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Abstract Lead‐acid batteries (LABs) are widely used as a power source in many applications due to their affordability, safety, and recyclability. However, as the demand for better electrochemical energy storage increases in various fields, there is a growing need for more advanced battery technologies. To meet this need, the application of LABs in hybrid electric vehicles and renewable energy storage has been explored, and the development of lead–carbon batteries (LCBs) has garnered significant attention as a promising solution. LCBs incorporate carbon materials in the negative electrode, successfully addressing the negative irreversible sulfation issue that plagues traditional LABs. Composite material additives and Pb–C composite electrodes have also gained popularity as effective ways to enhance negative electrode performance. This review article focuses on the role of carbon additives in the negative electrode of LCBs and discusses potential future additives that may be incorporated into the development of LCBs. Overall, this article provides insights into the potential of LCBs to offer more efficient and reliable energy storage.

The performance of lead-acid batteries could be significantly increased by incorporating carbon materials into the negative electrodes. In this study, a modified carbon material developed via a simple high-temperature calcination method was employed as a negative electrode additive, and we have named it as follows: N-doped chitosan-derived carbon (NCC). The performance of this material was compared with a control battery containing activated carbon (AC). X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Raman spectroscopy were engaged in analyzing the crystal structure and morphology of the material. Afterwards, the electrochemical and battery performance was examined through cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear voltammetry (LSV) and constant current charge-discharge testing. Markedly, the electrode plate containing 1 wt.% NCC indicates the highest specific capacity (106.48 F g−1) as compared to the control battery, which is 1.56 times higher than the AC electrode plate and 4.75 times higher than the blank electrode plate. The linear voltammetry shows that the hydrogen precipitation current density of the 1 wt.% NCC electrode plate is only −0.028 A cm−2, a much higher value than that of the AC electrode plate. In addition, the simulated battery containing 1 wt.% NCC has a cycle life of 4324 cycles, which is 2.36 times longer than that of the same amount of additive AC battery (1834 cycles) and 5.34 times longer than that of the blank battery (809 cycles). In summary, NCC carbon has the advantage of extending the life of lead-acid batteries, rendering it a promising candidate for lead-acid battery additives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lead-acid batteries (LABs) are widely used as a power source in many applications due to their affordability, safety, and recyclability. However, as the demand for better electrochemical energy storage increases in various fields, there is a growing need for more advanced battery technologies. To meet this need, the application of LABs in hybrid electric vehicles and renewable energy storage has been explored, and the development of lead--carbon batteries (LCBs) has garnered significant attention as a promising solution. LCBs incorporate carbon materials in the negative electrode, successfully addressing the negative irreversible sulfation issue that plagues traditional LABs. Composite material additives and Pb--C composite electrodes have also gained popularity as effective ways to enhance negative electrode performance. This review article focuses on the role of carbon additives in the negative electrode of LCBs and discusses potential future additives that may be incorporated into the development of LCBs. Overall, this article provides insights into the potential of LCBs to offer more efficient and reliable energy storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of carbon materials could significantly increase the cycle life of lead-acid batteries (LABs) by inhibiting the irreversible sulfation. However, it will exacerbate hydrogen evolution side reaction at the negative plates, which not only reduce coulombic efficiency, destroy the plate microstructure, but also accelerate moisture loss. Herein, a N-doped reduced graphene oxide/lead oxide nanoparticles(N-rGO/PbO) composite was synthesized by hydrothermal and calcination process. Comparative studies found that the strategy of loading with metal oxide nanoparticles, which with high hydrogen evolution overpotentials (ηH), and N-doped can retard the rate of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on composite materials. In addition, the resultant composite can help to promote the uniform distribution of graphene in negative active materials (NAM) and structural stability of the negative plate and enhance the combination between the additive and NAM. Thanks to the superiority of the prepared composite material additives, the high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) life of lead-carbon battery (LCB) containing the composite additive shown a prominent enhancement. Specifically, the simulated micro battery containing 0.50 wt% N-rGO/PbO additive showed the best cycle life (17390 cycles), compared to that with same content rGO additive (7742 cycles) and that without any carbon additive (2777 cycles). What’s more, by adding 0.50 wt% N-rGO/PbO additive, the initial discharge capacity of simulated micro battery could be enhanced from 145.6 to 162.6 mAh g−1 and the rate capability had also been improved. In summary, the N-rGO/PbO composite manifests great potential in lead-carbon batteries for improving HRPSoC cycle life and discharge capacity.

The sulfation and serious hydrogen evolution reaction render a substantial obstacle for the further development of lead-carbon batteries (LCBs). Herein, lead tartrate precursors derived from spent lead paste are pyrolyzed to in-situ synthesize a carbon encapsulated Pb/PbO nanoparticles, which are introduced as additives into the negative electrodes of LCBs. The in-situ formed carbon encapsulation Pb/PbO nanoparticles ensure the long-lasting inhibition of the hydrogen evolution reaction in the negative electrodes. The discharge capacity after the introduction of the composites is improved by 24 % compared with the control at 0.1C, and the cycle life is almost twice as long as the control. The remarkable hydrophilicity of the composites as 3D electro-osmotic pumps facilitates the absorption and transportation of electrolyte to the negative active materials. Additionally, the carbon encapsulated Pb/PbO nanoparticles could provide abundant nucleation sites for Pb/PbSO 4 conversion and reinforce the reversibility of the transformation between the substances. Benefiting the cooperative interaction between the multiple mechanisms in the composites, the sulfation and serious hydrogen evolution on the negative electrode are dramatically inhibited, consequently thus contributing to the admirable promotion of the overall performances of LCBs. [Display omitted] • The Pb–C composites derived from spent lead paste were prepared. • The Pb/PbO nanoparticles inhibits the hydrogen evolution of negative electrode. • The action mechanism of the composite in LCBs was systematically elucidated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a more reliable form of energy storage than lead-acid battery, lead–carbon battery plays a key role in the field of electric vehicles and energy storage systems, but it still faces some problems in the application process. To prolong the cycle life of lead–carbon batteries under high rate partial state of charge (HRPSoC) duty and focus on solving the problem of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) of batteries, a facile strategy using phosphoric acid as activator for preparing P-doped biomass-derived mesoporous carbon was proposed. Compared with commercial activated carbon (AC) and carbon material obtained under other preparation conditions, the P-RHMC-2 using material ratio with 1:2 as well as activated at 550 ℃ has the highest mesoporous rate and excellent P-doping effect. In the electrochemical test, P-RHMC-2 inhibits HER dramatically and improves the cycle life of lead–carbon battery significantly under HRPSoC duty when it applied to the negative electrode of the batteries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we described a design scheme for a lead-carbon battery energy storage system (BESS). A two-stage topology of lead-carbon battery energy storage system was adopted. The number and connection structure of battery cells were designed based on the actual demand. The main circuit parameters of the BESS were determined according to the power transfer capability, harmonic suppression, and dynamic response capability. A state feedback linearization method in a nonlinear differential geometry theory was used for dq-axis current decoupling based on the mathematical model used in the dq coordinate system of the BESS. A control strategy based on filter capacitor current inner loop, grid current middle loop, and dc voltage outer loop was adopted to suppress the resonance peak and achieve the independent regulation of active power and reactive power. The PSCAD/EMTDC simulation results and physical prototype experiments showed that the lead-carbon BESS had a good dynamic and steady-state performance.

Chitosan, extenders anointed and in-situ synthesis method were used to synthesize anode-composite lead-carbon batteries.SEM, EDS, BET and RM were used to characterize and analyze the morphology of carbon materials.The results show that chitosan-carbon has non-crystal structures.Its pore size distribution is between 5-10nm.Specific surface area reaches to 487.4m2/g.The negative composite material electrode is mixed with a conductive agent to produce pastel.Pb-C analog battery was assembled.Electrochemical workstation is used to test chronoamperometry curves, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy so as to evaluate the possibility of in-situ synthesis anode composite material and its potential value of practical application.Electrochemical testing results show that the Pb-C negative plate,which is made by anode composite carbon material as the carbon source of in-situ synthesis of chitosan, possessing better electrochemical performance and smaller resistance.Its specific capacitance of cyclic voltammogram test is 162.9F/g with longer first discharge platform,the ultimate capacity reaches to 108.722mAh·g-1 when chitosan as carbon source, the specific capicity is 98% of the theoretical capacity. After 1000times of cycle there is almost no decay in capacity.

Abstract Novel PbO@C composite is synthesized through an optimized mechano-chemical method and used as negative active materials for enhanced performance of lead-carbon battery. Mechanical ball-milling of solid lead acetate, sodium hydroxide and carbon additives (Vulcan-72) would generate uniform composite of lead oxide and carbon (PbO@C) via chemical reactions and mechanical dispersion. The constant mechanical impact and friction during ball-milling leads to lattice distortion and enables intimate connection between Pb and C in the synthesized PbO@C composite, which is proved to be critical for the enhanced battery performance. The specific capacity is higher than battery with direct addition of carbon as additives (126.5 vs. 118.9 mAh g−1), and the cycle performance under high rate partial-state-of-charge duty is also improved. Batteries with the utilization of PbO@C composite accomplished 15119, 11296, 9882, 8336 and 7038 cycles within five consecutive cycle-sets of cycle test, with a decreasing rate of 19.12%, which was drastically lower than battery with direct addition of VC 72 (30.14%). The proposed research provides a promising strategy for feasible synthesis of negative active materials for lead-carbon batteries. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • A mechano-chemical method is developed for the preparation of PbO@C composite. • Intimate connection between lead and carbon in PbO@C composite is achieved. • The PbO@C composite could be directly used as NAMs rather than additives. • Lead-carbon battery with PbO@C composite as NAMs shows enhanced performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, a novel three-dimensional(3D) hierarchical porous lead-carbon composite (Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC) derived from corn stover biomass was prepared by chemical deposition coupled with pyrolysis to alleviate the problems associated with the high occurrence of the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and irreversible sulfation of the negative electrode under a high-rate partial state of charge (HRPSoC). As an additive of negative electrode in lead-carbon battery. PbO, evenly distributed on the Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC composite, effectively inhibits the HER, acting as a nucleus for the active substance Pb, refining the grains of sponge Pb, and maintaining the high electrochemical active area of the electrode. The Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC composite with a high specific surface area and porosity possesses good ion channels, provides an ion reservoir, and effectively inhibits irreversible sulfation. As a result, the initial discharge capacity of the battery with Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC (164 mAh·g-1) is greater than that of the blank battery (109 mAh·g-1). The cycling life of the Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC battery (10120 cycles) is 9.4 times that of a blank battery (1073 cycles). Our work provides insights into how to regulate the specific surface area and porosity of lead-carbon additives and makes full use of biomass straw to provide new ideas for solving the environmental problems caused by straw incineration. It is the embodiment of the circular economy. [Display omitted] • Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC composite has high specific surface area and porosity. • The composite maintains the high electrochemically active area of the electrode. • Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC composite effectively inhibits the hydrogen evolution. • Nano-PbO@3DCSHPAC battery has excellent performance. • Make full use of biomass stover to alleviate the problems caused by incineration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to improve reliability of power supply and ensure safety production of coal mine, a lead-carbon battery energy storage system used as emergency power supply for coal mine ventilator was introduced, and system structure, grid access way, system functions, start and quit strategy were described. The system can provide one hour power supply to coal mine ventilator when there is a local grid failure, and guarantee regular operation and safety production for coal mine.

Abstract The cycle life of lead-carbon battery is greatly restricted by the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) of lead-carbon electrode. Lead carbon composite, rather than the pure carbon additive, inhibits the HER effectively, and may also strengthen the connection between lead and carbon components of lead-carbon electrode, which contributes to the performance enhancement of lead-carbon battery. In this paper, a novel lead carbon (C/Pb) composite is prepared by electroless plating lead on the rice-husk-based hierarchical porous carbon. The as-prepared C/Pb composite significantly suppresses the HER, and enlarges the electrochemically active surface area of the lead-carbon electrode. As expected, the cycle life of lead carbon battery with the optimized C/Pb composite in negative electrode is >11 times of the blank one under high-rate partial state-of-charge (HRPSoC) operation. This performance improvement is attributed to the enhanced interface between lead and carbon, and the inhibition effect on HER of C/Pb composite. Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image Highlights • C/Pb composite inhibits the hydrogen evolution of lead-carbon negative electrode. • Conductive network of electrode is strengthened by C/Pb composite. • A balance point of enlarged active surface and strengthened structure is achieved. • The C/Pb composite improves the reversibility of lead-carbon electrode. • The cycle life of lead-carbon battery is greatly prolonged by C/Pb composite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sisal is a perennial tropical biomass with largest dosage in industry. Due to the special hard structure of sisal fiber, it can be prepared as carbon material and applied for negative material of lead-carbon battery. The pretreatment of sisal fiber was carried out by 5% NaOH and 5% H 3 PO 4 and tested by the measurement of FTIR, thermogravimetric analysis and SEM. Carbazole was doped in pretreated sisal fiber to prepare carbon material by a simple approach with two-step method. The characterization of the synthesis doped-N carbon material was tested by Raman, BET, XRD and EDS. According to the result of BET, it was turned out that the doped-N carbon material had a larger specific surface area. And the electrochemical properties were measured by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Besides, the cycling life test and charge/discharge curve were performed on battery testing instrument. In addition, the lead-carbon battery contained doped-N carbon material had a longer discharge plateau and a higher ultimate capacity. It was concluded that doped-N carbon material had a better electrochemical performance compared to undoped-N carbon material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel Pb x O y @SiO z /Carbon (PSC) composite has been synthesized and added with quantities between 0 wt% and 2 wt% to the negative active material of lead-acid batteries in this paper. Unique morphology of the obtained composite is detected by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM), while the Pb x O y is coated by SiO 2 firstly and then the obtained spherical particles are wrapped by amorphous carbon as a whole. The electrochemical characterizations are performed using a three-electrode system, and results show that the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) can be inhibited compared with sole carbon. Finally, 2.0 V single-cell lead-acid batteries are assembled with 0 wt%–2 wt% PSC additive in the negative active materials (NAM). Battery with 0.5 wt% PSC exhibit the most superior performance including the highest capacity as well as the best high-rate partial state-of-charge (HRPSoC) cycling performance due to the integrative actions, which are investigated in detail in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lead-acid battery (LAB) has been in widespread use for many years due to its mature technology, abound raw materials, low cost, high safety, and high efficiency of recycling. However, the irreversible sulfation in the negative electrode becomes one of the key issues for its further development and application. Lead-carbon battery (LCB) is evolved from LAB by adding different kinds of carbon materials in the negative electrode, and it has effectively suppressed the problem of negative irreversible sulfation of traditional LAB. Different carbon materials play different roles in LCB, including construction of conductive network, double-layer capacitance storage effect, formation of porous structure and steric effect. Moreover, research on composite material additives (such as Pb-C composite materials and polymer-C composite materials) and Pb-C composite electrode have become a research focus in the past few years; it has been another effective way to improve the performance of the negative electrode. On the other hand, due to the relatively low overpotential of carbon materials, the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) will be aggravated in LCB, which affects its electrochemical performance. It is necessary to modify carbon additives or add other additives to inhibit the HER. This paper will attempt to summarize the roles of carbon additives in the negative electrode made by previous research and illustrate the effect of composite material additives and Pb-C composite electrode on the negative electrode. Moreover, we will also sum up the method for solving the HER by reviewing previous research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The lower limit of working potential of rGO was extended from −0.3 to −0.9 V by g-C 3 N 4 modification. • The potential mechanisms for suppressed-HER and increased-capacitance were elucidated. • The link between the EDLCs and HER was established through two micro kinetic processes. • The lifetime of LCBs was increased to 3.2 times through potential-matched g-C 3 N 4 @rGO additive. Hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and sulfation on the negative plate are main problems hindering the operation of lead-carbon batteries under high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC). Here, reduced graphene oxide nanosheets modified with graphitic carbon nitride (g-C 3 N 4 @rGO) were prepared and used as additives in an attempt to solve the above bottleneck. Galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) curves show that immobilization g-C 3 N 4 on rGO surface can extend the lower limit of working potential of rGO from −0.3 to −0.9 V, which better matches the working potential range of Pb/PbSO 4 redox pair. Theoretical calculations and correlation analyses show that HER can be linked to electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) through two micro kinetic processes: namely, the desorption process of H+ from additive and the migration process of e− reaching additive surface, and that g-C 3 N 4 modification strategy can suppress the HER on the rGO surface while increasing the capacitance of EDLCs. Meanwhile, potential-matched g-C 3 N 4 @rGO (θ = 35.76°) is more hydrophilic than pure rGO (118.20°), so the use of g-C 3 N 4 @rGO as a battery additive can eliminate sulfation of the negative plate by promoting electrolyte penetration and increasing capacitance contribution. Therefore, the electrochemical performance of g-C 3 N 4 @rGO-modified batteries showed a significant improvement over their counterparts, indicating this work is a good attempt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work studies the cycle performance of lead-carbon (LC) negative electrode and reference lead negative electrode via a 50% depth-of-discharge (50%DoD) cycle test for automotive applications. The cycle performance results reveal a greater cycle number for the LC cell. The discharge voltages and the growth of peaks at high DoD in differential voltage analysis exhibit alleviated concentration loss phenomenon for the LC cell. Sulfation is confirmed for both kinds of electrodes via X-ray diffraction. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) reveal better preserved inner morphology and electrochemical reactivity for the cycled LC electrode, respectively, while SEM and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) detect PbSO 4 existence on the carbon layer. EDS on the electrode cross-section confirms PbSO 4 deposition on the carbon layer and less sulfation in the LC electrode interior. CV results indicate effects resulting from PbSO 4 deposition on the carbon layer through decreasing capacitance and suppressed hydrogen gassing. Conclusively, the carbon layer of the LC electrode creates exterior sharing space for PbSO 4 precipitation, causing lower sulfation of the inner electrode interface. Thus, the present study establishes the electrode degradation mode and cycle performance of the lead-carbon electrode in this cycling profile. [Display omitted] • Lead negative plate was coated with carbon to improve 50%DoD cycling performance. • Lead-carbon cell shows a smaller voltage drop near the end of discharge course. • Sulfation is lower in the lead active mass area of the lead-carbon electrode. • PbSO 4 additionally deposited in carbon layer to mitigate sulfation of inner plate. • Active mass reactivity and morphology of the LC electrode is better maintained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lead-acid battery (LAB) has been one of the main secondary electrochemical power sources with wide application in various fields (transport vehicles, telecommunications, information technologies, etc.). It has won a dominating position in energy storage and load-leveling applications. However, the failure of LAB becomes the key barrier for its further development and application. Therefore, understanding the failure modes and mechanism of LAB is of great significance. The failure modes of LAB mainly include two aspects: failure of the positive electrode and negative electrode. The degradations of active material and grid corrosion are the two major failure modes for positive electrode, while the irreversible sulfation is the most common failure mode for the negative electrode. Introduction of carbon materials to the negative electrodes of LAB could suppress sulfation problem and enhance the battery performance efficiently. This paper will attempt here to pull together observations made by previous research to obtain a more comprehensive and integrative view of LAB failure modes. Moreover, according to a detail investigation to the battery market, we have drawn an objective and optimistic conclusion of LAB prospect. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The Pb single atoms anchored on rGO were successfully prepared and confirmed. • The action mechanism of PbSAs@rGO in lead–carbon batteries was elucidated. • Anchoring PbSAs on rGO can inhibit the protons adsorption and reduce the HER rate. • The PbSAs@rGO can accelerate the electrochemical reduction reaction. • The PbSAs can serve as seeds to induce 3D-growth of Pb branches. The application of lead–carbon batteries (LCBs) in hybrid electric vehicles and large-scale energy storage was limited by gradual sulfation and parasitic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) of negative plates. Here, Pb single atoms anchored on reduced graphene oxide (PbSAs@rGO) were prepared through electrostatic adsorption and thermal reduction method, and confirmed by two aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (TEM and STEM) and synchrotron-based X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (XAFS). By anchoring PbSAs on rGO surfaces where HER is prone to occur, the HER rate was greatly reduced. Moreover, PbSAs could serve as seeds to induce three-dimensional growth of Pb branches, which endows the NAM containing PbSAs@rGO additives with a specific surface areas (SSA) about 2.3 times than that of control one. The increased SSA can help to delay the sulfation of negative plate. Meanwhile, PbSAs can help enhance the affinity of rGO towards negative active material (NAM), which enable electrochemical reduction reaction proceeds at a higher rate. Thanks to the coordination of various functions from multifunctional additives, service life of LCBs under high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) have been extend from 3529 to 16,097 cycles, and from 4692 to 22,606 cycles, in 50% state of charge (SoC) and 75% SoC, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating high content carbon into the negative electrodes of advanced lead-acid batteries effectively eliminates the sulfation and improves the cycle life, but brings the problem of hydrogen evolution, which increases inner pressure and accelerates the water loss. In this review, the mechanism of hydrogen evolution reaction in advanced lead-acid batteries, including lead-carbon battery and ultrabattery, is briefly reviewed. The strategies on suppression hydrogen evolution via structure modifications of carbon materials and adding hydrogen evolution inhibitors are summarized as well. The review points out effective ways to inhibit hydrogen evolution and prolong the cycling life of advanced lead-acid battery, especially in high-rate partial-state-of-charge applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composites of PbO nanoparticles anchored on reduced graphene oxide (PbO@rGO) are prepared by electrostatic interaction and ostwald ripening strategy to enhance cycle life of lead-carbon battery under high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC). By occupying the hydrogen evolution reactive sites on the rGO surfaces, the PbO@rGO composite exhibits better inhibition for hydrogen evolution behavior than the rGO. Thus, introducing the composite additives to negative plates can effectively inhibit the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and alleviate the aggregation of PbSO 4 crystals simultaneously, resulting in their HRPSoC cycle life show 2.6-fold enhancements compared with negative plates without any carbon additives (extend from 3501 to 12,885 cycles). The chemical bond between the rGO and PbO nanoparticles can not only help solve the "floating carbon" phenomenon, but also effectively avoid the separation of the additive and the negative active material (NAM) during the cycles. In addition, the PbO@rGO additives can act like a miniaturized stereo plate grid, which refines and expands the conductive network on the plate and provides deposition sites for Pb/PbSO 4 redox couple. Outstanding performance of the batteries containing composite additives indicates that the composites have potential application value in the lead-carbon battery while providing a new idea for preparing lead-carbon composite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A closed-loop acetic acid route to recover spent lead paste is first proposed. • Key parameter of n Cit 3-/n Pb is optimized as 2/3 for lead citrate crystallization. • Up to 95% of acetic acid could be recycled in filtrate recirculation process. • The leaching ratio of Pb is kept as 95% in seven batches of filtrate recirculation. • Cell with PbO@C composite showed an 8% higher initial capacity than the control group. The current hydrometallurgical recovery routes of spent lead paste generate a large amount of acid/alkali residual filtrate, bringing significant technical and environmental challenge. In this study, the low-impurity lead acetate solution was prepared by reacting desulfurized paste with acetic acid (HAc), which then reacted with citric acid to synthesize high-quality lead citrate. Further crystallizing lead citrate into larger size enhanced the filtration and separation performance. The filtrate containing 95% dose of HAc could be recirculated for leaching the next batch of desulfurized paste, so a closed-loop process of leaching reagent was realized. The leady oxide comprising carbon (PbO@C) composite was synthesized via calcination of lead citrate. Compared with the traditional lead-acid battery, the novel lead-carbon battery made of PbO@C composite showed better electrochemical performance. The green recovery process of spent lead paste proposed in this research provided a sustainable strategy to recover secondary lead via a closed-loop route. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, carbon additives such as activated carbon (AC) and carbon black (CB) are introduced to the negative electrode to improve its electrochemical performance, the negative electrode sheets are prepared by simulating the negative plate manufacturing process of lead-acid battery, the types and contents of carbon additives in the negative electrode sheets are investigated in detail for the application of lead-carbon battery. The electrochemical performance of negative electrode sheets are measured by chronopotentiometry, galvanostatic charge-discharge and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, the crystal structure and morphology are characterized by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. The experimental results indicate that the appropriate addition of AC or CB can enhance the discharge capacity and prolong the cycle life of negative electrode sheets under high-rate partial-state-of-charge conditions, AC additive exerts more obvious effect than CB additive, the optimum contents for the best electrochemical performance of the negative electrode sheets are determined as 0.5wt% for both AC and CB. The reaction mechanism of the electrochemical process is also discussed in this paper, the appropriate addition of AC or CB in negative electrode can promote the conversion of PbSO 4 to Pb, suppress the sulfation of negative electrode sheets and reduce the electrochemical reaction resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, nano-lead-doped active carbon (nano-Pb/AC) composite with low hydrogen evolution current for lead-acid battery was prepared by ultrasonic-absorption and chemical-precipitate method. The nano-Pb/AC composite was characterized by SEM, EDS and TEM. The electrochemical characterizations are performed by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) in a three-electrode system. Since intermediate adsorption is the rate-determining step, the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) is markedly inhibited as the intermediate adsorption impedance of nano-Pb/AC increased. Meanwhile, the working potential of nano-Pb/AC is widened to the whole potential region of Pb negative plate (from −1.36 V to −0.86 V vs. Hg/HgSO 4 ) in lead-acid battery. In addition, nano-Pb can improve the interfacial compatibility between AC and Pb paste, accordingly relieve the symptoms of carbon floatation. Finally, 2.0 V single-cell flooded lead-acid batteries with 1.0 wt.% nano-Pb/AC or 1.0 wt.% AC addition in negative active materials are assembled. The cell performances test results show that the 3 h rate capacity, quick charging performance, high current discharging performance and cycling performance of nano-Pb/AC modified battery are all improved compared with regular lead-acid battery and AC modified lead-acid battery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lead-carbon battery is supposed as the promising candidate for lead-acid battery for energy storage application ascribed to the unique performance under the high-rate-partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC). Herein, a bamboo-leaf hierarchical porous carbon material (BLHPC) is successfully generated as the lead-carbon batteries negative electrode additive. BLHPC manifests hierarchical and multidirectional porous structure with broad size distribution and large specific surface area (2595 m2 g−1), which is attributed to the abundant hollow structure in bamboo-leaf and etching of biogenetic SiO 2 nanoparticles. In electrochemical characterization, BLHPC presents high specific capacitance (252 F g−1 at 0.5 A g−1) and remarkable rate capability (68.6% retention rate at 10 A g−1). Furthermore, cycle life of simulated battery with 0.5 wt% BLHPC (56700) is twice that of the same amount of commercial rice-husk carbon (RHC) material additive (23701) and 7.6 times for blank battery (7455). The battery performance enhancement owes to the high surface area and hierarchical porous structure of BLHPC to mitigate the sulfation and promote electrolyte permeation. • Bamboo-leaf hierarchical porous carbon material (BLHPC) is successfully generated. • BLHPC manifests large specific surface area and high specific capacitance. • Cycle life of simulated battery with 0.5 wt% BLHPC is significantly improved. • The structure of BLHPC mitigates sulfation and promotes electrolyte permeation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new C@SnO 2 composites was prepared when the siraitia grosvenorii residue (note as C material) was used as carbon source and SnCl 2 was used as the precursor with a 2:1.63 ratio after series characterization. The N-doped C@SnO 2 composites (C@SnO 2 -N) were prepared by the hydrothermal-doping method when dopamine was used as a nitrogen source to hybrid with C@SnO 2 with a 16.67:1 ratio which were obtained from the test results of CV and EIS. C material, C@SnO 2 , and C@SnO 2 -N were used as negative electrodes. A simulated lead‑carbon battery was assembled and its electrochemical performance was tested with a battery charge/discharge testing system. The first discharge specific capacity of the three materials are 46.8, 102.0, and 123.9 mAh g−1, respectively. After 200 cycles, the specific capacity retention rate of C@SnO 2 -N can still reach 74.22%. [Display omitted] • The N-doped C@SnO 2 composite (C@SnO 2 -N) was prepared by the hydrothermal-doping method. • The prepared cathode material was assembled into a lead-carbon battery. • The coulomb efficiency of C@SnO 2 -N cathode material was 74.22% after 200 cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A new concept of advanced and hybrid separator for Lead-acid battery systems. • Uniform coating thickness of cellulose attained on one-side of polyester separator. • High wettability of cellulose with polyester can enhance the overall performance. • LAB constructed with CC-Polyester improved the unit cell performance. Development of high performance separator is a significant need for enhancing the performance of various kinds of Lead-Acid Batteries (LAB). Herein, we developed a new strategy for improving the performance of the polyester separator by a facile modification process, where the separator can be used in various LAB applications. The low cost and higher electrolyte uptake (182 %) behavior of bio-cellulose coated on the polyester surface (CC-Polyester) to develop a hybrid separator. The coating thickness of 10µm biofilm was achieved on the one-side of polyester separator surface. The CC-Polyester shows an excellent separator properties for the LAB system specifically higher wettability, dimensional stability and electrochemical performances. The separator materials showed sustainable thermal stability without any thermal shrinkage in 110°C and exhibited excellent chemical stability with no visual degradation after 100 h in an electrolyte solution. Comparatively, the charge and discharge performance of the LAB battery contain CC-Polyester showed higher performance because of higher wettability behavior of the coating layer, which can improve the adhesion between the separator and electrode surface, and enhance the reaction between the electrolyte and electrode. This investigation provides a new concepts and additional options for developing a new kinds of separator for LAB based systems. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We first propose and successfully use a simple microwave method to prepare a new nano lead sulfate-lead carbon black (PbSO 4 @Pb/C) composite as the lead-carbon batteries negative electrode additives, aiming to extend high-rate partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) life of lead-carbon batteries. Carbon black as lead sulfate nucleation centers and nano scale lead sulfate as templates growth mode during discharge process may significantly inhibit irreversible sulfation processes of negative electrode. HRPSoC cycle life (24513) of battery with 3 wt% PbSO 4 @Pb/C composite is 8.5 times that of the same amount of original carbon material (2880) additives and 31.2 times for blank battery (785). Hydrogen evolution effect of carbon material is also restrained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]