had spent less time exploring careers. Adolescents explained reasons behind maximizing tendencies, such as finding stable careers and challenging themselves. They also provided reasons behind their career choice anxiety, including fear of failure or regret, inadequate work environments, and lack of opportunities. Overall, these findings clarify cognitive and emotional aspects influencing career decision-making in adolescents. Career counseling services can use this information to anticipate concerns and develop prevention programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A maximizing decision‐making style is generally associated with lower individual well‐being. That is, even though maximizers invest more time and resources in finding the best option and achieve better outcomes than satisficers, they are still more dissatisfied with those outcomes. Contrary to this general consensus that maximizing is negatively associated with overall well‐being, across two studies we show that this decision‐making style is actually positively associated with individuals' financial well‐being. We find that measured dispositional maximizing is positively associated with financial well‐being, regardless of whether maximizing is operationalized as having high standards or the tendency to engage in alternative search (Study 1) and replicate this relationship with experimentally induced situational maximizing (Study 2). We identify financial self‐control (both measured as a trait and as the behavioral outcome of an experimental choice task) as a mediator of the aforementioned relationship. Our findings offer guidance to financial service providers and policymakers on how to improve consumers' financial well‐being, such as encouraging consumers to engage in a more meticulous search while evaluating financial products and services (e.g., home loans, retirement plans, investments) to identify the best possible option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Maximization, the tendency to make the best choices by thoroughly searching and comparing alternatives, has long been considered a negative correlate of well-being. However, recently, it was proposed that having a maximizing tendency can lead to better coping efforts in some stressful situations and thus could be more adaptive. The objective of the present research was to demonstrate positive features of maximization and identify the coping strategies that mediate the relationship between maximization and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: A sample of 3,493 participants responded to an online survey from January 20 to October 11 of 2020. The 13-item Maximization Scale assessed individuals' maximizing tendency in terms of the maximization index and its three subdimensions (i.e., high standards, alternative search, and decision difficulty). The use of four coping strategies (i.e., preventive measures, cognitive appraisal, self-distraction, and social connection) during the COVID-19 pandemic was assessed. Hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being were measured. We developed a mediation model and examined both whether there was an indirect link between maximization and well-being through the coping strategies and whether there was a direct link between maximization and well-being. Results: Path analysis revealed negative direct associations between maximization measures (i.e., an index and three subdimensions) and well-being. In addition, significant indirect paths were found with varying directions depending on maximization dimensions and coping strategy types. There were positive indirect associations between the maximization index and well-being via preventive measures, between high standards and well-being through preventive measures and cognitive appraisal, and between alternative search and well-being through self-distraction and social connection. Negative indirect associations were found between decision difficulty and well-being through cognitive appraisal, self-distraction, and social connection. Discussion: The current study confirmed the existence of inconsistent mediation effects between maximization and well-being via coping and highlighted coping efforts as one of the positive aspects of maximization. Discussion addressed the double-edged effect of maximization on well-being and its beneficial nature in times of distress. Future studies should examine other potential situations and moderators that can delineate maximization's various characteristics with a longitudinal design and samples from diverse backgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The previous literature has provided mixed findings regarding whether consumers appreciate or are opposed to algorithms. The primary goal of this paper is to address these inconsistencies by identifying the maximizing tendency as a critical moderating variable. In Study 1, it was found that maximizers, individuals who strive for the best possible outcomes, exhibit greater reactance toward algorithm-recommended choices than satisficers, those who are satisfied with a good-enough option. This increased reactance also resulted in decreased algorithm adoption intention. Study 2 replicated and extended the findings from Study 1 by identifying the moderating role of choice goals. Maximizers are more likely to experience reactance to algorithm-recommended options when the act of choosing itself is intrinsically motivating and meaningful (i.e., autotelic choices) compared to when the decision is merely a means to an end (i.e., instrumental choices). The results of this research contribute to a nuanced understanding of how consumers with different decision-making styles navigate the landscape of choice in the digital age. Furthermore, it offers practical insights for firms that utilize algorithmic recommendations in their businesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past research generally finds that if consumers share word of mouth about past purchases with others, the valence of the information tends to be congruent with actual perceptions. Thus, a negative purchase experience should elicit negative (vs. positive) word of mouth. We examine how a goal of attaining the best possible outcome, or maximizing, may alter this tendency. Drawing on prior work demonstrating that consumers may view their own personal failures more favorably through relative comparisons with others faring similarly or worse, we show that maximizing increases consumers' propensity to share favorable word of mouth about unsatisfactory purchases, in an effort to encourage others to make the same poor choices, as they seek to enhance the perceived relative standing of and post-purchase feelings toward their own unsatisfying outcomes. We further show that consumers particularly exhibit this behavior when sharing with psychologically close (vs. distant) others, as comparisons with close others are especially relevant to relative standing. Finally, we consider the downstream consequences of such behavior, finding that when consumers successfully persuade close others to make the same bad decisions, they feel better about their own outcomes, but are also burdened with feelings of guilt that erode their overall wellbeing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The consequences of overconsumption and the recent popularity of simple living point to consumer interest in reducing belongings. They also raise an interesting question—what is a useful approach to downsizing and decluttering? We investigate how dis/order (messy vs. tidy items) affects downsizing and find, across nine focal studies, that (a) consumers retain fewer items when choosing from a disordered set because (b) order facilitates the comparisons within category that underlie the tendency to retain items. The impact of dis/order is altered by consumers' comparison tendencies, waste aversion, and decision strategy (selection vs. rejection), which serve as theoretically and pragmatically relevant moderators. Though consumers' lay beliefs favor rejecting from order (i.e. choosing what to get rid of from tidy items), our findings point to the usefulness of selecting from disorder (i.e. choosing what to keep from messy items) as a downsizing strategy. Together, this research has implications for consumer downsizing activities, the burgeoning home organization and storage industries, as well as sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tiered discounts offer larger discounts as consumers meet higher spending thresholds (e.g., spend $100+, receive 10% off; spend $200+, receive 20% off). This research investigates how consumers treat these multiple dollar thresholds as reference points for spending. We find that tiered discounts with smaller increments between thresholds encourage higher spending compared to those with larger increments. This effect occurs because consumers treat thresholds as motivational spending goals when the distance to higher thresholds is smaller (vs. larger). Consistent with this reasoning, signaling goal progress (i.e., displaying cart amount while shopping) attenuates the spending difference smaller versus larger increment sizes yield. Additionally, the effect of tier increment size on spending is more prominent for maximizers. From a theoretical perspective, this work contributes to our understanding of how individuals process multiple reference points within a single promotion and identifies that spending thresholds in price promotions may be treated as spending goals. From a managerial perspective, this work investigates the relationship between tiered discount design and consumer spending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Against the maximizing conception of practical rationality, Michael Slote has argued that rationality does not always require choosing what is most rational. Instead, it can sometimes be rational to do something that is less-than-fully rational. In this paper, I will argue that maximizers have a ready response to Slote's position. Roy Sorensen has argued that 'rational' is an absolute term, suggesting that it is not possible to be rational without being completely rational. Sorensen's view is confirmed by the fact that, by the lights of contemporary linguistics, 'rational' is an absolute gradable adjective. Because 'rational' is an absolute gradable adjective, being rational requires being at the top of the scale of rationality, making anyone who is not fully rational positively irrational. Contra Slote, the only way to be rational enough is to be maximally rational. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mind wandering involves internally focused attention, and isoften conceptualized as the opposite of external attention thatis oriented towards the task at hand. Individuals vary ac-cording to the amount they mind wander as well as with re-gards to the pattern of oscillations between mind wanderingthoughts and externally directed, focused thought. Assumingthat mind wandering is influenced by episodic contents, we ex-plore the proposition that mind wandering frequency is relatedto the manner in which individuals deal with the contents ofepisodic memory, as reflected by a maximizing decision mak-ing style. Based on previous studies measuring cognitive pro-cesses, we assume that mouse trajectories towards a particu-lar response on the screen are continuously updated by time-dependent and temporally-dynamic cognitive processes. Asa behavioral methodology, mouse tracking provides potentialcues to help predict mind wandering. In our experiment, a to-tal of 274 students completed a decision making questionnaire,episodic and associative memory tests (during which mousemovements were recorded) and a working memory task, dur-ing which mind wandering thoughts were assessed. We foundcertain mouse movement characteristics to be significantly pre-dictive of mind wandering. Also, a maximizing decision mak-ing style appeared to be related to a particular type of mindwandering, namely, task-related interference.

Decision making (DM) generally assumes that the person is performing a choice between a multitude of alternatives under uncertainty and possible risk. According to the concept of dynamic regulative systems (Kornilova, 2016), preferred or most relied on DM strategies are linked in an integrative way with a variety of personality traits that can be at the top of the hierarchy. These include risk readiness, rationality, and Dark Triad traits as reflective of a generally unstable personality core. Decision-Making Tendency Inventory (DMTI; Misuraca et al., 2015) defined DM characteristics via maximization, satisficing and minimization. However, the relationships between DM characteristics captured by DMTI and the listed personality traits have not been explored before. The goal of the current study was establishing latent personality profiles in a person-centered approach that integrates DM “tendencies” and the listed personality traits by identifying relatively homogenous subgroups of individuals with similar profiles. Methods. 625 individuals in the age from 17 to 39 years (М = 20,17, SD = 3,02; 84% females) participated in the study. We used DMTI, Dirty Dozen, and LFR questionnaires to measure DM tendencies, Dark Triad traits, and risk readiness/rationality, respectively. Latent profile analysis was performed in VarSelLCM for R. Results. The results indicated the presence of three latent profiles in the data after adjustments for age and sex. Risk readiness and Dark Triad traits were positively related with maximizing and satisficing, forming one latent class. In another class lower rationality, on the other hand, was linked with minimization. In the third class higher rationality accompanied lower Dark Triad traits. Conclusions. The results provide evidence in favor of the general hypothesis that latent profiles of personality traits are associated with distinct preferences for specific DM tendencies. Higher levels of maximizing, satisficing, and minimizing were not related to subclinical psychopathy or Machiavellianism. Higher narcissism and risk readiness, generally unrelated, are nonetheless characteristic of the latent class that prefers maximizing and satisficing. Preference for minimization of effort during DM was associated with lower rationality. Latent class or latent profile analysis is a powerful technique that sheds new light on the relationships between personality and DM, beyond the contributions of variable-centered approaches such as correlational analysis.

This paper investigates how maximizing or satisficing decision styles and cultural orientation influence individuals' entrepreneurial intentions. With a growing interest in social entrepreneurship, it also measures if these factors encourage individuals to start ventures with a social mission. Two studies are conducted to compare students' entrepreneurial intentions in the U.S. and in Slovenia. By identifying that maximizing decision styles are associated with an individualistic cultural orientation in both the U.S. and Slovenia, the current study indicates that the maximizing -- individualism connection spans national and cultural boundaries. In the U.S. sample, individualism mediated the relationship between decision styles and entrepreneurial intentions, suggesting that in individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., those who maximize their decision efforts and apply a more individualistic cultural perspective are especially inclined to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities. Similarly, individualism mediated the relationship between maximizing and social entrepreneurial intentions in the U.S. sample; suggesting that maximizers who are less individualistic may be more likely to start social enterprises over traditional ventures. Among the Slovenian sample, there was a marginally significant relationship between maximizing and entrepreneurial intentions and no relationship with social entrepreneurial intentions. These cross-cultural differences are discussed in relation to the economic and social conditions in each country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Howard Rachlin's widely influential behavioral economic approach to self‐control and related issues provides the model for this submission. The topic is overconsumption. Current human consumption levels are unsustainable. Explanations typically focus on societal factors, such as the seductive power of advertising and/or misguided tax policies. However, the effectiveness of these factors depends on the degree to which individuals are susceptible to the message: "consume more." Humans are not blank slates. This paper argues that how individuals frame their choices establishes the susceptibility to overconsume. According to economic theory, consumers frame their options as bundles, composed of different combinations of the available items and activities. This leads to maximizing. In experiments, participants tend to frame their options as "either‐or" choices. This leads to the matching law. Mathematical models of concurrent schedule choice procedures show that (1) the matching law implies overconsumption of the most preferred option and (2) that individuals will persist in preferring their favorite option even when doing so reduces overall reward rates. Given that the matching law better describes how individuals choose than does maximizing, the mathematical models of widely used choice procedures help explain why efforts to increase consumption have been more influential than efforts to control consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The previous literature has provided mixed findings regarding whether consumers appreciate or are opposed to algorithms. The primary goal of this paper is to address these inconsistencies by identifying the maximizing tendency as a critical moderating variable. In Study 1, it was found that maximizers, individuals who strive for the best possible outcomes, exhibit greater reactance toward algorithm-recommended choices than satisficers, those who are satisfied with a good-enough option. This increased reactance also resulted in decreased algorithm adoption intention. Study 2 replicated and extended the findings from Study 1 by identifying the moderating role of choice goals. Maximizers are more likely to experience reactance to algorithm-recommended options when the act of choosing itself is intrinsically motivating and meaningful (i.e., autotelic choices) compared to when the decision is merely a means to an end (i.e., instrumental choices). The results of this research contribute to a nuanced understanding of how consumers with different decision-making styles navigate the landscape of choice in the digital age. Furthermore, it offers practical insights for firms that utilize algorithmic recommendations in their businesses.

The present study aims to understand rural-urban differences in India as determined by market regimes, as well as by cultural and prosperity factors. The study focuses on people's maximizing as opposed to satisficing decision preferences. Maximizing stands for people's preference to continuously strive for better options, whereas satisficing means choosing a ‘good enough’ option. It was predicted that corporate employees in an urban metropolitan region would maximize more than the rural farmers due to socio-cultural and economic factors being more market-conducive in the urban region. Individualism-collectivism, achievement motivation, neoliberalism, as well as various classical socioeconomic indicators were taken into account as cultural and economic factors. The study was conducted utilizing field surveys in two Hindi-speaking rural and urban regions in Northern India by using established scales translated to Hindi. Middle-income farmers were recruited in the rural region, while corporate employees were recruited in the urban region. Overall, data were collected for 417 participants in both regions (rural, n = 195/urban, n = 222). Results show that urban participants maximize significantly more than the rural participants. This difference was fully mediated by stronger neoliberal beliefs in the urban region. Higher maximizing tendencies in the metropolitan region can be attributed to more competitive neoliberal–capitalist–market orientation rooted in urban rather than rural India. The findings contribute to the understanding of ecological differences in terms of culture and economy and their effects on people's decision making, especially in low and middle-income countries.

This paper investigates how maximizing or satisficing decision styles and cultural orientation influence individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions. With a growing interest in social entrepreneurship, it also measures if these factors encourage individuals to start ventures with a social mission. Two studies are conducted to compare students’ entrepreneurial intentions in the U.S. and in Slovenia. By identifying that maximizing decision styles are associated with an individualistic cultural orientation in both the U.S. and Slovenia, the current study indicates that the maximizing – individualism connection spans national and cultural boundaries. In the U.S. sample, individualism mediated the relationship between decision styles and entrepreneurial intentions, suggesting that in individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., those who maximize their decision efforts and apply a more individualistic cultural perspective are especially inclined to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities. Similarly, individualism mediated the relationship between maximizing and social entrepreneurial intentions in the U.S. sample; suggesting that maximizers who are less individualistic may be more likely to start social enterprises over traditional ventures. Among the Slovenian sample, there was a marginally significant relationship between maximizing and entrepreneurial intentions and no relationship with social entrepreneurial intentions. These cross-cultural differences are discussed in relation to the economic and social conditions in each country.

Descendants of indigenous people in the United States (Native Americans) are underrepresented in happiness studies. The social-cognitive mechanisms involved in happiness are also poorly understood. Here we test a social-cognitive model for theorizing the happiness of Native Americans. Self-identified Native Americans (120 women, 59 men, aged 18–79 years) in the Phoenix, Arizona metropolitan area answered a survey which measured interdependent and independent self-construals, decision-making style (satisficing and maximizing), and subjective happiness. Relationships among these variables were examined using path analysis. For the participants' happiness, independent self-construal was relatively less important than interdependent self-construal, as social harmony and interdependence with others tend to be salient traditional Native American cultural values. However, in agreement with previous studies with Euro-American samples, subjective happiness was positively correlated with satisficing, and negatively correlated with maximizing, suggesting societal factors such as the availability of options and choices in the U.S. as possible influences. These findings contribute to the literature by revealing the basis of happiness in social-cognitive processes, and have important implications for understanding the happiness of an under-researched population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Companies often encourage consumers to compare their performance with others hoping that a comparison with a superior other will motivate consumers in their goal pursuit. However, upward social comparison is often more motivating for maximizers than satisficers. In this research, we take a closer look at the often understudied satisficers and show what types of social comparisons motivate them. Based on the accuracy--effort trade-off, we propose that satisficers care less about achieving more and focus more on the other side of the trade-off--exerting less effort. As a result, a comparison with a superior other who uses less input (vs. achieves more output) is more motivating for satisficers. Three studies support our prediction. Whereas maximizers are motivated by comparing themselves with others who achieve more, satisficers are motivated more by superior others who use less input. Collectively, these findings suggest a more nuanced perspective on satisficers and have implications for both maximizing and social comparison literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maximizing is characterized by aspirations for the highest standards. The current study explored the relationship between maximizing and risk-taking tendencies in decisions subject to risk. We propose that people first refer to expectation (i.e., the overall utility expected from an alternative) when taking risky decisions. If expectation clearly identifies the best option, maximizing will not be correlated with risk-taking tendencies. If not, people refer to maximizing to reach a decision. Maximizing will be positively associated with risk-taking tendencies because the “upper bound” of risky options helps achieve the goal of seeking the best. Four studies showed that risk-taking tendencies increased with maximizing when the options had similar expectations (Studies 1 to 3). When expectations between options were clearly different (vs. similar), the positive relationship between maximizing and risk-taking tendencies was reduced (Study 4). These findings provide an insight into how maximizing is related to risk seeking.

For two decades, researchers have investigated the correlates and consequences of individual differences in maximizing, the tendency to pursue the goal of making the best possible choice by extensively seeking out and comparing alternatives. In this time, many different conceptualizations of maximizing have been proposed, including several that incorporate a construct called “decision difficulty.” We propose that including decision difficulty in measures of maximizing is problematic because the tendency to experience difficulty when making decisions is a separate individual difference construct already studied independently of maximizing — namely, indecisiveness. Across two studies (total N = 639), we find that scales measuring decision difficulty and indecisiveness are strongly correlated (r’s at least .85), load on the same component in a principal component analysis, and show a very similar pattern of correlations with related variables. Moreover, decision difficulty and indecisiveness scales both show a divergent pattern of correlations when compared to measures of maximizing. We argue that decision difficulty scales are best interpreted as tapping the same underlying tendency as indecisiveness scales, and conclude that the tendency to experience difficulty in decision making is best conceptualized not as a component of maximizing, but rather a cause or consequence of it.

Although pickiness fundamentally concerns one's preferences, there is currently no definition of this construct in the consumer psychology literature. This paper presents a conceptualization of shopper "pickiness"—an overly narrow latitude of acceptance around an idiosyncratic ideal point. Pickiness is revealed in two ways: pickiness by acceptance (PBA) (i.e., choosing to accept few options) and pickiness by rejection (PBR) (i.e., choosing to reject many options). This work introduces the Picky Shopper Scale to assess relative degrees of pickiness among individuals, show how pickiness is related to other individual‐difference variables, and articulate how pickiness differs from maximizing. Picky shoppers consider both horizontal (taste‐based) and vertical (quality‐based) product attributes as important in product evaluation, while maximizers primarily prioritize vertical product attributes. A field test reveals that those who score higher on the Picky Shopper Scale (but not on a Maximizer scale) more frequently reject a free gift that comes with a subjectively undesirable horizontal attribute than those who score lower. Downstream implications of pickiness are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the link between minimizing production costs and maximizing profits. We will analyze the phenomenon of demographics and poverty for developing countries and regions of the World for developing countries and regions of the World for each of the developing countries or regions of the World. The source of the statistical data present in the analysis is the World Bank, all the indicators and regression models being the contribution of the authors.

The paper suggests a happiness technology in which income, and personal values and philosophy of life (PVPL) serve as means of happiness production. We offer a theoretical model predicting that people who underinvest in acquiring PVPL will have greater income but produce less happiness. We also present empirical evidence, obtained by analyzing survey results from 980 salaried employees aged 25-64, confirming that the association between income and subjective well-being is relatively small. We find that PVPL, as measured by materialistic values, maximization tendency, and income satisfaction, is an important predictor of personal happiness even when controlling for socio-demographic factors and health status. In addition, we show that the components of PVPL are not strongly correlated among themselves or with income, implying that each one makes an important contribution to happiness given the same amount of money. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When selecting from too many options (i.e., choice overload), maximizers (people who search exhaustively to make decisions that are optimal) report more negative post‐decisional evaluations of their choices than do satisficers (people who search minimally to make decisions that are sufficient). Although ample evidence exists for differences in responses after‐the‐fact, little is known about possible divergences in maximizers' and satisficers' experiences during choice overload. Thus, using the biopsychosocial model of challenge/threat, we examined 128 participants' cardiovascular responses as they actively made a selection from many options. Specifically, we focused on cardiovascular responses assessing the degree to which individuals (a) viewed their decisions as valuable/important and (b) viewed themselves as capable (vs. incapable) of making a good choice. Although we found no differences in terms of the value individuals placed on their decisions (i.e., cardiovascular responses of task engagement), satisficers—compared to maximizers—exhibited cardiovascular responses consistent with feeling less capable of making their choice (i.e., greater relative threat). The current work provides a novel investigation of the nature of differences in maximizers'/satisficers' momentary choice overload experiences, suggesting insight into why they engage in such distinct search behaviors. Satisficers—who search minimally through options—report more positive responses after choice overload than maximizers—who search exhaustively. Defying traditional wisdom and past theorizing, we found that satisficers exhibited greater cardiovascular threat during a choice task. Rather than reflecting a lack of care or concern, satisficers may search minimally because they feel incapable of finding an optimal option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research investigates maximizers’ responses to restrictions of choice freedom during lockdown in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Having as a starting point the assumption that for maximizers choice is constitutive of identity, this research proposes that maximizing is associated with search for existential meaning in life. In turn, maximizers’ propensity to search for meaning is associated with a higher susceptibility to experience reactance when their freedom of choice is restricted, which is further associated with higher engagement in online shopping during lockdown presumably as a means to combat reactance and restore choice freedom. Using the lockdown in spring 2020 as a naturalistic context to study consumer responses to restrictions of choice freedom, results of an online study in Austria support these predictions. These findings advance a view of maximizers as “lay existentialists,” who view choice as a meaning-making device that is tightly linked to their sense of identity. As a result, when their choice freedom is threatened, maximizers may respond with higher reactance and engage in restorative actions.

Contemporary teams often face complex problem-solving tasks. We theorized that two individual differences previously neglected in team research (cognitive motivation and maximizing) would be helpful for teams facing such situations. We tested this assertion on 81 teams participating in an escape-room simulation in which teams were locked into a pre-arranged room and had to solve various complex problems to escape the room as quickly as possible. The findings show that the average of the team members’ cognitive motivation had a positive direct relation to team performance, while maximizing had a positive indirect relation to team performance via cooperation.

We present the results of approbating the Decision Making Tendency Inventory (Misuraca et al., 2015) in the Russian sample (N=423, Mage= 25,01, SD = 9,63). The development of H. Simon’s satisficing theory in the current studies is considered. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the theoretical three-scale structure of the inventory. We describe the relations between maximizing, minimizing and satisficing scales and personal factors of decision-making, age, and education (its level and difficulty). The study demonstrates that maximizing and satisficing are close tendencies, implemented in case of making important effortful and resource-consuming (e.g., time-consuming) decisions, whereas minimizing is connected to withdrawal from effort and knowledge, avoidant strategies and ambiguity intolerance. The yielded results suggest that satisficing needs to be trained in conditions of high demands for the cognitive sphere such as studying in a higher education institution.

The current research investigates maximizers' responses to restrictions of choice freedom during lockdown in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Having as a starting point the assumption that for maximizers choice is constitutive of identity, this research proposes that maximizing is associated with search for existential meaning in life. In turn, maximizers' propensity to search for meaning is associated with a higher susceptibility to experience reactance when their freedom of choice is restricted, which is further associated with higher engagement in online shopping during lockdown presumably as a means to combat reactance and restore choice freedom. Using the lockdown in spring 2020 as a naturalistic context to study consumer responses to restrictions of choice freedom, results of an online study in Austria support these predictions. These findings advance a view of maximizers as "lay existentialists," who view choice as a meaning-making device that is tightly linked to their sense of identity. As a result, when their choice freedom is threatened, maximizers may respond with higher reactance and engage in restorative actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contemporary teams often face complex problem-solving tasks. We theorized that two individual differences previously neglected in team research (cognitive motivation and maximizing) would be helpful for teams facing such situations. We tested this assertion on 81 teams participating in an escape-room simulation in which teams were locked into a pre-arranged room and had to solve various complex problems to escape the room as quickly as possible. The findings show that the average of the team members' cognitive motivation had a positive direct relation to team performance, while maximizing had a positive indirect relation to team performance via cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For two decades, researchers have investigated the correlates and consequences of individual differences in maximizing, the tendency to pursue the goal of making the best possible choice by extensively seeking out and comparing alternatives. In this time, many different conceptualizations of maximizing have been proposed, including several that incorporate a construct called "decision difficulty." We propose that including decision difficulty in measures of maximizing is problematic because the tendency to experience difficulty when making decisions is a separate individual difference construct already studied independently of maximizing -- namely, indecisiveness. Across two studies (total N = 639), we find that scales measuring decision difficulty and indecisiveness are strongly correlated (r's ≥ .85), load on the same component in a principal component analysis, and show a very similar pattern of correlations with related variables. Moreover, decision difficulty and indecisiveness scales both show a divergent pattern of correlations when compared to measures of maximizing. We argue that decision difficulty scales are best interpreted as tapping the same underlying tendency as indecisiveness scales, and conclude that the tendency to experience difficulty in decision making is best conceptualized not as a component of maximizing, but rather a cause or consequence of it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research seeks revealing the cognitive, value and behavioral dimensions carried by Muslims towards the feelings of pilgrimage, and to study the reality of maximizing the sacred feelings through employ the approaches of cognitive and communicative analysis in testing the nature of knowledge and attitudes and behaviors of the "pilgrims" that is reflected in the there maximizing towards the pilgrimage represented in the rituals and feelings of Hajj. The researcher has adopted an integrated approach between the methods of extrapolation in Shariaa sciences and the methods of analysis in communication and cognitive studies. The research has divided into four main axes, which began with a methodological introduction that defined the nature of the study and the methodological tools used to accomplish it, followed by a conceptual axis known as the most important terminology and a theoretical axis that presented a survey of the relevant literature and a review of previous studies. The fourth axis discussed the aspects of maximization and its purposes. The fourth axis was an extensive discussion of the manifestations of exaltation and purposes, and one of the most important results of the research is that the pilgrimage is a religious corner and a global Islamic cultural phenomenon that have social and cultural influences on the pilgrims lives, The research was divided into four main axes that started with a methodological introduction, a conceptual axis known as the search terms and a theoretical axis provided a survey of the literature and a review of previous relevant studies. The fourth axis provided an extensive discussion of the aspects of glorification and its purposes. In the life of pilgrims, and the implications for the outside world in political and economic relations between Muslims, and commercial transactions between them and other countries and peoples of the world, the pilgrimage has an economic impact in developing the behavior of pilgrims financial and savings, and ended with research with several recommendations, including: For a call to achieve complementarity between the curricula of social and human sciences and the facts of divine revelation, and to define the most important results of that integration and employ it to enhance the places of pilgrimage in places, times, feelings, and rituals for pilgrims. Employing theories and hypotheses of sciences, such as social psychology, communication, and sociology, to study crowds of pilgrims and analyze their regularity, consistency, and communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the impact of maximizing decision-making style on managerial effectiveness with a group of 319 working managers in the us. Findings suggest that managers who apply a maximizing decision making style were more effective than those who satisfice. It was also found that locus of control plays a mediating role in this relationship. Maximizers who have an internal locus of control were significantly more likely to be effective in their positions. The results suggest that the combination of maximizing and internality of control provide a powerful recipe for managerial success. Results, implications, and future research directions are discussed in relation to the current findings.

Do maximizers maximize across decision domains? An assumption underlying the literature on maximizing is that the tendency to strive to make the best choice spans domains. The current research provides a direct test of this assumption by examining the association between trait maximizing and domain-specific maximizing, consisting of maximizing measures in a wide range of decisions (consumer goods, services and experiences, and life decisions). Study 1 tested this association at two different time points in order to minimize common method bias. Study 2 was a high-powered pre-registered cross-sectional replication. Results of both studies showed that trait maximizing was associated with higher maximizing tendencies across all three decision domains. However, in line with prior research suggesting that people generally maximize less in experiential than in material domains, trait maximizing was associated with maximizing in services and experiences significantly less than with maximizing in consumer goods or in life decisions. These results provide empirical support for a central tenet of maximizing theory and suggest useful directions for future research.

Introduction: Maximization, the tendency to make the best choices by thoroughly searching and comparing alternatives, has long been considered a negative correlate of well-being. However, recently, it was proposed that having a maximizing tendency can lead to better coping efforts in some stressful situations and thus could be more adaptive. The objective of the present research was to demonstrate positive features of maximization and identify the coping strategies that mediate the relationship between maximization and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic., Methods: A sample of 3,493 participants responded to an online survey from January 20 to October 11 of 2020. The 13-item Maximization Scale assessed individuals' maximizing tendency in terms of the maximization index and its three subdimensions (i.e., high standards, alternative search, and decision difficulty). The use of four coping strategies (i.e., preventive measures, cognitive appraisal, self-distraction, and social connection) during the COVID-19 pandemic was assessed. Hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being were measured. We developed a mediation model and examined both whether there was an indirect link between maximization and well-being through the coping strategies and whether there was a direct link between maximization and well-being., Results: Path analysis revealed negative direct associations between maximization measures (i.e., an index and three subdimensions) and well-being. In addition, significant indirect paths were found with varying directions depending on maximization dimensions and coping strategy types. There were positive indirect associations between the maximization index and well-being via preventive measures, between high standards and well-being through preventive measures and cognitive appraisal, and between alternative search and well-being through self-distraction and social connection. Negative indirect associations were found between decision difficulty and well-being through cognitive appraisal, self-distraction, and social connection., Discussion: The current study confirmed the existence of inconsistent mediation effects between maximization and well-being via coping and highlighted coping efforts as one of the positive aspects of maximization. Discussion addressed the double-edged effect of maximization on well-being and its beneficial nature in times of distress. Future studies should examine other potential situations and moderators that can delineate maximization's various characteristics with a longitudinal design and samples from diverse backgrounds., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Jun, Choi and Kim.)

Self‐customization in online shopping contexts readily offers an abundance of options for consumers. However, the sheer amount of information can quickly become overwhelming. One way to give people the freedom to choose without overwhelming them with information is to simplify the decision process by breaking it down into a series of smaller steps. Contrary to a common assumption that simpler decisions increase choice likelihood, however, this study demonstrates that a simple by‐attribute self‐customization process may activate a maximizing mindset, which increases people's desire to find better options and decreases their satisfaction with the ones available. Consequently, simplifying the self‐customization process can sometimes backfire by decreasing choice likelihood. Three studies suggest that although by‐attribute self‐customization formats are easier to choose from, compared with more complex matrix formats, they may sometimes—paradoxically—increase choice deferral. The findings suggest that a maximizing mindset mediates this effect, casting doubt on information‐based alternative explanations. The findings also suggest that whether by‐attribute self‐customization increases or decreases choice likelihood may depend on the presence of objective quality cues, which indicate that an objectively‐best option can be found. This study furthers the understanding of how decision difficulty and maximizing influence self‐customization decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Applying the concept of maximizing—careful evaluation of options in pursuit of optimal goals—to career decisions, the authors developed the Career Maximizing Scale (CMS). The measure was administered to samples of working adults and university students across 3 studies. Factor analysis indicated that the measure is unidimensional and has favorable psychometric properties. Career maximizing was related to but distinct from general maximizing. Career maximizing was positively related to indicators of decision confidence (e.g., career decision‐making self‐efficacy) and positively related to desirable career outcomes (e.g., career satisfaction). Career maximizing was also modestly related to certain desirable academic outcomes (e.g., commitment to university major). Use of the CMS may facilitate effective career counseling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Why do maximizers—those who seek to make the very best choice by exhaustively searching out and comparing alternatives—place such high value on choice in the face of so much regret, dissatisfaction, and stress during the choice process? In five studies (total N = 1479), we drew on the two-component model of maximizing to better understand this maximization paradox. Distinguishing between the goal of choosing the best and the strategy of alternative search, we found that the two components of maximizing predicted opposing experiences with choice—the maximization goal was related to positive experiences with and beliefs about choice, whereas the maximization strategy was related to negative experiences with and beliefs about choice. Considering the two components of maximizing separately thus helps explain why maximizers have both more positive and more negative reactions to choice than do satisficers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The agent-relative/agent-neutral distinction is one of the most important in contemporary moral theory. Yet providing an adequate formal account of it has proven to be difficult. In this article I defend a new formal account of the distinction, one that avoids various problems faced by other accounts. My account is based on an influential account of the distinction developed by McNaughton and Rawling. I argue that their approach is on the right track but that it succumbs to two serious objections. I then show how to formulate a new account that follows the key insights of McNaughton and Rawling's approach yet avoids the two objections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Do maximizers maximize across decision domains? An assumption underlying the literature on maximizing is that the tendency to strive to make the best choice spans domains. The current research provides a direct test of this assumption by examining the association between trait maximizing and domain-specific maximizing, consisting of maximizing measures in a wide range of decisions (consumer goods, services and experiences, and life decisions). Study 1 tested this association at two different time points in order to minimize common method bias. Study 2 was a high-powered pre-registered cross-sectional replication. Results of both studies showed that trait maximizing was associated with higher maximizing tendencies across all three decision domains. However, in line with prior research suggesting that people generally maximize less in experiential than in material domains, trait maximizing was associated with maximizing in services and experiences significantly less than with maximizing in consumer goods or in life decisions. These results provide empirical support for a central tenet of maximizing theory and suggest useful directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on Herbert Simon’s critique of rational choice theory, Schwartz et al. (2002) proposed that when making choices, some individuals — maximizers — search extensively through many alternatives with the goal of making the best choice, whereas others — satisficers — search only until they identify an option that meets their standards, which they then choose. They developed the Maximization Scale (MS) to measure individual differences in maximization, and a substantial amount of research has now examined maximization using the MS, painting a picture of maximizers that is generally negative. Recently, however, several researchers have criticized the MS, and almost a dozen new measures of maximization have now been published, resulting in a befuddling and contradictory literature. We seek to clarify the confusing literature on the measurement of maximization to help make sense of the existing findings and to facilitate future research. We begin by briefly summarizing the understanding of maximizers that has emerged through research using Schwartz et al.’s MS. We then review the literature on the measurement of maximization, attempting to identify the similarities and differences among the 11 published measures of maximization. Next, we propose a two-component model of maximization, outlining our view of how maximization should be conceptualized and measured. Our model posits that maximization is best understood as the pursuit of the maximization goal of choosing the best option through the maximization strategy of alternative search; other constructs such as decision difficulty and regret are best considered outcomes or causes — rather than components — of maximization. We discuss the implications of our review and model for research on maximization, highlighting what we see as pressing unanswered questions and important directions for future investigations.

The current study aims to explore how the decision-making style of maximizing affects subjective well-being (SWB), which mainly focuses on the confirmation of the mediator role of regret and suppressing role of achievement motivation. A total of 402 Chinese undergraduate students participated in this study, in which they responded to the maximization, regret, and achievement motivation scales and SWB measures. Results suggested that maximizing significantly predicted SWB. Moreover, regret and achievement motivation (hope for success dimension) could completely mediate and suppress this effect. That is, two competing indirect pathways exist between maximizing and SWB. One pathway is through regret. Maximizing typically leads one to regret, which could negatively predict SWB. Alternatively, maximizing could lead to high levels of hope for success, which were positively correlated with SWB. Findings offered a complex method of thinking about the relationship between maximizing and SWB.

Abstract: In this paper, we explore the relationships between psychometric and behavioral measures of maximization in decisions from experience (DfE). In two experiments, we measured choice behavior in two experimental paradigms of DfE and self‐reported maximizing tendencies using three prominent scales of maximization. In the repeated consequentialist choice paradigm, participants made repeated choices between two unlabeled options and received consequential feedback on each trial. In the sampling paradigm, participants freely sampled from two options and received feedback on their sampling before making a single consequential choice. Individuals exhibited different degrees of maximizing behavior in both paradigms and across different payoff distributions, but none of the maximizing scales predicted this behavior. These results indicate that maximization scales address constructs that are different from the maximization behavior observed in DfE, and that these measures will need to be improved to reflect behavioral aspects of choice and search from experience. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have shown that the maximizing orientation, reflecting a motivation to select the best option among a given set of choices, is associated with various negative psychological outcomes. In the present studies, we examined whether these relationships extend to friendship selection and how the number of options for friends moderated these effects. Across 5 studies, maximizing in selecting friends was negatively related to life satisfaction, positive affect, and self-esteem, and was positively related to negative affect and regret. In Study 1, a maximizing in selecting friends scale was created, and regret mediated the relationships between maximizing and well-being. In a naturalistic setting in Studies 2a and 2b, the tendency to maximize among those who participated in the fraternity and sorority recruitment process was negatively related to satisfaction with their selection, and positively related to regret and negative affect. In Study 3. daily levels of maximizing were negatively related to daily well-being, and these relationships were mediated by daily regret. In Study 4, we extended the findings to samples from the U.S. and Japan. When participants who tended to maximize were faced with many choices, operationalized as the daily number of friends met (Study 3) and relational mobility (Study 4), the opportunities to regret a decision increased and further diminished well-being. These findings imply that, paradoxically, attempts to maximize when selecting potential friends is detrimental to one's well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]