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A series of controlled studies found that consumers counter-normatively prefer something nearly complete over something complete. We call this phenomenon the "one-away effect" because we find that when consumers are, for example, one stamp away from completing a punch card loyalty program, they value the card more than a completed card. This is because their valuation of the one-away card is influenced by their anticipation of merely completing the card, which generates its own utility, apart from the card's end-reward (a free coffee). To wit, the prospective utility of performing the final action that fulfills completion increases consumers' valuation of the one-away card. Our findings suggest that consumers are motivated to complete goals, tasks, and sets not only to obtain their end-rewards, but also because merely completing things is intrinsically motivating and can be a goal in and of itself. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the one-away effect, as well as the general notion of mere completion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Availability bias influences decisions by how readily certain events, objects, or people can be brought to mind. This " out of sight, out of mind " effect depends on whether these elements are present during decision-making. To promote sustainable food consumption, understanding this bias is crucial, as marketing promotions exhibit heterogeneity in terms of the salience, recency, and frequency with which they are administered. Our research examines the impact of different promotions that vary across these three dimensions on the demand for plant-based food products and their interaction with price sensitivity. We analyzed weekly purchases of 21 plant-based beverage brands across 242 stores in Quebec, Canada, from 2015 to 2016 using two-level mixed-effect regression models across four studies. Results from Study 1 indicate that flyer promotions that had high salience, recency, and frequency were most effective (B = 0.417, p < 0.001), compared to mobile promotions with low salience and variable recency and frequency (B = 0.233, p < 0.001) or in-store promotions of high salience but low recency and frequency (B = 0.073, p < 0.001). Of the mobile promotions evaluated in Study 2, advertisements promoting bonus loyalty points were the most effective in driving demand (B = 0.776, p < 0.001), followed by general advertisements (B = 0.125, p < 0.001). Demand was elastic across all models, and most promotions increased price sensitivities in Studies 3 and 4 regardless of their salience, recency, or frequency. The findings highlight the synergistic effect of promotional elements delivered both before and at the decision-making moment in overcoming availability bias to boost demand for sustainable products. However, frequent promotions may increase price sensitivities due to anchoring to promotional prices. This article has implications for theory and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversity of approaches for retaining participants in a Blockchain-based system complicates benchmarking. The majority of proposals for rewarding and penalizing participants in these systems are limited to their own set of data and scenarios, making it hard to compare their effectiveness. To overcome these challenges, we developed PyIncentiveBC, a free, open-source, and modular simulator designed to evaluate the reliability of any approach, incorporating a dynamic and proportionate incentivization mechanism proposed in our previous work. PyIncentiveBC aims to provide the scientific communities with an extensible software solution facilitating the benchmarking of existing approaches with new ones proposed by them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The insurance industry is one of the largest financial areas that due to its service nature, customers can create different values, and the marketing efforts of insurance companies in attracting and retaining different groups of customers have led them to implement various loyalty programs, in which one of the criteria for grouping customers is the customer lifetime value (CLV). In this regard, this research has been conducted with the aim of designing and evaluating the loyalty program of insurance industry customers based on their lifetime value as an applied mixed exploratory, and cross-sectional research. The statistical population of the classification stage was 800 customers registered in the database of Shiraz insurance branches in 2018, and the statistical sample for prioritizing loyalty programs was 40 customers who were randomly selected using the Morgan table and based on access and willingness to participate in the study, the sample was completed. In the first stage, through systematic review, 28 loyalty programs were identified, and 15 valid programs were extracted using the content validity ratio (CVR), and these programs were categorized, and the Kappa index was used to assess categorization reliability. Therefore, in the second stage, the weights of LRFM indexes were determined with the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and then the customers were classified into four groups of keys, intermittent, prodigal, and uncertain clusters customers using their data in insurance branches databank. Finally, the customers' priority of identified programs in each group was determined using the fuzzy best–worst method (FBWM). The findings show that from the perspective of customers, intangible and long-term programs are more attractive to key customers, while for intermittent customers, long-term tangible loyalty programs, for uncertain customers, immediate loyalty programs, and for prodigal customers, intangible loyalty programs are more attractive. The results of this study can be used in the formulation of loyalty programs in the insurance industry, in such a way that suitable loyalty programs are considered for each group of customers depending on the customers' CLV. Such as in designing loyalty programs, the tangibility and time horizon must be considered. Also, each group of programs must be suitable to customers' CLV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Availability bias influences decisions by how readily certain events, objects, or people can be brought to mind. This “out of sight, out of mind” effect depends on whether these elements are present during decision-making. To promote sustainable food consumption, understanding this bias is crucial, as marketing promotions exhibit heterogeneity in terms of the salience, recency, and frequency with which they are administered. Our research examines the impact of different promotions that vary across these three dimensions on the demand for plant-based food products and their interaction with price sensitivity. We analyzed weekly purchases of 21 plant-based beverage brands across 242 stores in Quebec, Canada, from 2015 to 2016 using two-level mixed-effect regression models across four studies. Results from Study 1 indicate that flyer promotions that had high salience, recency, and frequency were most effective (B = 0.417, p < 0.001), compared to mobile promotions with low salience and variable recency and frequency (B = 0.233, p < 0.001) or in-store promotions of high salience but low recency and frequency (B = 0.073, p < 0.001). Of the mobile promotions evaluated in Study 2, advertisements promoting bonus loyalty points were the most effective in driving demand (B = 0.776, p < 0.001), followed by general advertisements (B = 0.125, p < 0.001). Demand was elastic across all models, and most promotions increased price sensitivities in Studies 3 and 4 regardless of their salience, recency, or frequency. The findings highlight the synergistic effect of promotional elements delivered both before and at the decision-making moment in overcoming availability bias to boost demand for sustainable products. However, frequent promotions may increase price sensitivities due to anchoring to promotional prices. This article has implications for theory and practice.

Customers can belong to multiple competing loyalty programs each with multiple reward levels. We extend loyalty program theories by proposing five mechanisms that capture the competitive effects in multi-firm, multi-level loyalty programs. We empirically test our hypotheses using data from a loyalty program management app where customers manage points independently across competing firms. We utilize goal shielding theory to show how a customer's purchase at the focal firm is affected by the customer's purchases and redemptions across competing firms. Specifically, we find that a customer's purchase probability at the focal firm decreases after they qualify for a reward independent of redemption at a competing firm (competitive mere reward qualification) and after they redeem a reward at a competing firm (competitive rewarded behavior). Further, we find that the customer's purchase probability at the focal firm increases if the customer is far from both the qualified and higher-level rewards at the competing firm (competitive stuck-in-the-middle), and if the customer accelerated their purchase frequency to qualify for or redeem a reward at the competing firm (competitive effort balancing post qualification and redemption). Four lab experiments supplement our empirical findings with causal evidence. Our research shows that customer progress toward a goal in a loyalty program is influenced by competing loyalty programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loyalty programs are a prevalent and effective tool for attracting and retaining customers worldwide. They ensure the growth of sales and revenue for companies. Due to their successful outcomes, business representatives in Georgia have started implementing these programs. However, if not managed correctly, loyalty programs can become a complete waste of money despite their numerous positive effects. This paper presents the results of a survey conducted among Georgian consumers. Based on an online survey of 172 respondents, we discussed and analyzed their opinions regarding the proposed loyalty programs and identified the most common flaws and shortcomings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diversity of approaches for retaining participants in a Blockchain-based system complicates benchmarking. The majority of proposals for rewarding and penalizing participants in these systems are limited to their own set of data and scenarios, making it hard to compare their effectiveness. To overcome these challenges, we developed PyIncentiveBC, a free, open-source, and modular simulator designed to evaluate the reliability of any approach, incorporating a dynamic and proportionate incentivization mechanism proposed in our previous work. PyIncentiveBC aims to provide the scientific communities with an extensible software solution facilitating the benchmarking of existing approaches with new ones proposed by them.

Companies allocate significant resources in loyalty programs with the primary goal of enhancing customer loyalty. However, the effectiveness of these programs is now a subject of academic debate. Scholars highlight concerns such as the creation of spurious loyalty, the need for perceived value, and evolving consumer expectations. To succeed in this changing landscape, companies must embrace creativity and innovation in their loyalty program design. As creativity and innovations in loyalty programs are new and little-studied phenomenon, a comprehensive assessment of potential creative and innovative features in loyalty programs is essential for a deeper understanding of their influence on customer loyalty. The aim of this study was to measure the influence of creative and innovative loyalty programs' features on customers' attitudinal, conative, and behavioural loyalty. 203 respondents took part in the research. Ordered logistic regression analysis was used to reach the aim of the study. The research findings indicate that engagement-, gamification-, personalization-, and experience-based loyalty programs have an influence on customer loyalty. All four types of features of creative and innovative loyalty programs influence attitudinal and behaviour loyalty, and three types of features of loyalty programs, i.e., engagement-, gamification-, and experience-based, influence conative loyalty. The study findings underscore the importance of designing new features of loyalty programs that align with specific loyalty dimensions, as they can have differential effects on attitudinal, conative, and behavioural aspects of customer loyalty. Such insights are valuable for companies seeking to enhance customer loyalty through creative and innovative loyalty program design and implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Loyalty programs offer unique opportunities for firms to personalize their marketing communications to consumers. However, limited attention has been paid to how consumers' actions within a loyalty program can be leveraged to design effective personalized messages. Addressing this gap, the current research investigates how tier level and goal distance in hierarchical loyalty programs can dictate varying responses to cognitive vs. affective message designs. Through two lab experiments and one field study involving real email campaigns from an international frequent flyer program, we show that the two components work jointly through a Boolean-like mechanism to determine a consumer's mental construal level. A lower construal level results from simultaneous low tier and distance, which leads to a more favorable response to affective message appeals. In comparison, when either or both of tier level and goal distance are of high magnitude, the resulting higher construal level favors more cognitive message appeals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Service quality, loyalty programs, pricing strategies and customer engagement play a vital role in customer retention and firms' performance. The current study aims to investigate the service quality, loyalty programs, pricing strategies and customer engagement, and to examine the mediation effects on firms' performance. A quantitative method was employed using a survey to collect data from a random sample of relevant managers in travel agencies. Structural equation modelling (WarpPLS) is used to test the research propositions. The research uses a survey for data collection of 350 responses from travel agents' managers to test the associations between service quality, loyalty programs, pricing strategies and customer engagement, and customer retention and firms' performance. The finding revealed that the service quality, loyalty programs, pricing strategies and customer engagement have positively affected customer retention. In addition, customer retention has positively affected firms' performance. These findings have empirical implications for policymakers, trip planners, travel marketer's, governments and academics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors develop an incentive-aligned experimental paradigm to study how consumer purchase dynamics are affected by the interplay between competing firms' loyalty programs and their pricing and promotional strategies. In this experiment, participants made sequential choices between two competing airlines in a stylized frequent traveler task for which an optimal dynamic decision policy can be numerically computed. The authors find that, on average, participants are able to partially realize the long-term benefits from loyalty programs, though most are sensitive to price. They also find that participants' preferences and levels of bounded rationality depend on the nature of the competitive environment, the particular state of each decision scenario, and the type of optimal action. Accordingly, the authors use an approximate dynamic programming model to incorporate boundedly rational decision making. The model classifies participants into five segments that exhibit variation in their performance and decision strategies. Importantly, they find that participants are able to adapt their decision strategies to the environment they face, and thus the overall market outcome and the performance of each firm are influenced by both the competitive environment and the assumption on the extent of consumer optimality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the antecedents of airline travel intention, including the effects of crisis management, service quality perceptions, and loyalty programs, along with the fear of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and risk attitude among individuals from different parts of the world during the peak of the pandemic. Its main objective is to assess how these variables impact passenger airline travel intention. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to assess the measurement model and test the hypothesized relationships on the sample of 944 travelers. Results indicated strong positive associations between fear of COVID-19, risk-averse attitudes, and service quality with respect to travel intention. On the other hand, perception of crisis management handling and loyalty programs did not have significant influence on travel intention during the global pandemic. Interestingly, the researchers found that risk-averse attitude positively influences both crisis management and service quality perception. Therefore, airline decision-makers need to consider the psychological aspect of fear of COVID-19 and other researched dimensions to regain passenger confidence and stimulate travel demand regardless of the risk-averse attitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of digital technology has fundamentally transformed how businesses generate value for their customers. One of the critical components of this paradigm shift in digital transformation is improving customer experience, which benefits both consumers and organizations. This study aims to evaluate customer experience and its influence on customer satisfaction and loyalty in the digital wallet domain. It also analyzes the moderating role of loyalty programs. This study was conducted in the Indian context since, alongside advancements in technology and a focus on digitalization, there has been a substantial increase in the acceptance of cashless payment options. The data from 349 respondents using the snowball sampling technique were collected through Google Forms, and SmartPLS 4.0 was used for analysis.The results showed that loyalty and satisfaction are significantly influenced in the digital wallet domain if organizations work on factors affecting customer experience. The results also proved that loyalty programs moderate the relationship between customer experience and customer satisfaction.This analysis successfully unlocked the potential of loyalty programs and established that loyalty programs do not moderate customer loyalty. However, organizations must note that poorly designed loyalty programs are just like any other sale promotion scheme, which adds up to the promotional expense without achieving the overall long-term objective of sustaining loyal consumers.

We study the pricing strategy of retailers that promote their sales with a loyalty program. Past research shows that loyalty programs can generate switching costs for consumers and increase their purchase frequency. Theoretical work suggests that if switching costs are significant, firms should charge lower prices in the early periods of a program to boost market share, and increase prices in later periods, to take advantage of the "lock-in" effect. However, it is not clear whether these costs soften or exacerbate price competition. Using a large database of gas stations' prices in the Italian market, we study fuel prices in early and late periods of loyalty programs: the sharp price changes adopted by gas stations affiliated with the program during the introduction and termination dates of the program allow us to establish the causal relationship between the program and the pricing behavior of gas stations. We find evidence that gas stations affiliated with the program increase prices in later periods of the program, as predicted by theory. The higher prices of affiliated stations lead to an increase in prices, on average, across all other stations competing in the local market. We also find that affiliated stations reduce their prices in early periods of the program; however, this evidence is less conclusive, as our data cannot exclude other factors explaining the price reduction. We discuss implications for managers and policy makers. History: Avi Goldfarb served as the senior editor and Tat Chan served as associate editor for this article. Supplemental Material: The data files and online appendix are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mksc.2022.1416. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loyalty platforms are designed to increase customer loyalty and thus increase consumers' attraction to purchase. Although successful in increasing brand reach and sales, these platforms fail to meet their primary objective due to a lack of incentives and encouragement for customers to return. Along with the problem in originating sales, they bring excessive costs to brands due to the maintenance and infrastructure required to make the systems feasible. In that sense, recent blockchain technology can help to overcome some of these problems, providing capabilities such as smart contracts, which have the potential to reinvent the way loyalty systems work and solve current problems. Although blockchain is a relatively new technology, some brands are already investigating its usefulness and rebuilding their loyalty systems. However, these platforms are independent and linked directly to a brand. Thus, there is a need for a generic platform capable of creating and managing different loyalty programs, regardless of the size of the business. This paper explores the shortcomings of current loyalty programs identified through the literature review, and proposes a loyalty management system with blockchain integration that allows any retailer to create and manage their loyalty programs and have customers interact directly with multiple programs in a single application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article is to study tendencies in the behavior of Ukrainian consumers in the market after the onset of Russia’s military invasion, to define the factors that influence the level of the consumers’ loyalty to the products (services) of companies, and to develop recommendations for effective management of projects to increase the loyalty of the companies’ customers. The article stipulates that Russia’s large-scale military invasion of Ukraine significantly affected the existence and functioning of the majority of domestic companies, which have just begun to restore the performance indicators of their own business and adapted to work in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as the level of purchasing power of consumers. The state of Ukrainian business and trends in changes in consumer behavior in the market in conditions of war are considered. It is determined that entrepreneurs need to make every effort to retain their clientele and attract more new customers, and for this they need to develop and implement comprehensive loyalty programs that will allow building a long-term effective partnership with their target audience. The level of loyalty is the main indicator of the effectiveness of the company’s interaction with its consumers. The author has researched and proposed a classification of currently relevant factors influencing customer loyalty, account of which will contribute to the transition of regular customers of the company to the category of loyal. The expediency of implementing special projects for the development and implementation of loyalty programs in the company is substantiated. It is defined that the application of the project management methodology will contribute to their successful implementation in compliance with all restrictions: time, content, cost, and quality, as well as reduce risks and avoid or level numerous deviations in the project that arise as a result of changes in the external and internal environment. To implement projects, a team of highly qualified specialists must be formed. The success of implementing a program to increase customer loyalty depends on the competent management of the project by a professional project manager. Successful application of knowledge of project management methodology and professional management of a team of specialists will contribute to the effective management of projects to increase customer loyalty and achieve strategic goals in the company’s development

Modern food and grocery companies face a significant challenge when it comes to customer loyalty in developing economies. Therefore, loyalty programmes have risen to prominence in the marketing mix of merchants in an effort to influence the behavioural and affective commitment of their clientele. This research aims to shed light on the ways in which the psychological and emotional responses customers have towards loyalty programmes, affect their emotional loyalty. Shopper intercept techniques were used to gather primary data from 580 food and grocery retail customers drawn from supermarkets and hypermarkets in the Vijayawada City in Andhra Pradesh to test the hypothesised conceptual framework. The empirical findings of the study revealed that customers' emotional loyalty is significantly influenced by factors, such as perceived value, trust, commitment, inter-personal interactions, experiences, satisfaction and switching barriers linked with loyalty programmes. The results can inform the creation and assessment of loyalty programmes that try to alter customers' attitudes and behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The airline industry has been severely impacted by COVID-19 due to widespread travel restrictions. Its current response is crucial to ensure continued operations after the global pandemic is resolved. One resource the airlines are leveraging is loyalty programs. This study aims to examine the viability of leveraging loyalty programs in times of crisis. Design/methodology/approach – This study employs a case study methodology to examine how one company, American Airlines, has used its loyalty program to survive a pandemic and alleviate the financial costs associated with limited and restricted travel. Findings – American Airlines' AAdvantage loyalty program structure may be used as a benchmark to understand how airlines can anchor their loyalty base to reinvigorate travel interest and use these programs as safeguards in critical instances that may arise in the future. Research limitations/implications – The case was bound by the fact that the pandemic was still a threat during the time of analysis. The findings of this case study go beyond the airline industry and may inform other hospitality and tourism organizations on the benefits of loyalty programs in times of financial distress. Originality/value – This is the first known case study examining the strengths and opportunities of the structure of the American Airlines' AAdvantage program as a means for surviving in a time of crisis. Moreover, understanding how to mitigate the long-term effects of crises may help to inform future short-term strategies of airlines and other hospitality and tourism organizations for navigating unexpected shocks to their ecosystem.

Background: The introduction of advanced types of banking networks such as Online banking, Automated Teller Machines (ATM), telephone banking, as well as mature capital markets and global competition have prompted bankers to explore the value of consumer loyalty. Top companies know that the path to growth goes through their clients. Therefore, this research focuses on finding the impact of service quality, customer satisfaction and loyalty programs on customer's loyalty in banking sectors of Germany. Methods: The questionnaire was developed and polled to gather data from 331 clients with bank accounts in various banks in Germany. The five-dimensional model of SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1988, Kasiri et al., 2017) is used in this paper. Additionally, customer satisfaction was utilized to mediate the influence of service quality on customer loyalty among banking customers in Germany. Results: We suggested a new model that incorporates the direct impact of technology on consumer satisfaction. Analysis concluded that service quality, consumer retention and loyalty programs are essential aspects that can boost customer loyalty. So banks must concentrate on offering loyalty programs to their loyal consumers. Conclusion: Analysis suggests that banks should concentrate on enhancing the efficiency of their offerings in order to increase consumer retention and customer loyalty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many hotels have recently started to offer room upgrades digitally after the completion of booking to replace traditional front‐desk upselling during check‐in. Quickly becoming popular for upselling the premium rooms that may otherwise go unsold, standby upgrade—an availability‐based, discounted premium room upgrade—is a prominent example. However, customers, in particular loyalty members, may become knowledgeable about standby upgrades through repeated interactions with this technology, and act strategically, that is, initially choose a standard room with the expectation of being offered a premium room discount through standby upgrades. Consequently, while enjoying the benefits of this program, hotels may face the potential cannibalization of premium sales due to such strategic behavior and need to adjust their pricing accordingly. Using a major hotel chain's 16‐month booking and standby upgrades data, we empirically investigate the existence and extent of strategic customers in the context of standby upgrades. After showing preliminary evidence of potential strategic behavior, we develop a maximum likelihood estimator to estimate the percentage of customers who are strategic. This estimator captures the sequential nature of customer decision‐making for standby upgrades (booking decision, clicking the standby upgrades offer, and requesting an upgrade) through a Sequential Logit Model. We find evidence of strategic behavior in three (out of eight) hotels examined. Considering both a weak‐form and a strong‐form strategic behavior, our estimates suggest that 12%–42% of the loyalty customers act strategically in these three properties. We then propose a new pricing policy to help hoteliers maximize their premium room revenues from direct bookings and standby upgrade requests. This policy recommends a discounted full price, but also a higher standby upgrade price for loyalty customers, which can bring a revenue improvement of up to 19% over a policy ignoring the strategic behavior and 34% over a policy assuming that all customers are strategic—two reasonable benchmarks without an estimate of the fraction of strategic customers. Our research, thus, provides insights for technology managers on the potential customer behavioral challenges that a hotel may face with the adoption of a disruptive digital technology, and how existing policies may need to be adjusted for the technology to be successful. Highlights: Hotel customers, in particular loyalty members, may become knowledgeable about digital technologies through repeated interactions, and act strategically.For one such technology, hotel standby upgrades, which are availability‐based, discounted premium room upgrades offered digitally after the completion of booking, we find evidence of strategic behavior in 12%–42% of the loyalty members of three (out of eight) hotel properties examined.To maximize revenue from premium room sales while facing strategic behavior, hotels should adjust their pricing strategies to offer a discounted premium room price (at the time of booking) and a higher standby upgrade price for loyalty members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social media and loyalty programs are mainstays of contemporary marketing, but despite their prominence—and their potential synergies—the two are seldom researched together. Here, drawing on the heuristic-systematic model, we theorize and demonstrate that the dimensions of customer experience in brand-generated social media content lead to different sales responses from loyalty program and non-loyalty program customers. Based on several thousand social media posts connected to both loyalty and non-loyalty program sales, we show that relational and intellectual content have greater effects in driving sales to loyalty program members while behavioral content drives greater sales to non-loyalty program members. These findings improve our understanding of the financial outcomes of social media tactics, providing researchers and marketers with an understanding of the differences in responses across customer groups and a framework to optimize social media content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the extent to which free-play credits affected spend-per-trip levels in slots, with a focus on contributions from the loyalty program's (LP) light- and medium-user tiers. These user groups represent the bulk of LP members, and also comprise the area of the database for which spending gains are most important and equivocal. Daily, tier-level performance data were collected from four different casinos, which were owned and operated by a common parent company. Analysis of player performance data failed to indicate group-level differences in the spend-per-trip results produced by free-play redeemers and non-redeemers, within each of two tiers. These findings were produced by both parametric and nonparametric measures. The free-play group (FP) recorded a mean daily T-win that was significantly greater than that generated by the no-free play group (NFP) on a maximum of 2 days (out of 365), across all four properties and both tiers. Given that the players in FP were staked with free credits, it would appear that these awards served as bankroll substitutes, rather than sources of incremental play. With respect to own-money wagering, the lack of significant increases in win on free-play trips may be most aligned with the prospect-theory-with-memory effect. While our work expanded the literature by examining decision-making under risk, beyond two stages, our results did not generally support the house-money effect. For management, our findings signaled the need for a program review, as these expensive annual campaigns comprised a substantial percentage of the casino marketing budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]