Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumokok) je jedan od vodećih uzroka morbiditeta i mortaliteta širom sveta, kada su u pitanju infektivne bolesti. Pretežno izaziva infekcije gornjih respiratornih puteva (sinuzitis, otitis) i konjunktivitis. Vodeći je uzročnih vanbolničkih pneumonija, bakterijskog meningitisa i sepse. Lekovi izbora u terapiji pneumokoknih bolesti su beta laktamski antibiotici i makrolidi. Iako se makrolidni antibiotici uveliko koriste u lečenju pneumokoknih infekcija širom sveta, porast rezistencije na makrolide bi mogao da kompromituje njihovu upotrebu. Rezistencija pneumokoka na makrolide je posredovana putem dva glavna mehanizma: modifikacija ciljnog mesta delovanja leka i aktivni efluks leka. Metilaciju 23S ribozomalne ribonukleinske kiseline (rRNK) obavlja enzim metilaza, čiju sintezu kodira ermB gen. Kod ovog tipa rezistencije dolazi do ukrštene rezistencije na makrolide (M), linkozamide (L) i streptogramine B (Sb). Ovakav vid rezistencije se ispoljava kao MLSb - fenotip i karakteriše ga visok nivo rezistencije. Može se javiti kao konstitutivni (cMLS) i inducibilni (iMLS). Drugi mehanizam rezistencije na makrolide je aktivni efluks leka, kodiran od strane mefA gena. Efluks antibiotik a determiniše rezistenciju samo na 14-člane i 15-člane makrolide, bez ukrštene rezistencije. Ispoljava se kao M-fenotip, a karakteriše ga niži stepen rezistencije. Cilj ove studije je bio da se odredi u čestalost makrolidne rezistencije Streptococcus pneumoniae među invazivnim i neinvazivnim izolatima kod dece i odraslih, da se odrediti u čestalost korezistencije i multiple rezistencije kod makrolid rezistentnih sojeva Streptococcus pneumoniae, da se fenotipski odredi tip rezistencije na makrolide i da se ispita genska osnova makrolidne rezistencije (detektovati prisustvo ermB i mefA gena). Analizirani su podaci o 326 sojeva Streptococcus pneumoniae rezistentnih na makrolide (MRSP) sakupljenih širom Srbije u periodu od januara 2010. do decembra 2012. godine. Sakupljeni MRSP izolati su transportovani u Nacionalnu referentnu laboratoriju za streptokok radi daljih ispitivanja. Identifikacija je vršena na osnovu mikroskopskih, kulturelnih i biohemijskih osobina. Konzervacija je vršena u moždano-srčanom bujonu sa 10% sadržajem glicerola na -80°C. Dvostruki disk difuzioni test, kombinovani difuzion odilucioni test i automatizovani VITEK 2 sistem su korišćeni za određivanje fenotipova rezistencije na makrolide. Geni koji kodiraju rezistenciju na makrolide su detektovani PCR metodom. Ukupna rezistencija sojeva S.pneumoniae na makrolide u Srbiji je iznosila 34%. Sojevi S.pneumoniae rezistentni na makrolide su češće bili izolovani kod dece (36%) u odnosu na odrasle (29%) osobe, i češće su izolovani iz neinvazivnih (35,5%) u odnosu na invazivne (27,4%) materijale. Dominantan fenotip rezistencije na makrolide je bio MLSb fenotip (78,5%). Konstitutivan MLS fenotip je bio zastupljen kod 73,9%, a inducibilan MLS kod 4,6% MRSP izolata. Potvrđena je udruženost mefA gena i M fenotipa; ermB gena i iMLS fenotipa, kao i ermB gena i cMLS fenotipa. Prisustvo oba ermB i mefA gena rezistencije je potvrđeno kod 43,9 % izolata. Svi izolati sa koji su imali oba gena rezistencije su ispoljili MLSb fenotip. Istovremena neosetljivost na penicilin je bila zastupljena kod 16% MRSP sojeva. Visok nivo rezistencije na penicilin je imalo svega 5,8% MRSP izolata. Među MRSP sojevima je bio prisutan visok nivo rezistencije na tetraciklin (81,3%) i trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol (74,3%). Multirezistenti sojevi, koji su bili rezistentni na tetracikline i trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol su predstavljali dve trećine (66,1%) MRSP izolata. Zastupljenost udružene rezistencije MRSP na tetraciklin i trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol je bila veća kod sojeva sa MLS fenotipom (73,1%) u odnosu na sojeve sa M fenotipom (36,7%). Zastupljenost istovremene rezistencije na makrolide i druge antibiotike među kojima su penicilin, amoksicilin, cefotaksim, tetraciklin, trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol, kao i multirezistentnih sojeva je bila veća kod pedijatrijskih izolata pneumokoka u odnosu na sojeve dobijene kod odraslih. U čestalost istovremene rezistencije na makrolide i druge antibiotike među kojima su tetraciklin i ofloksacin je bila više prisutna među neinvazivnim u odnosu na invazivne MRSP izolate. Invazivni MRSP izolati iz likvora su pokazivali veću rezistenciju na beta laktamske antibiotike u odnosu neinvazivne sojeve. MRSP sojevi su pokazali veoma visok nivo osetljivosti na levofloksacin (99,6), telitromicin (98,4%), cefotaksim (93,5%), i mipenem (97,3%). MRSP sojevi su u potpunosti bili osetljivi na vankomicin, linezolid, moksifloksacin, sparfloksacin, rifampicin i pristinamicin. Među invazivnim sojevima S.pneumoniae rezistentnim na makrolide je nađeno 12 različitih serotipova. Polovina izolata je pripadala serotipovima 19F (25%) i 14 (23%), dok su sledeći po učestalosti bili 6A (10,4%) i 23F (8,3%). Istovremena rezistencija na makrolide, penicilin, tetracikline i trimetoprim-sulfametoksazol je nađena kod serotipova 19F, 14 i 23F, dok su serotpovi 12F i 31 bili neosetljivi samo na makrolide. Naše istraživanje predstavlja prvu detaljnu analizu fenotipskih i genotipskih osobina sojeva pneumokoka rezistentnih na makrolidne antibiotike u Srbiji. Dobijeni rezultati ukazuju na potrebu za aktivnim nadzorom nad pneumokoknim infekcijama u Srbiji., Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is one of the leading morbidity and mortality causes all over the world with respect to infectious diseases. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading cause of upper respiratory tract infections ( sinusitis, otitis) and conjunctivitis. It is also the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia, bacterial meningitis and sepsis. Beta lactam and macrolide antibiotics remained a first choice for empirical treatment of pneumococcal infections. Although macrolides are widely used for treatment of pneumococcal infections, an increase in macrolide resistance might compromise their use. Pneumococcal macrolide resistance is mediated by two major mechanisms: target site modification and active drug efflux. Methylation of the 23S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is performed by the enzyme methylase, encoded by the ermB gene. Modification of ribosomal targets leads to cross-resistance to macrolides (M), lincosamides (L) and streptogramins B (Sb). It is expressed as the MLSb –phenotype, which confers a high-level resistance. This phenotype can be either constitutively (cMLS) or inducibly (iMLS). expressed. Another macrolide resistance mechanism is the active drug efflux, encoded by the mefA gene. The drug efflux confers resistance to 14- and 15-membered macrolides only, with no cross-resistance. It is expressed as the M-phenotype, which confers low-level resistance. The objective of this study was : 1) to examine the prevalence of macrolide resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (MRSP) among invasive and noninvasive isolates in children and adults, 2) to examine the prevalence of coresistance and multiple-resistance among MRSP strains, 3) to examine the prevalence of macrolide resistant phenotypes, and 4) to examine the prevalence of macrolide resistant genotypes (detect the presence of the ermB and mefA gene). A total of 326 MRSP strains were analyzed, which were collecte dall over Serbia in the period from January, 2010 - December, 2012. The collected MRSP isolates were referred to the National Reference Laboratory for streptococci and pneumococci for further investigation. Identification based on microscopic, culture and biochemical features of the isolates. Conservation was performed in the brain-heart infusion broth with a 10% glycerol content at -80°C. Macrolide resistance phenotypes were determined by a double disc diffusion test, combine d diffusion-dilution test and automatized VITEK 2 system. Macrolide resistance genes were determined by PCR. Overall, macrolide nonsusceptibility rate in Serbia was 34%. MRSP isolates were more prevale nt among children (36%) than adults (29%), and were more prevalent among noninvasive (35.5%) than invasive (27.4%) samples. Predominant macrolide resistance phenotype was the MLS b phenotype (78.5%), from which 73.9 % belonged to cMLS and 4.6% to iMLS phenotype. All the strains assigne d to the MLSb phenotype harbored ermB gene, while all the strains with M phenotype had the mefA gene. The presence of both ermB and mefA resistance genes was confirmed in 43.9 % of isolates. All the isolates which harbored both resistance genes expressed the MLSb phenotype. Among macrolide resistant strains, penicillin nonsusceptiblility was observed in 16% . A high level resistance was confirmed in 5. 8% of MRSP isolates. MRSP strains showed high resistance rates to tetracyclin (81.3%) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (74.3%). Multiresistant strains, resistant to tetracyclines and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, made two thirds (66.1 %) of MRSP isolates. Among MRSP, co-resistance to tetracycline and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was more prevalent among MLS phenotypes (73.1%) than M phenotypes (36.7%). Co-resistance strains to macrolides and other antibiotics including penicillin, amoxicillin, cefotaxime, tetracyclin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and multiresistant strains were more prevalent among children than adult. Coresistance to macrolides and other antibiotics including tetracycline and ofloxacin was more prevalent among noninvasive than invasive strains. Invasive MRSP isolates from the cerebrospinal fluid showed a higher resistance rate to beta lactam antibiotics than noninvasive strains. MRSP strains had a high susceptibility rates to levofloxacin (99.6), telithromycin (98.4%), cefotak sime (93.5%) and imipenem (97.3%). MRSP strains were fully susceptible to vancomycin, linezolid, moxifloxacin, sparfloxacin, rifampicin a nd pristinamycin. Among macrolide resistant S.pneumoniae strains, 12 different serotypes were identified. One half of these isolates belonged to the 19F (27.1%) and 14 (22. 9%) serotype, followed in frequency by the 6A (10.41%) and 23F (8.3%) serotype . Multiresistant strains (macrolides, penicillin, tetracyclines and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) belonged to serotypes 19F, 14 and 23F, while the 12F and 31 serotype were resistant to macrolides only. This in vestigation represents the first detailed analysis of phenotypes and genotypes of macrolide resistant pneumococcal strains in Serbia. The obtained results suggest the need for an active surveillance of pneumococcal infections in Serbia.