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After the fall of the USSR, Cuba was plunged into an economic crisis with devastating effects on the agricultural system. With few options, the government restructured its agricultural system from an industrial model to a model based on smallholders and agroecology. After several decades, the results of this transition have been far reaching for both landscapes and livelihoods. This research uses mixed-methods, including remote sensing, interviews, and economic and agricultural statistics to present the case study of a smallholder community that has undergone a shift from industrial sugarcane to small-scale agroecology. This work reveals that while agricultural extent has plummeted, production of staple crops has increased dramatically. At the same time, on-farm incomes and food market availability have risen steadily. In the context of strong social, economic, and environmental protections, this represents a process of a sustainable rural transition with several concurrent benefits to people and the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional inland salinas in Spain and Portugal are often located in rural, isolated areas with low agricultural value, and very few have survived in coastal areas under high land use change pressure. Before the advent of efficient transportation networks, about 500 small inland and ca. 250 coastal saltworks existed there. During the 20th century, these sites were gradually abandoned in favor of industrial salt from mines or larger coastal salinas. Only a few were able to transform a productive activity into a multifunctional, services-oriented landscape. This contribution discusses the recovery and patrimonialization processes of nine inland salinas in Spain and Portugal protected as monuments, plus three other successful cases in Denmark, France, and Slovenia. With an indicator-based tool, the degree of patrimonialization of each site was quantified. In recent decades, these cultural landscapes have invested in gastronomy, wellness, tourism, and innovation, transforming a cultural landscape in decline into a living landscape for the future. The different stages in their patrimonialization process have been characterized, helping identify the hinges and tipping points at which a traditional productive activity in danger can evolve into a consolidated heritage-based successful initiative. Good practices have been detected and described. Potential pitfalls and challenges in patrimonialization were also identified, serving as early warning signs. Although focused on traditional salinas, the results of this study may help manage and preserve similar cultural landscapes in Europe. Some ideas for future management and research on productive cultural landscapes are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is critical that we move our understanding of the ecosystem services (ESs) produced by landscapes from the present abundance of analysis to a fundamental basis of design. This involves enhancing the ability to understand and model the interconnected, coevolving system of humans and the rest of nature, thus contributing to the design of sustainable landscapes. In this paper, we hypothesise that the spatial configuration of landscape components (the size and arrangement of tree clumps, paddocks, crops, water features, etc.) impacts the production of regulating ESs, which in turn have a leveraging effect on provisioning and cultural ESs. Drawing on the precepts of Ecological Field Theory, we present the development and implications of a conceptual Geographic Information System (GIS)-based model, ESMAX, that utilises the idiosyncratic distance-decay characteristics of regulating ESs. These 'ES fields' are visualised as radiating into the landscape from their source components, addressing a gap in biophysical reality that has been identified as a shortcoming of existing ES modelling based on landcover proxies. Hypothetical landscape arrangements of simplified landscape components are tested with ESMAX across three regulating ESs: cooling effect, nitrogen retention, and habitat provision. The model calculates the overall ES performance of each landscape arrangement by tabulating the ES fields produced and, critically, the nonlinear response where fields overlap. The results indicate a primary sensitivity to the size of components and a secondary sensitivity to the arrangement of components. Consequently, ESMAX can be used to design landscape configurations that (1) maximise the production of specific regulating ESs and (2) improve the utilisation of natural ES-producing resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Increasing agricultural production shapes the flow of ecosystem services (ES), including provisioning services that support the livelihoods and nutrition of people in tropical developing countries. Although our broad understanding of the social-ecological consequences of agricultural intensification is growing, how it impacts provisioning ES is still unknown. Objectives: We examined the household use of provisioning ES across a gradient of increasing agricultural production in seven tropical countries (Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Nicaragua and Zambia). We answered two overarching questions: (1) does the use of provisioning ES differ along gradients of agriculture production ranging from zones of subsistence to moderate and to high agriculture production? and (2) are there synergies and/or trade-offs within and among groups of ES within these zones? Methods: Using structured surveys, we asked 1900 households about their assets, livestock, crops, and collection of forest products. These questions allowed us to assess the number of provisioning ES households used, and whether the ES used are functionally substitutable (i.e., used similarly for nutrition, material, and energy). Finally, we explored synergies and trade-offs among household use of provisioning ES. Results: As agricultural production increased, provisioning ES declined both in total number and in different functional groups used. We found more severe decreases in ES for relatively poorer households. Within the functional groups of ES, synergistic relationships were more often found than trade-offs in all zones, including significant synergies among livestock products (dairy, eggs, meat) and fruits. Conclusions: Considering landscape context provides opportunities to enhance synergies among provisioning services for households, supporting resilient food systems and human well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultural landscapes are living evidence of human-environment interactions and patterns of living. This research explores Gurage landscapes' multifunctional and dynamic aspects, mainly Jefore. The study employed an ethnographic research design, and data were generated from multiple sites and sources. Research sites were purposefully selected based on prior knowledge and socio-ecological parameters. Landscape multifunctionality and phenomenological approaches were used to understand landscape's human-environment interactions. According to the findings, Jefore is a well-structured, managed indigenous road network serving public and private roles with a width of 24–84 m and a length of ½ up to 20 km beyond the road network. Jefore remains evidence of human-environment interaction frameworks for living and socio-cultural and ecosystem services as well as phenomenological experiences and associations. As a public landscape, Jefore promotes and maintains village social networks, cultural practices, livelihoods, well-being, and socio-ecological resources integration. It regulates agroforestry practices, optimises resource utilisation, and allows home garden productivity. However, Jefore's socio-ecological landscape identity, landscape multifunctionality, and phenomenological associations are affected by land use and land cover changes, unplanned physical infrastructures expansion, and socio-ecological values crackdown. Largely, Jefore dynamics affected prior landscape designations, socio-cultural and ecological provisions, and long-established sustainable human-environment interactions. Thus, to maintain Jefore's landscape identities and sustainability, micro and macro landscape interventions need to respect and recognize its socio-ecological essence and multifunctionality.

Traditional inland salinas in Spain and Portugal are often located in rural, isolated areas with low agricultural value, and very few have survived in coastal areas under high land use change pressure. Before the advent of efficient transportation networks, about 500 small inland and ca. 250 coastal saltworks existed there. During the 20th century, these sites were gradually abandoned in favor of industrial salt from mines or larger coastal salinas. Only a few were able to transform a productive activity into a multifunctional, services-oriented landscape. This contribution discusses the recovery and patrimonialization processes of nine inland salinas in Spain and Portugal protected as monuments, plus three other successful cases in Denmark, France, and Slovenia. With an indicator-based tool, the degree of patrimonialization of each site was quantified. In recent decades, these cultural landscapes have invested in gastronomy, wellness, tourism, and innovation, transforming a cultural landscape in decline into a living landscape for the future. The different stages in their patrimonialization process have been characterized, helping identify the hinges and tipping points at which a traditional productive activity in danger can evolve into a consolidated heritage-based successful initiative. Good practices have been detected and described. Potential pitfalls and challenges in patrimonialization were also identified, serving as early warning signs. Although focused on traditional salinas, the results of this study may help manage and preserve similar cultural landscapes in Europe. Some ideas for future management and research on productive cultural landscapes are provided.

Grasslands are ubiquitous globally, and their conservation and restoration are critical to combat both the biodiversity and climate crises. There is increasing interest in implementing effective multifunctional grassland restoration to restore biodiversity concomitant with above- and belowground carbon sequestration, delivery of carbon credits and/or integration with land dedicated to solar panels. Other common multifunctional restoration considerations include improved forage value, erosion control, water management, pollinator services, and wildlife habitat provisioning. In addition, many grasslands are global biodiversity hotspots. Nonetheless, relative to their impact, and as compared to forests, the importance of preservation, conservation, and restoration of grasslands has been widely overlooked due to their subtle physiognomy and underappreciated contributions to human and planetary well-being. Ultimately, the global success of carbon sequestration will depend on more complete and effective grassland ecosystem restoration. In this review, supported by examples from across the Western world, we call for more strenuous and unified development of best practices for grassland restoration in three areas of concern: initial site conditions and site preparation; implementation of restoration measures and management; and social context and sustainability. For each area, we identify the primary challenges to grassland restoration and highlight case studies with proven results to derive successful and generalizable solutions.

Agricultural landscapes are multifunctional and closely connected to the much wider food system. In our review, we explore three specific aspects of modelling approaches for agricultural landscape assessments: (a) how multifunctionality is commonly analysed to support decision-making for sustainable agricultural land management; (b) how the modelling approaches relate to the wider food systems; and (c) how gaps in the existing modelling approaches might be addressed. For this, we identified key elements of agricultural landscape assessments, including ecosystem services (ESS) provided, driving factors, and linkages between crop and livestock production, and to the wider food system. We reviewed 238 publications with respect to these elements. While biodiversity and the ESS ‘water conditions’ and ‘atmospheric composition/conditions’ are widely covered, they are rarely used in combination. Other ESS, such as ‘pest and disease control’, are largely missing. Our results further indicate strong differences between individual approaches regarding model parameterisation and consideration of abiotic, biotic, and management driving factors. Our analysis also shows that the interconnectedness of crop and livestock production is rarely considered and that return flows from the food system are not considered. Furthermore, impacts from the production of external inputs and off-site effects are not considered. Consequently, existing models might overlook trade-offs and synergies between landscape functions. Failure to consider variations in relevant driving factors and food system linkages likely results in studying incorrect levers for change and failing to show decision-makers the full scope of available action. We thus suggest adopting more encompassing modelling approaches to ensure coverage of the full scope of potential actions, whilst hedging against overly costly data requirements by, e.g. employing well-designed sensitivity analyses. In this way, the most relevant components and thus the most important leverage points for interventions can be identified.

[Display omitted] Synergistically maintain or enhance the numerous beneficial contributions of nature to the quality of human life is an important but challenging question for achieving Sustainable Development Goals. However, the spatiotemporal distributions of global nature's contributions to people (NCPs) and their interactions remain unclear. We built a rapid assessment indicator framework and produced the first spatially explicit assessment of all 18 NCPs at a global scale. The 18 global NCPs in 1992 and 2018 were globally assessed in 15,204 subbasins based on two spatial indicator dimensions, including nature's potential contribution and the actual contribution to people. The results show that most of the high NCP values are highly localized. From 1992 to 2018, 6 regulating NCPs, 3 material NCPs, and 2 nonmaterial NCPs declined; 29 regulating-material NCP combinations (54 in total) dominated 76% of the terrestrial area, and the area with few NCPs accounted for 22%; and synergistic relationships were more common than tradeoff relationships, while the relationships among regulating and material NCPs generally traded-off with each other. Transitional climate areas contained few NCPs and have strong tradeoff relationships. However, the high synergistic relationship among NCPs in low latitudes could be threatened by future climate change. These findings provide a general spatiotemporal understanding of global NCP distributions and can be used to interpret the biogeographic information in a functional way to support regional coordination and achieve landscape multifunctionality for the enhancement of human well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main purpose of this paper is to develop a systematic, spatially explicit approach to the analysis of the ecosystem services provided by the metropolitan landscape that can act as a support for green infrastructure planning. To achieve this, we have proposed a set of indicators to assess and map nine ecosystem services—including regulating, provisioning, habitat and cultural services. This methodology has been applied to three case studies in the south of Spain: the metropolitan areas of Seville, Malaga-Marbella and Cordoba. Despite the geographical proximity of these areas to one another, the indicators show that there are significant differences in their potentialities and available resources to form a multipurpose green space system. The results suggest that further reflection is needed on how the concept of green infrastructure can be applied to metropolitan areas, especially in the Mediterranean region and other similar geographical contexts. Instead of understanding green infrastructure strictly in terms of a network of interconnected green spaces and natural areas, planning initiatives should assign a more important role to the landscape matrix and, in particular, to the multifunctional cultivated space on the urban fringe. In addition, more thought needs to be given to how to create functional green corridors in the metropolitan landscape for public use and habitat conservation. From the perspective of spatial planning, the methodology proposed has been demonstrated to be a useful tool to identify key spaces for the provision of ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers increasingly investigate ecosystem services to assess their role in supporting livelihoods, well-being and economic value in order to inform decision-making. Many studies have explored links between ecosystem services and community-based livelihoods, with a very narrow focus on the importance of land use to well-being. We evaluated the value of ecosystem services from various land uses supporting livelihoods and the overall well-being of local communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. By applying a participatory habitat valuation approach with the ethnic communities from eight villages, we explored their preferences for, and perceptions of, ecosystem services and their sources in a multi-functional landscape under different land use, i.e., forest, swidden and low-land agriculture, fruit orchard and water bodies, and three land ownership contexts (state, private and mixed ownership on forest lands). Our findings revealed that community land use preference for ecosystem services supports ten different well-being needs. Among others, forests were valued land used for two-thirds of well-being needs, including the provision of shelter, nutrition, primary health care, an adequate supply of potable water, a lower level of ecological stress (i.e., protection from associated landslide soil erosion), cultural and spiritual benefits and livestock foraging. People commonly valued the food, income and nutrition contributions of all land uses. However, different forest and land ownership contexts and rights within the landscape influence people's preference for ecosystem services from land use in supporting their well-being. People with secure ownership (i.e., private and private-community) showed a broad and positive appreciation for ecosystem services to meet their well-being needs. Our study highlights that local and ethnic people's land-use preferences and ownership contexts are critical factors in assessing well-being in the context of multifunctional landscapes. We recommend that ecosystem services be considered in future decision-making related to forest and land use to support human well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mining often generates large amounts of inefficiently used land. Clarifying the multifunctional characteristics of mined land and its spatial and temporal evolution is important to environmental protection and promoting the economic and social benefits of mined areas. This article analyzed the conditions of mined land in Jiawang, Jiangsu province, China. The InVEST model was used to assess landscape functions, including those related to water and soil conservation, productivity, habitats, carrying capacity, recreation, and carbon sequestration, to explore the multifunctional changes and trade-off–synergy relationships of the landscape from 2005 to 2020. The results show that (1) ecological restoration of the mined land significantly improved the regional landscape multifunctionality during the study period, with each function enhanced more obviously after restoration was completed in 2012, and (2) the trade-offs and synergistic relationships for landscape multifunctionality varied during the study period because the time series evolved; some trade-offs gradually transformed into synergistic relationships. This study establishes a set of effective systems useful in evaluating the multifunctionality of mined land, and initially evaluated the trade-off–synergistic relationships among eight landscape functions. This will provide ideas supporting the management and restoration of mined land and help in the formulation of spatial planning strategies for ecological restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historic landscape is an important component of a village, and the alteration of villages is a necessary process of development. To analyze characteristics of historic rural landscape alterations and the reasons behind them, this study utilized a landscape multifunctional approach and a comprehensive methodology comprising space syntax and field investigations. This study divides the historic rural landscape into two types, ecology-led and production-led patterns, which validate the relationship among ecology, social properties, and cultural connotation in space, offering a new perspective on the alteration of historic rural landscapes. Our findings indicate the interaction among ecology, production, and lives, both diachronically and synchronically, and suggest that it is possible to maintain ecological harmony, functional transformation, and the inheritance of cultural connotation through improving historic rural landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landscape sustainability and land sustainability are interrelated and complementary research fields, rooted respectively in ecological and geographic sciences, but both embracing sustainability as their ultimate goal. However, it is not clear how these two fields have developed in recent decades, and whether they have interacted synergistically to advance the science and practice of sustainability. Thus, here we have conducted a bibliometric comparison of these two fields using multiple quantitative methods, including trend analysis, theme mining, citation network analysis, and collaboration network analysis, further augmented by qualitative synthesis. We have found: (1) both research fields have entered a period of rapid development around 2010, following their incubation and emerging phases; (2) landscape sustainability research has focused primarily on the biodiversity-ecosystem function-ecosystem services-human wellbeing nexus in changing landscapes, whereas land sustainability research has concentrated primarily on the causes, dynamics, and impacts of land use and land cover change, as well as sustainable land use and management; (3) Cross-referencing between the two fields is rare, reflecting weak interactions between the two scientific communities. Thus, although some interdisciplinary teams and individual researchers have begun to work together across the two fields, landscape sustainability and land sustainability, as two research fields, remain largely independent of each other. To enhance their synergistic interactions, we recommend that scientists and practitioners from both fields promote joint professional organizations and conferences, and foster broad-scale collaborative projects together to improve the sustainability of landscapes and regions in theory and practice. • Bibliometric comparison of landscape and land sustainability fields. • Both fields entered a period of rapid development around 2010. • Differ in scientific core, primary methodologies, and academic traditions. • Remain relatively isolated from each other, with emerging collaboration. • Need for stronger synergy via joint projects and conferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid and relentless development of urban areas highlights the importance of landscape multifunctionality. However, there is limited research on the temporal dynamics and climatic effects of urban landscape multifunctionality. This study aimed to address this gap by analyzing the features of multiple landscape functions triggered by seasonal climate change in different urban park types. In this study, we investigated five typical urban landscape functions (alleviating urban heat islands, vegetation growth, biodiversity promotion, alleviation of waterlogging, and provision of recreational activities) by establishing a set of indices: ecological supply capability ( S _P ), proportion of ecological supply ( SP _P ), capability of human benefits ( B _P ), and human benefits efficiency ( BE _P ) of urban parks. The average S _P of the landscape functions was 58% in summer and 46% in winter. During the transition from summer to winter, urban parks witnessed a significant decrease in SP _P for alleviating the urban heat island, dropping from 34% to 5%. The primary landscape functions shifted from alleviating the urban heat island (34%) and providing recreation (29%) to providing recreation (38%) and biodiversity promotion (29%). Concerning park types, nature parks provided the highest S _P , whereas community parks provided the highest BE _P . This study has useful implications for landscape management in urban parks, particularly regarding timely adjustments across seasonal climates. It is possible to promote sustainable and effective human well-being by maximizing landscape functions.

Researchers increasingly investigate ecosystem services to assess their role in supporting livelihoods, well-being and economic value in order to inform decision-making. Many studies have explored links between ecosystem services and community-based livelihoods, with a very narrow focus on the importance of land use to well-being. We evaluated the value of ecosystem services from various land uses supporting livelihoods and the overall well-being of local communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. By applying a participatory habitat valuation approach with the ethnic communities from eight villages, we explored their preferences for, and perceptions of, ecosystem services and their sources in a multi-functional landscape under different land use, i.e., forest, swidden and low-land agriculture, fruit orchard and water bodies, and three land ownership contexts (state, private and mixed ownership on forest lands). Our findings revealed that community land use preference for ecosystem services supports ten different well-being needs. Among others, forests were valued land used for two-thirds of well-being needs, including the provision of shelter, nutrition, primary health care, an adequate supply of potable water, a lower level of ecological stress (i.e., protection from associated landslide soil erosion), cultural and spiritual benefits and livestock foraging. People commonly valued the food, income and nutrition contributions of all land uses. However, different forest and land ownership contexts and rights within the landscape influence people’s preference for ecosystem services from land use in supporting their well-being. People with secure ownership (i.e., private and private-community) showed a broad and positive appreciation for ecosystem services to meet their well-being needs. Our study highlights that local and ethnic people’s land-use preferences and ownership contexts are critical factors in assessing well-being in the context of multifunctional landscapes. We recommend that ecosystem services be considered in future decision-making related to forest and land use to support human well-being.

Mining often generates large amounts of inefficiently used land. Clarifying the multifunctional characteristics of mined land and its spatial and temporal evolution is important to environmental protection and promoting the economic and social benefits of mined areas. This article analyzed the conditions of mined land in Jiawang, Jiangsu province, China. The InVEST model was used to assess landscape functions, including those related to water and soil conservation, productivity, habitats, carrying capacity, recreation, and carbon sequestration, to explore the multifunctional changes and trade-off–synergy relationships of the landscape from 2005 to 2020. The results show that (1) ecological restoration of the mined land significantly improved the regional landscape multifunctionality during the study period, with each function enhanced more obviously after restoration was completed in 2012, and (2) the trade-offs and synergistic relationships for landscape multifunctionality varied during the study period because the time series evolved; some trade-offs gradually transformed into synergistic relationships. This study establishes a set of effective systems useful in evaluating the multifunctionality of mined land, and initially evaluated the trade-off–synergistic relationships among eight landscape functions. This will provide ideas supporting the management and restoration of mined land and help in the formulation of spatial planning strategies for ecological restoration.

Forest landscape multifunctionality (FLM) provides multiple benefits, such as climate regulation, water storage, and biodiversity maintenance. However, the external factors limiting FLM have not been fully identified, although addressing them could contribute to sustainable development. The present study aimed to identify and quantify the role of urbanization as an external factor that affects FLM. To this end, impervious area changes in Liaoyuan, China, were observed from 2000 to 2018, and 10 buffer zones at 500 m intervals were established outside the city. Within each buffer zone, we analyzed changes in forest landscape functions, including habitat maintenance, carbon sequestration, and water yield, as well as changes in the multifunctionality of their composition. The urbanization of Liaoyuan was significant in 2000–2018. The functions of the forest landscape became stronger and more stable as they were located further away from the urban edge. We refer to this pattern as the gradient effect of urbanization. Specifically, urbanization affected the investigated functions at a distance of 1000–2500 m. The FLM showed a more significant gradient effect of urbanization. The impact distance of urbanization on the FLM increased from 3000 m in 2000 to over 5000 m in 2018. This impact distance increased significantly whenever urbanization strengthened significantly (i.e., in 2005–2010 and 2015–2018). These findings are instructive for forest and urban managers working to achieve multiple Sustainable Development Goals.

Rapid growth of the world's human population has increased pressure on landscapes to deliver high levels of multiple ecosystem services, including food and fibre production, carbon storage, biodiversity conservation, and recreation. However, we currently lack general principles describing how to achieve this landscape multifunctionality.We combine theoretical simulations and empirical data on 14 ecosystem services measured across 150 grasslands in three German regions. In doing so, we investigate the circumstances under which spatial heterogeneity in a driver of ecosystem functioning (an "ecosystem‐driver," e.g., the presence of keystone species, land‐use intensification, or habitat types) increases landscape‐level ecosystem multifunctionality.Simulations based on theoretical data demonstrated that relationships between heterogeneity and landscape multifunctionality are highly variable and can range from nonsignificant to strongly positive. Despite this variability, we could identify criteria under which heterogeneity‐landscape multifunctionality relationships were most strongly positive: this happened when multiple ecosystem services responded contrastingly (both positively and negatively) to an ecosystem‐driver.These findings were confirmed using empirical data, which showed that heterogeneity in land‐use intensity (LUI) promoted landscape multifunctionality in cases where functions with both positive (e.g., plant biomass) and negative (e.g., flower cover) responses to land use intensification were included. For example, the simultaneous provisioning of ecosystem functions related to forage production (generally profiting from land‐use intensification), biodiversity conservation and recreation (generally decreasing with land‐use intensification) was highest in landscapes consisting of sites varying in LUI.Synthesis and applications. Our findings show that there are general principles governing landscape multifunctionality. A knowledge of these principles may support land management decisions. For example, knowledge of relationships between ecosystem services and their drivers, such as land use type, can help estimate the consequences of increasing or decreasing heterogeneity for landscape‐level ecosystem service supply, although interactions between landscape units (e.g., the movement of pollinators) must also be considered. Our findings show that there are general principles governing landscape multifunctionality. A knowledge of these principles may support land management decisions. For example, knowledge of relationships between ecosystem services and their drivers, such as land use type, can help estimate the consequences of increasing or decreasing heterogeneity for landscape‐level ecosystem service supply, although interactions between landscape units (e.g., the movement of pollinators) must also be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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• We apply a developed multithreshold method to assess landscape multifunctionality. • Agro-forestry landscape is more conducive to multifunctional promotion. • Managers can configure the landscape to meet the demands for multifunctionality. The assessment of landscape multifunctionality is critical for making informed decisions about landscape resource allocation, optimization, and planning. However, accurately estimating multifunctionality has been a challenging issue, and whether heterogeneous landscapes can promote multifunctionality is still unclear. In our study, we developed a comprehensive computational framework for assessing landscape multifunctionality in agro-forestry interlacing zones. Our study considered both the quality and quantity of multifunctionality by using an improved incremental thresholds method. Compared to homogeneous landscapes, heterogeneous landscapes have greater potential to maintain high levels of multifunctionality in terms of both quality and quantity. Moreover, we have conducted an analysis of the peak multifunctionality performance to establish the optimal threshold, with the aim of striking a balance between the quality and quantity of multifunctionality. Specifically, the optimal thresholds for agro-forest landscapes were 60% and 55%, respectively. Our study showed the distinct combinatorial arrangements of functions observed across various thresholds, thereby discerning the potentially dominant function in the landscape. The potential dominant function of agro-forestry landscapes was carbon sequestration, which could significantly contribute to achieving carbon neutrality goals. These findings are instructive for land managers and policy formulators working to achieve "win–win" sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental policies have highlighted the importance of preserving ecological networks to limit the fragmentation of natural habitats and biodiversity loss. A crucial issue for landscape managers is how to reconcile conservation measures that benefit all species and the maintenance of human activities. This study aimed to promote landscape multifunctionality, i.e., improving connectivity for several species without significantly modifying human activities. The objectives were to identify the most strategic natural landscape types to prioritize for preservation and to propose landscape management actions in highly anthropized areas that would benefit a majority of species. The analysis combined landscape types and bird species observation data to model landscape suitability for six species profiles defined by their affinity for wetlands, agricultural areas, urban areas and three types of forested landscapes. By graph modelling, we analysed the functional connectivity of the ecological networks of these species profiles. The results revealed that only ten landscape types out of 72 were core habitats for three species profiles simultaneously. These were primarily forested landscape types — either strict or associated with open areas (wasteland, forest clearing). Conversely, some anthropogenic landscapes dominated by built areas and sometimes shared with agriculture were completely unfavourable for all species profiles. The graph modelling analysis showed that the transformation of some landscape types could potentially improve connectivity for four species profiles presenting different ecological requirements. This coupling approach thus provided guidance to propose some landscape management actions that benefit the majority of species while preserving land uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land use and spatial patterns which reflect social-ecological legacies control ecosystem service (ES) supply. Yet, temporal changes in ES bundles associated with land use change are little studied. We developed original metrics to quantify synchronous historical variations in spatial patterns of land use and ES supply capacity, and demonstrated their use for two mountain grassland landscapes. Consistent with other European mountains, land use dynamics from the nineteenth century until the mid-twentieth century resulted in increased landscape heterogeneity, followed by homogenisation. In the persistently grassy landscape of Lautaret in France, landscape multifunctionality-the provision of multiple ES-coincided with greatest landscape heterogeneity and within-patch diversity in ecosystem services in the 1950-1970s. In the more complex Austrian landscape, where since the nineteenth century intensive production has concentrated in the valley and steep slopes have been abandoned, grassland landscape-level multifunctionality and spatial heterogeneity across grasslands have decreased. Increasing spatial heterogeneity across grasslands until the 1970s was paralleled at both sites by increasing fine-grained spatial variability for individual ES, but subsequent landscape simplification has promoted coarse-grained ES patterns This novel analysis of landscape-scale turnover highlighted how spatial patterns for individual ES scale to multiple grassland ES, depending on the nature of land use spatial variability. Under current socio-economic trends, sustaining or re-establishing fine-grained landscapes is often not feasible, thus future landscape planning and policies might focus on managing landscape and regional-scale multifunctionality. Also, the trends towards decreasing cultural ES and increasing regulating ES suggest a contradiction with current social demand and regional policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecological functional zoning is critical for multiobjective sustainable management of social-ecological systems. However, the framework of ecological functional zoning needs to be further improved. In terms of the index system, the existing "element-structure–function" index system mainly considers the structural characteristics that have a negative impact on ecological processes, e.g., disturbances, while ignoring positive impacts, e.g., connectivity, which may weaken the role of key nodes in the ecosystem and is not conducive to regional ecological protection. In terms of research methodology, the widely used self-organizing feature mapping neural network (SOFM) produces a number of clusters that easily exceed expectations, thus increasing management difficulties. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore new combining methods. Here, an improved index system combining ecological connectivity and ecological functions and a traditional index system including only ecological functions were constructed, and a zoning method combining a self-organizing feature mapping neural network and fuzzy mean clustering (SOFM-FCM) was used for functional zoning of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River urban agglomeration. The advantages of functional zoning incorporating ecological connectivity were verified by comparing the results of both zoning procedures before and after improvement. The results indicate that the study area could be divided into ecological conservation areas, biodiversity conservation areas, urban development areas, and grain production areas. The zoning schemes before and after the improved framework were reliable compared with the national planning scheme, but there was 20.6% inconsistency in the results after the improved framework. This was mainly manifested by the shift from biodiversity conservation areas to ecological conservation areas and from urban development areas to food production areas. This shift was more conducive to improving spatial continuity and landscape multifunctionality, thus maximizing ecological conservation, pushing back smart urban growth, and achieving food security. This study expands the research perspective concerned with ecological functional zoning, and these results can provide an important reference for regional ecological protection and related research. • Landscape connectivity has been added to the functional zoning index system. • Combined SOFM and FCM algorithms are used for functional zoning. • Spatial continuity and functional coherence of the regional landscape have been improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landscapes provide a broad range of services to society. To date, however, only few regional to continental scale studies assess the capacity of landscapes to provide these services under changing environmental conditions. This is required if the maintenance of current landscape multifunctionality remains a long-term goal. The presented mini review highlights and promotes the concept of landscape functions, defined as the capacity or potential of landscapes to provide services. Ultimately, spatially explicit landscape-function assessments may provide baseline information for society to engage in an open discussion on future landscape development and its potential impact on landscape character. Our mini review is supported with recent literature as well as insights gained at a symposium held at the IALE 2009 conference in Salzburg, Austria as well as a workshop held in Salzau, Germany 2010 and the Global Initiative of the The Ecosystem Services Partnership (http://www.fsd.nl/esp, 30. May 2010).

Landscape elements are the basic units of the earth surface system, and their changes have a profound impact on the continuous supply of landscape functions. However, few studies address the spatiotemporal tradeoffs and synergies between landscape multifunctionality and land-use in complex urban agglomeration system. In the Wuhan metropolitan area, rapid socioeconomic development, urbanization, and industrialization process led to drastic changes in land use, generating a series of landscape function imbalance. Therefore, this study, based on multivariate data and detection model quantitatively mapped five landscape functions, explored the correlations between different land-use types and landscape functions, and explored their trade-offs and synergies. Our study showed that: for 2000–2015, residential support (RS) function increased by 13.95 people/km2, carbon sequestration (CS) and water conservation (WC) functions changed greatly, and their added values were 1226.72 gCm−2a−1, 284.51 mm, respectively, soil conservation (SC) function increased by 68.17 t hm−2, habitat maintain (HM) function decreased by 0.1. Most landscape functions showed trade-off relationships, while a few presented synergy relationships, and the spatial pattern of landscape functions had significant differences, and their distribution was uneven. The hotspots of landscape multifunctionality mainly concentrated in the Wuhan City and southeast region of the study area, and the proportions of III and IV hotspots were 36.87% and 9.56%, respectively. Furthermore, landscape functions and land-use types displayed obvious spatial non-stationary characteristics, and the bundles of similar landscape functions were significantly clustered in space, while the composition structure of landscape function was significantly different. There is an urgent need to optimize the development of surface resources and the implementation of precise policies can optimize the layout of landscape elements and improve the supply of landscape function in an orderly direction. The research results of this study can help us to provide scientific reference for landscape planning management and decision-making. [Display omitted] • Landscape multifunctionality in rapid urbanization areas had diversified and complicated. • Landscape multifunctionality presented an obvious spatiotemporal pattern of trade-off and synergy. • The GWR model successfully explored the spatial nonstationarity of landscape multifunctionality and land use. • The results provide insights into land use planning and landscape ecological conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interdisciplinary concept of landscape multifunctionality provides a suitable platform to combine or disentangle effects of multiple environmental stressors acting on the landscape. The concept allows mapping of trade-offs, synergies, and priority conflicts between individual landscape functions, thus providing easily accessible, hands-on means to communicate findings of environmental research to decision makers and society. This rapid communication provides an overview of current developments and potential future research avenues in landscape multifunctionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Agroecosystems cover vast areas of land worldwide and are known to have a large impact on the environment, yet these highly modified landscapes are rarely considered as candidates for landscape design. While intentionally-designed agricultural landscapes could serve many different functions, few resources exist for evaluating the design of these complex landscapes, particularly at the scale of the whole-farm. The objective of this paper is to introduce an evolving framework for evaluating the design of agroecosystems based on a critical review of the literature on landscape multifunctionality and agroecology. We consider how agroecosystems might be designed to incorporate additional functions while adhering to agroecology principles for managing the landscape. The framework includes an assessment tool for evaluating farm design based on the extent of fine-scale land use features and their specific functions, to consider the present state of the farm, to plan for future conditions, or to compare alternative futures for the design of the farm. We apply this framework to two farms in Vermont that are recognized locally as successful, multifunctional landscapes. The Intervale Center, an agricultural landscape located within the city limits, serves as an incubator for new farm startups and provides unique cultural functions that benefit the local community. Butterworks Farm, a private operation producing organic yogurt and other food products, achieves important ecological functions through an integrated crop-livestock system. These farms and many others in Vermont serve as models of a framework that integrates landscape multifunctionality and agroecology in the design of the landscape. In the discussion section, we draw from the literature and our work to propose a set of important themes that might be considered for future research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Natural reforestation of European mountain landscapes raises major environmental and societal issues. With local stakeholders in the Pyrenees National Park area (France), we studied agricultural landscape colonisation by ash (Fraxinus excelsior) to enlighten its impacts on biodiversity and other landscape functions of importance for the valley socio-economics. The study comprised an integrated assessment of land-use and land-cover change (LUCC) since the 1950s, and a scenario analysis of alternative future policy. We combined knowledge and methods from landscape ecology, land change and agricultural sciences, and a set of coordinated field studies to capture interactions and feedback in the local landscape/land-use system. Our results elicited the hierarchically-nested relationships between social and ecological processes. Agricultural change played a preeminent role in the spatial and temporal patterns of LUCC. Landscape colonization by ash at the parcel level of organisation was merely controlled by grassland management, and in fact depended on the farmer's land management at the whole-farm level. LUCC patterns at the landscape level depended to a great extent on interactions between farm household behaviours and the spatial arrangement of landholdings within the landscape mosaic. Our results stressed the need to represent the local SES function at a fine scale to adequately capture scenarios of change in landscape functions. These findings orientated our modelling choices in the building an agent-based model for LUCC simulation (SMASH-Spatialized Multi-Agent System of landscape colonization by ASH). We discuss our method and results with reference to topical issues in interdisciplinary research into the sustainability of multifunctional landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Much effort is expended toward planning for conservation, natural resource management and sustainable land use in agricultural landscapes. Although often not explicitly stated, the aims of these efforts are often to restore natural capital for the provision of ecosystem services and stimulate multifunctionality in landscapes. However, the scarcity of resources for, and the potential economic impact of, ameliorative actions that restore natural capital necessitates the identification of cost-effective geographic priorities, or hotspots, which provide multiple ecosystem goods and services. This requires the integrated spatial modelling of multiple environmental and economic processes accompanied by clear goals and performance indicators. Identification of hotspots provides guidance for highly targeted land use change that cost-effectively adds to the stocks of natural capital in a landscape. Additionally, the multifunctionality of the landscape can be increased through the provision of multiple ecosystem goods and services. This paper begins by examining data requirements for identifying geographic hotspots for land use change. This study integrates traditionally disparate landscape-scale biophysical and economic data and models. The elements of natural capital considered here are species and ecosystems, soil and water resources, and the atmosphere. It is demonstrated that locating ameliorative actions towards hotspots will be more cost-effective at restoring natural capital and stimulating landscape multifunctionality than a random targeting approach. We calculate these efficiencies using a small set of indicators for assessing aspects of multifunctionality. The focus of this study is the agricultural landscapes of the Lower Murray region of south-eastern Australia. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Forest landscape multifunctionality (FLM) provides multiple benefits, such as climate regulation, water storage, and biodiversity maintenance. However, the external factors limiting FLM have not been fully identified, although addressing them could contribute to sustainable development. The present study aimed to identify and quantify the role of urbanization as an external factor that affects FLM. To this end, impervious area changes in Liaoyuan, China, were observed from 2000 to 2018, and 10 buffer zones at 500 m intervals were established outside the city. Within each buffer zone, we analyzed changes in forest landscape functions, including habitat maintenance, carbon sequestration, and water yield, as well as changes in the multifunctionality of their composition. The urbanization of Liaoyuan was significant in 2000–2018. The functions of the forest landscape became stronger and more stable as they were located further away from the urban edge. We refer to this pattern as the gradient effect of urbanization. Specifically, urbanization affected the investigated functions at a distance of 1000–2500 m. The FLM showed a more significant gradient effect of urbanization. The impact distance of urbanization on the FLM increased from 3000 m in 2000 to over 5000 m in 2018. This impact distance increased significantly whenever urbanization strengthened significantly (i.e., in 2005–2010 and 2015–2018). These findings are instructive for forest and urban managers working to achieve multiple Sustainable Development Goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Landscape multifunctionality was identified based on the spatial hotspots approach. • Constructing the landscape ecological risk index with landscape indices. • The GWR model was used to explore the impact of landscape multifunctionality change on regional ecological risk. Landscape multifunctionality is regard as a powerful concept to identify effects of environment change, while the landscape ecological risk (LER), as a negative representation of this effect, few studies explored the relationship between them. Therefore, taking Beijing city as the research site, we analyzed the spatiotemporal changes of landscape multifunctionality and the LER in 2000–2010, then the spatial variation of the impact of landscape multifunctionality on the LER was explored by the geographically weighted regression (GWR) model. The results showed that: (1) The high areas of multifunctionality showed an upward trend and gradually expanded from the northwest to the southwest. Whereas the low areas of multifunctionality were clumped in the southeast and showed a downward trend over time. (2) The overall pattern of the LER exhibited an obvious structure of east–west polarization. The extra-high-risk areas were concentrated in the northeast and southeast of the urban center, with the area decreased over time and gradually transformed from clustering to dispersion. While the low- and sub-low-risk areas were mainly distributed in the western of the study area and showed an increasing trend. (3) The GWR analysis indicated that the relationship between landscape multifunctionality and the LER existed an negatively correlation, and a few of positive correlation areas shrinking gradually from the northwest and southwest corner of the urban center to the urban center. It was remarkable that the shrinking areas were basically consistent with the expansion direction of the high multifunctionality areas, which indicated that the increase of high multifunctionality can reduced the LER to some extent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land use and spatial patterns which reflect social-ecological legacies control ecosystem service (ES) supply. Yet, temporal changes in ES bundles associated with land use change are little studied. We developed original metrics to quantify synchronous historical variations in spatial patterns of land use and ES supply capacity, and demonstrated their use for two mountain grassland landscapes. Consistent with other European mountains, land use dynamics from the nineteenth century until the mid-twentieth century resulted in increased landscape heterogeneity, followed by homogenisation. In the persistently grassy landscape of Lautaret in France, landscape multifunctionality-the provision of multiple ES-coincided with greatest landscape heterogeneity and within-patch diversity in ecosystem services in the 1950-1970s. In the more complex Austrian landscape, where since the nineteenth century intensive production has concentrated in the valley and steep slopes have been abandoned, grassland landscape-level multifunctionality and spatial heterogeneity across grasslands have decreased. Increasing spatial heterogeneity across grasslands until the 1970s was paralleled at both sites by increasing fine-grained spatial variability for individual ES, but subsequent landscape simplification has promoted coarse-grained ES patterns This novel analysis of landscape-scale turnover highlighted how spatial patterns for individual ES scale to multiple grassland ES, depending on the nature of land use spatial variability. Under current socio-economic trends, sustaining or re-establishing fine-grained landscapes is often not feasible, thus future landscape planning and policies might focus on managing landscape and regional-scale multifunctionality. Also, the trends towards decreasing cultural ES and increasing regulating ES suggest a contradiction with current social demand and regional policies.