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This paper summarises the research carried out so far on barniz de Pasto objects from the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) and outlines future areas of development for our collection of Indigenous lacquer from Latin America. The V&A was the first UK public institution to identify objects decorated with barniz de Pasto within its collection. Two of these were acquired in 2015 and 2018; others had entered the collection between 1855 and 1902 but were recognised as barniz de Pasto only after 2018. The acquisition in 2015 of a cabinet marked the start of a research campaign to understand the materiality and context of all the museum's barniz de Pasto objects. The analytical techniques used included X-radiography, polarised light microscopy and digital microscopy, Raman microscopy, X-ray fluorescence (point and scanning), chromatography (py-GC–MS and LC–DAD–MS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray micro-computed tomography. Unexpected discoveries were made along the way, including the characterisation and documentation of mercury white (mercury(I) chloride, or calomel) used as a white pigment, a world first. Gel-based cleaning methods were used to remove a non-original, discoloured, natural varnish covering nearly the entire surface of one of the objects, and the recent overpaint on its lid, revealing original surfaces which had been repaired and drastically repainted in the second half of the twentieth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tomb No. 2 of Tushan in Xuzhou is the tomb of King Chu of the Eastern Han Dynasty, and it was an important archaeological discovery in China. The unique placement and crafting techniques of a lacquer coffin that was unearthed from the burial corridor are of significant importance in the study of tombs. In order to characterise the sample's microstructure, elemental composition, and structural composition, as well as to study the crafting techniques of the coffin in the corridor, a range of analytical techniques were employed, including ultra-depth microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with SEM-EDS, Raman spectroscopy, FTIR, and XRD. The results indicate that the cross-sectional structure of the fragments comprises a pigment layer and a lacquer ash layer, with the latter being further divided into tile ash and bone ash layers. No lacquer film layer was observed. The primary colouring agent in the pigment layer was HgS, which contained a minor quantity of organic binder. The primary component of the tile ash layer was quartz, while the osseous ash layer comprised particles and collagen derived from mammalian bones. The lacquer crafting technique employed in the construction of the coffin was relatively simple and inconsistent with the assumption of it having a noble status. The findings of this research offer experimental data for the identification, preservation, and technical restoration of the corridor coffin in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The origin of elemental chromium for the archaeological weapons from the pits of Qin terracotta warriors in China has been highly controversial. Although previous studies have highlighted that the chromium on the surface of weapon originated from the contamination of surrounding lacquer, the exact origin of chromium in the lacquer remains unclear. In this work, the measurement by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) firstly confirmed that the elemental chromium was indeed contained in the archaeological Qin original lacquer. Nevertheless, the amount of elemental chromium in the Qin lacquer was as low as 0.0759 μg/mg, disclosing that it was impossible to artificially add extra refined chromium-containing substance to the lacquer in the preparation of the terracotta warriors. The soil from the archaeological site of Qin lacquer was found to have a chromium amount of 0.0660 μg/mg by ICP-MS. After the hygrothermal and soil-buried aging cycles for the lab-prepared lacquer, the surface and depth elemental analyses by time of flight-secondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF–SIMS) showed a gradient distribution of elemental chromium from the surface to interior of aged lacquer, indicating the migration and enrichment behavior of elemental chromium from the burial soil towards the lacquer. To explore the migration mechanism of elemental chromium, fluorescence imaging technique was employed in combination with Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterizations. The results revealed that catechol-containing fragments were formed during hygrothermal and soil-buried aging of lacquer and consequently coordinated with chromium ions, inducing the migration of elemental chromium towards the lacquer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the establishment of a global carbon-neutral target, green and sustainable design concepts, materials, and processes have become the key to scientific and technological innovation, which highlights the development and utilization of environmentally-friendly materials and renewable energy sources. At present, almost all the raw materials in commercial photoresist are from oil resources. In order to implement the policy of "green chemistry", there is an urgent need to take the place of petroleum with renewable, biodegradable, and green biomass resources in photoresist production. As a kind of green and natural high polymer material from China, lacquer has excellent physical and chemical properties and has great application potential in the field of electronics. In this paper, the potential connections between photoresist and lacquer, especially in the green development of photoresist, are sorted out. The introduction of lacquer and its derivatives may help to improve the environmentally-friendly production of photoresist and its performance. Therefore, in the context of global carbon neutrality, the study of photoresists in the "lacquer" is of great significance in promoting the application of eco-friendly materials in the field of microelectronics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The origin of elemental chromium for the archaeological weapons from the pits of Qin terracotta warriors in China has been highly controversial. Although previous studies have highlighted that the chromium on the surface of weapon originated from the contamination of surrounding lacquer, the exact origin of chromium in the lacquer remains unclear. In this work, the measurement by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) firstly confirmed that the elemental chromium was indeed contained in the archaeological Qin original lacquer. Nevertheless, the amount of elemental chromium in the Qin lacquer was as low as 0.0759 μg/mg, disclosing that it was impossible to artificially add extra refined chromium-containing substance to the lacquer in the preparation of the terracotta warriors. The soil from the archaeological site of Qin lacquer was found to have a chromium amount of 0.0660 μg/mg by ICP-MS. After the hygrothermal and soil-buried aging cycles for the lab-prepared lacquer, the surface and depth elemental analyses by time of flight-secondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF–SIMS) showed a gradient distribution of elemental chromium from the surface to interior of aged lacquer, indicating the migration and enrichment behavior of elemental chromium from the burial soil towards the lacquer. To explore the migration mechanism of elemental chromium, fluorescence imaging technique was employed in combination with Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) characterizations. The results revealed that catechol-containing fragments were formed during hygrothermal and soil-buried aging of lacquer and consequently coordinated with chromium ions, inducing the migration of elemental chromium towards the lacquer.

The Hispanic Society Museum & Library (HSML) holds a collection of nine viceregal barniz de Pasto objects, made by Indigenous artisans in the 17th and 18th centuries. Designed to imitate Asian lacquers and intended for European aesthetic tastes, barniz de Pasto is an example of Indigenous technique and knowledge that has survived to the present day. An in-depth analysis of five of these barniz de Pasto objects, dated to the first half and last quarter of the 17th century based on their iconography, was carried out through a combination of non-invasive and micro-invasive techniques, including portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectroscopy to investigate the possible presence of inorganic pigments, and fiber-optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) and reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) to provide molecular information on colorants and their distributions across the objects. Dyes and pigments were also identified using Raman spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS). The nature of the resin was determined by FTIR and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), while the decoration stratigraphy and composition were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). This paper confirms the use of mopa mopa, the resin used in the barniz de Pasto technique, in two objects not previously analyzed, and identifies indigo, insect-based red, calomel, lead white, and an unknown flavonol-based yellow dye, and challenges the use of calomel as a temporal marker for these works. Taken together, these results expand our understanding of the material use and explorations undertaken by artists during this time period to create such elaborate and enduring objects.

Abstract A pipe with red coating on the surface was excavated from an archaeological site in Sweden, which is supposed to be a lacquer ware imported from China due to the admiration and pursue of lacquer wares from Asia by Europeans during sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. However, materials such as shellac and resins were often used to imitate lacquer during that time in Europe. To determine whether the pipe was Chinese lacquer ware or not, attenuated total reflection of fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), thermally-assisted hydrolysis and methylation pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (THM-Py-GC/MS) were conducted. The detection of significant amount of aleuritic acid, laccijalaric acid, laccishellolic acid, shellolic acid and jalaric acid represents that shellac is the main material used for the pipe coating rather than Chinese lacquer. Long chain fatty alcohols were found in the sample, indicating that the shellac is un-dewaxed. In addition, pine resin and turpentine were also found as additives in the pipe coating. Furthermore, pigments in the coating were determined as cinnabar and carbon black by scanning electron microscopy with element energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM–EDS) and Raman spectroscopy. The results could definitely support the conservation of the pipe, and also provide the evidence of the cultural exchange between Europe and Asia.

The Hispanic Society Museum & Library (HSML) holds a collection of nine viceregal barniz de Pasto objects, made by Indigenous artisans in the 17th and 18th centuries. Designed to imitate Asian lacquers and intended for European aesthetic tastes, barniz de Pasto is an example of Indigenous technique and knowledge that has survived to the present day. An in-depth analysis of five of these barniz de Pasto objects, dated to the first half and last quarter of the 17th century based on their iconography, was carried out through a combination of non-invasive and micro-invasive techniques, including portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectroscopy to investigate the possible presence of inorganic pigments, and fiber-optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) and reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) to provide molecular information on colorants and their distributions across the objects. Dyes and pigments were also identified using Raman spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS). The nature of the resin was determined by FTIR and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), while the decoration stratigraphy and composition were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). This paper confirms the use of mopa mopa, the resin used in the barniz de Pasto technique, in two objects not previously analyzed, and identifies indigo, insect-based red, calomel, lead white, and an unknown flavonol-based yellow dye, and challenges the use of calomel as a temporal marker for these works. Taken together, these results expand our understanding of the material use and explorations undertaken by artists during this time period to create such elaborate and enduring objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of lacquer in China for thousands of years has resulted in the development of a unique lacquer art culture. The "lacquer" refers to urushi lacquer, which is collected from lacquer trees. Lacquer phenol undergoes series of chemical reactions to form a solid film with excellent properties, such as moisture resistance, high temperature resistance, and resistance to acid and alkali. Adding color powder into lacquer can produce a brilliant color paint, which is widely used in jewelry, anti-corrosion and cultural relics restoration. From the perspective of chemistry, the chemical composition, properties of lacquer and the chemical reaction of urushiol to lacquer film are introduced. Also, a series of popular science experiments are designed to verify what is lacquer and its excellent properties so that the people can deeply understand the ubiquity and importance of chemistry. The introduction of the history of lacquer, and the hands-on participation of primary and secondary school students in lacquerware production and lacquer painting drawing could exercise hands-on ability of young people, and convey the lacquer culture and the craftsman spirit of lacquer artists. The combination of lacquer art and chemistry can help the people to appreciate the beauty of lacquer art, realize the crucial role of chemistry in lacquer, and stimulate their interest in chemistry, therefore, realize the purpose of carrying forward the intangible cultural heritage of lacquer art and spreading the scientific knowledge of chemistry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• THM-Py-GC/MS procedure to distinguish two types of gum benzoin were developed. • Various materials were identified simultaneously by THM-Py-GC/MS in ancient architectural paintings from Shuxiang temple. • For the first time, gum benzoin was detected as binding media in ancient Chinese architectural paintings. Animal glue, pine resin, starch, and tung oil were commonly used as binding media in ancient architectural decoration in China. Gum benzoin was also recorded in ancient Chinese literature but has not been detected in Chinese architectural decoration yet. To obtain comprehensive information on ancient binding media, this study investigated two types of gum benzoin using pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with thermal-assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THM–Py–GC/MS). Subsequently, organic binding media used in the architectural decoration of Shuxiang Temple, which is a Royal Manchu temple in the Qing dynasty, were analyzed. Heat-boiled tung oil was identified as the major binding medium in architectural decoration. In addition, animal glue, blood, starch, pine resin, and gum benzoin from Styrax benzoin Dryand and Qi (urushiol-based lacquer) were also determined. For the first time, gum benzoin was detected as a binding medium in architectural decoration in China. The identification of various organic binding media used in the architectural decoration can provide scientific support to the ongoing conservation project related to Shuxiang Temple. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work studies one type of artistic production from the Viceroyalty of New Spain during the second half of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the following century. Furniture decorated with the technique of enconchado is studied to point out the influence of Namban lacquer as well as the relationship with enconchado painting, a better known and studied corpus than furniture, and also its link to Mexican lacquer, maque. The identification and study of three pieces of furniture that feature the enconchado technique, and a cross, probably decorated with maque, offer a complementary vision of the art of enconchado and allow us to consider enconchado furniture an independent artistic genre.

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This work studies one type of artistic production from the Viceroyalty of New Spain during the second half of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the following century. Furniture decorated with the technique of enconchado is studied to point out the influence of Namban lacquer as well as the relationship with enconchado painting, a better known and studied corpus than furniture, and also its link to Mexican lacquer, maque. The identification and study of three pieces of furniture that feature the enconchado technique, and a cross, probably decorated with maque, offer a complementary vision of the art of enconchado and allow us to consider enconchado furniture an independent artistic genre. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to control the production cost of lacquer products, Cu–ethanolamine nanozymes were synthesized to simulate laccase to catalyze the oxidation and polymerization of urushiol. First-principles calculation results indicate that the D-band center of Cu center in the nanozymes was closer to the Fermi level than that of laccase, so Cu–ethanolamine was more conducive to the adsorption of substrate. The activation energy of Cu-ethanolamine catalyzed the oxidation of urushiol was significantly lower than that of laccase. Therefore, we inferred that the synthesized Cu–ethanolamine had a better catalytic effect on urushiol and was more conducive to paint film drying. By comprehensive comparison, the drying characteristics of the Cu–ethanolamine and raw lacquer with a 1:20 ratio are found to be closest to those of the raw lacquer, and the drying time is significantly shortened. The reaction results of the drying process performance test on the sample indicate that the composite lacquer can achieve the market-desired effect and performance requirements of the paint process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The life of Bagan speaks through its villages, from the founding set of nineteen some two thousand years ago, until today. This formative role of villages, however, has been side-lined by the fame of Bagan as the centre of a great Buddhist empire. The present article focuses on one village, Myinkaba. The location, its history, tangible and intangible characteristics underpin an evolving community of trade, production and religious patronage. Other villages at Bagan likewise have developed their own personalities making this analysis a proposal and potential template for bringing a new perspective to dynamics of the ancient city and its sustainable future. Like all the villages of Bagan, Myinkaba’s culture is Buddhist yet mixed with animist and other elements from the interaction of Pyu, Bamar and Mon groups over many centuries. Of the capital’s nineteen ‘founding’ villages, Myinkaba is the only one anchored on a large seasonal water body or in-gyi. The prime location on the Ayeyarawady River has enabled trade in bamboo used for lacquer and other products over many centuries. The site also contains evidence of glass production and smelting in a series of kilns. Festivals earn income for the temples, with sale of traditional snacks and a puppet competition. Inscriptions and historical links with the ‘captured’ eleventh century ruler of Thaton, King Manuha, add associations to Mon areas of Lower Myanmar. We construct a working model to encourage further village-based excavation, related research and education in future years that may also contribute to the sustenance of the UNESCO World Heritage site of Bagan. ကျေးရွာများသည် ပုဂံ၏ သမိုင်းတင်ခေတ်ဆိုင်ရာ ရှေးဟောင်းသုတေသနပညာအတွက် အရေးပါသည့်ကဏ္ဍမှ ပါဝင်သည်။ သို့သော် ပုဂံ၏ ထူးကဲသည့် အနုဗိသုကာဆိုင်ရာ လေ့လာမှုများနှင့် ယှဉ်သော် ရပ်ကျေး ရွာကျေးများအား လေ့လာမှု အလွန်နည်းပါးပါသေးသည်။ ဤစာတမ်း၌ မြင်းကပါရွာ၏ ဒြပ်ရှိ ဒြပ်မဲ့ အမွေအနှစ်များနှင့်တကွ သဘာဝရင်းမြစ်များအား အတူလွှမ်းခြုံလေ့လာ၍ သုတေသနကွင်းဆက်များအား ရည်ညွှန်းတင်ပြသွားပါမည်။ မြင်းကပါရွာသည် ပုဂံမြို့တော်၏ မူလ ၁၉ ရွာ အနက် အစဦ်အလာ ပုဂံမြို့တည်သမိုင်း၊ ကျောက်စာ၊ ဖန်ချက်လုပ်ငန်း၊ တည်ရှိနေဆဲဖြစ်သည့် ယွန်းလက်မှုအမွေအနှစ်တို့အရ မွန်နှင့် ဆက်နွယ်သည့် တစ်ခုတည်းသောရွာဖြစ်သည်ကိုသက်သေထူနေသည်။ကျောက်စာအထောက်အထားများက ၎င်းရွာ၏ ရင်းမြစ်ကြွယ်ဝမှုနှင့် အရေးပါမှုကို မီးမောင်းထိုးပြနေပါသည်။ ပထမထောင်စုနှစ်မှသည် ယခုကာလထိ ကူးသန်းရောင်းဝယ်ရေးသည် သာသန အနုဂ္ဂဟများအား တွန်းအားဖြစ်စေသည့်အချက် ၁၁ ရာစုကတည်းကတည်ရှိခဲ့သော ဘုရားစေတီအများအပြား၌ သာမက ယနေ့ခေတ် လူမှုအဖွဲ့အစည်းများ ကြောထောက်နောက်ခံပြုသည့် ဘုရားပွဲများ၌လည်း တွေ့မြင်နိုင်သည်။ မြင်းကပါ၏ ရှေးဟောင်အမွေအနှစ်နှင့် ရှင်သန်ဆဲ အမွေအနှစ်တို့သည် ရပ်ရွာ အဏု-ဒေသများ၏ ဒေသိယ ကိုယ်ပိုင်လူမှုလက္ခဏာ နှင့် ယဉ်ကျေးမှုတို့၏ အခန်းကဏ္ဍကိုသာမက ယူနက်စကို ကမ္ဘာ့အမွေအနှစ် နေရာ ရည်ရှည်တည့်တံ့ရေး စီမံခန့်ခွဲမှု၌ ၎င်းတို့၏ အရေးပါမှု ကိုလည်း မီးမောင်းထိုးပြနေသည်။

Abstract During the Joseon Dynasty, light and convenient leather armors were developed to replace metal armors, which were heavy and difficult to manufacture. Leather armors allowed easy movement of the troops and, because arrows were the primary weapons at the time, provided them with protection. The excellent performance of leather armors can be attributed to their materials and manufacturing method. The scales of the leather armor relics are prepared by layering animal skins, attaching them with natural glue, and then coating their outer surface with lacquer. The lacquer extracted from the lacquer (Ott) tree is an excellent material with high strength, waterproofing and antiseptic properties, insect repellency, heat resistance, as well as chemical resistance. The superior performance of the leather scale was reported in old scripts; however, it has not been proven through scientific analysis and testing. Therefore, in this study, the physical and mechanical properties, impact resistance, and anti-stab performance of leather scales manufactured following the traditional method were investigated. The results confirmed the excellent protection, impact resistance, and mechanical properties of the leather specimens glued with fish glue and coated with lacquer compared to those of specimens glued with synthetic glue and uncoated specimens glued with fish glue. This study reveals the excellent properties of fish glue and lacquer, which enable them to be used in various industries.

Folding screens were very popular in New Spain beginning in the late 16th century. From the second half of the 17th century on, many Chinese and some European lacquer folding screens circulated in New Spain, inspiring the development of Novohispanic lacquer, imitation lacquer, and Chinese-style folding screens. The decorative technique of these Novohispanic folding screens has not been studied, but evidence suggests that some of them were made with techniques that have pre-Columbian roots, others with European lacquer techniques, and others still with paint and varnish adapted to produce a shiny surface resembling that of Asian lacquer. Thus, 18th-century New Spain was the place where there was the widest variety of lacquer folding screens in the world. Hitherto this variety has remained unnoticed, but studying it is essential to understand to what extent the globalization of the taste for lacquer gave rise to innovative solutions in the Americas.

This technical study of three Mexican lacquer objects, dating from the 16th, 18th and 19th centuries, analyses different lacquer manufacturing processes and their local characteristics through the centuries. The technical analysis of each object highlights their material and technological innovation. In addition, we describe individual stylistic characteristics of Mexican lacquer production centres, Peribán and Olinalá. Finally, we conclude with a few observations about the taste for Asian lacquer in the West, and how this impacted lacquer crafts around the world.

This study analyzes the techniques and decorative motifs of several works made using barniz de Pasto, highlighting their characteristics in order to establish comparisons with artistic phenomena of Asia and Europe. A possible link can be observed between barniz de Pasto and the Namban and Pictorial style Japanese export lacquer works of the 17th and 18th centuries. A search for similarity is justified by the documentary and material evidence of Japanese works created in these styles being transported from Japan to the Viceroyalty of New Spain by Manila galleons via the trade route between Acapulco and Callao. Additionally, traces of the Spanish culture have been recognized in barniz de Pasto. For example, printed images that circulated in the Viceroyalty of Peru have been observed on a coffer. This appropriation, also observed in the mural painting of a Central Andean church, and the presence of the image of Amaru, a Quechua deity, on the same coffer, marks the Central Andes as one of the possible places where the practice of barniz de Pasto could have been established. All of this points to Central and South America’s great ability to appropriate foreign cultures and fuse them with their own during the viceregal period, as manifested in the art of barniz de Pasto.

During the Joseon Dynasty, light and convenient leather armors were developed to replace metal armors, which were heavy and difficult to manufacture. Leather armors allowed easy movement of the troops and, because arrows were the primary weapons at the time, provided them with protection. The excellent performance of leather armors can be attributed to their materials and manufacturing method. The scales of the leather armor relics are prepared by layering animal skins, attaching them with natural glue, and then coating their outer surface with lacquer. The lacquer extracted from the lacquer (Ott) tree is an excellent material with high strength, waterproofing and antiseptic properties, insect repellency, heat resistance, as well as chemical resistance. The superior performance of the leather scale was reported in old scripts; however, it has not been proven through scientific analysis and testing. Therefore, in this study, the physical and mechanical properties, impact resistance, and anti-stab performance of leather scales manufactured following the traditional method were investigated. The results confirmed the excellent protection, impact resistance, and mechanical properties of the leather specimens glued with fish glue and coated with lacquer compared to those of specimens glued with synthetic glue and uncoated specimens glued with fish glue. This study reveals the excellent properties of fish glue and lacquer, which enable them to be used in various industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Folding screens were very popular in New Spain beginning in the late 16th century. From the second half of the 17th century on, many Chinese and some European lacquer folding screens circulated in New Spain, inspiring the development of Novohispanic lacquer, imitation lacquer, and Chinese-style folding screens. The decorative technique of these Novohispanic folding screens has not been studied, but evidence suggests that some of them were made with techniques that have pre-Columbian roots, others with European lacquer techniques, and others still with paint and varnish adapted to produce a shiny surface resembling that of Asian lacquer. Thus, 18th-century New Spain was the place where there was the widest variety of lacquer folding screens in the world. Hitherto this variety has remained unnoticed, but studying it is essential to understand to what extent the globalization of the taste for lacquer gave rise to innovative solutions in the Americas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Qajar dynasty came to power in 1785 and ruled until 1925. During this last phase of traditional Persian history, succeeding shahs tried to change the isolationist stance of the country by expanding cultural and economic interchange with the West. The 19th century was marked by continual unrest, caused by tribal groups competing for power. Foreign encroachment also contributed to conflicts. By mid-century, Persia had again become a crossroads to the East, because European colonialism demanded short routes to the Orient for explorers, archeologists, soldiers, scholars, pilgrims, tourists, writers, painters and photographers. During the long reign of Naser al-Din Shah (1848-1896) the desire for reformist policies and the continuing need for new funds led to the awarding of licenses to foreign concessionaires from Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy and Austria. It was during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah’s father, Mohammad Shah (1834-1848) that the first cameras came to Iran through Russia and Britain. Photographers in Iran can be divided into three broad categories: first, those belonging to the European documentary and geographic tradition, who explored cultural and physical differences throughout the world; second, indigenous photographers, who experimented with the new technical discoveries for enjoyment, without a defined mission; and third, commercial photographers, who discovered that images could be sold. The earliest practitioners of photography in Persia were Europeans from France, Austria and Italy. They were instructors at Dar al-Fonun, the well-known Tehran polytechnic established by Naser al-Din Shah in 1850 to train officers, civil and military engineers, doctors and interpreters. Photography was introduced into the curriculum after 1870. The Frenchman, Jules Richard who taught French at Dar al-Fonun was probably the first among the foreigners to print images on paper treated with silver nitrate. Photography in Qajar Iran was first at the court’s service or for documenting official events, but it gradually adopted some artistic and popular approaches. This medium in that time would provide the artists who had become familiar with modern European techniques of painting with some fresh, useful tools to try realistic imagery. However, the impact of photography on Qajar painters was not restricted to oil painting or watercolor, but it exerted its sphere of influence in a wider domain, including lacquerwork, particularly pen boxes. Under the Qajar dynasty the best miniature painting is usually found not in the illustration of manuscripts, as in the earlier periods of the art, but in the decoration of objects in lacquered papier-mache. This art reached a high state of development under Fath Ali Shah, but the best works produced under Naser al-Din Shah in the middle years of the 19th century were perhaps even finer. During this century lacquerwares were one of the most important forms of decorative art produced in Iran. Their importance is reflected in the sheer quantity of items that were made, and in the dynamism with which the decoration of lacquerwares developed. Actually, early Qajar lacquerwares look very different from those in later times throughout the whole century, especially from the Nasseri period on. It can hardly be doubted that the lacquerwork of the early Qajar period was to a large extent a continuation of the traditions established in the late Safavid, Afshar and Zand periods. The repertory of 18th century lacquer decoration included figural, floral and flower-and-bird themes, illumination and calligraphy; however, this visual tradition inclined towards more realistic subject matters with an emphasis on portraiture, most specifically depicting the portraits of kings, princes, officials and dignitaries. The present article aims at studying the impact of photography on the visual evolution of the lacquerwork in Qajar art and it tries to answer the following questions: How did photography exert influence on the development of visual arts and portraiture in Qajar period? How can we evaluate such impact on lacquerwork, especially pen boxes? The results demonstrate that photography had a considerable effect on visual arts, especially portraiture, in that period, and such a movement can be traced in other art media such as lacquer pen boxes, mirror cases, etc. Artists and artisans active in making pen boxes and other lacquer artifacts would use photographs in two ways on their artworks: first, by precise copying of portraits and other elements in pictures, and second, by just pasting the ready photos as labels under lacquer. Pen boxes with Qajar portraits usually contain the realistic paintings of rulers, courtiers, statesmen, the nobility and women within an oval frame in a Westernized structure. Such portraits are mostly depicted in the central panel in larger dimension than other adjacent ones. The dignitaries painted in here are officially dressed and are represented in vertical visual composition. This gradual development in the visual tradition of this era could be considered as a result of the introduction of photography into Qajar Iran, particularly from the middle 19th century onward, and it continues right into the end of this dynasty, with a decline in quality.

This technical study of three Mexican lacquer objects, dating from the 16th, 18th and 19th centuries, analyses different lacquer manufacturing processes and their local characteristics through the centuries. The technical analysis of each object highlights their material and technological innovation. In addition, we describe individual stylistic characteristics of Mexican lacquer production centres, Peribán and Olinalá. Finally, we conclude with a few observations about the taste for Asian lacquer in the West, and how this impacted lacquer crafts around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes the techniques and decorative motifs of several works made using barniz de Pasto, highlighting their characteristics in order to establish comparisons with artistic phenomena of Asia and Europe. A possible link can be observed between barniz de Pasto and the Namban and Pictorial style Japanese export lacquer works of the 17th and 18th centuries. A search for similarity is justified by the documentary and material evidence of Japanese works created in these styles being transported from Japan to the Viceroyalty of New Spain by Manila galleons via the trade route between Acapulco and Callao. Additionally, traces of the Spanish culture have been recognized in barniz de Pasto. For example, printed images that circulated in the Viceroyalty of Peru have been observed on a coffer. This appropriation, also observed in the mural painting of a Central Andean church, and the presence of the image of Amaru, a Quechua deity, on the same coffer, marks the Central Andes as one of the possible places where the practice of barniz de Pasto could have been established. All of this points to Central and South America's great ability to appropriate foreign cultures and fuse them with their own during the viceregal period, as manifested in the art of barniz de Pasto. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lacquered wooden sculptures of fantastic hybrid beasts adorned with real deer antlers are among the most extraordinary examples of sculpture found in Chu tombs dated from the sixth through the third centuries BCE. Conventionally known as zhenmushou 镇墓兽 or "protecting tomb beasts", the antlered sculptures have grotesque features, including bulging eyes, fangs, and protruding tongues. In the fourth century BCE, production and use of these sculptures increased and peaked in the Hanxi region of Hubei province. Although most of these figures have been found in tombs in Hanxi (west of the Han River), distinctive variations of antlered tomb sculptures are also documented in regional areas of the Chu polity, including the Nanyang Basin, the Upper Huai, Eastern Hubei, and Jiangnan. Through a systematic regional analysis of Chu antlered sculptures, this paper presents a spatial framework for analyzing this unique genre of Chu funerary sculpture. This approach provides fresh insight into the interregional networks of interaction across the Chu state and beyond, via waterways and the Suizao corridor from the sixth through the third centuries BCE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine the usability of selected natural dye extracts as environmentally friendly colorants that are used in painting of MDF based furniture and evaluate their resistance to scratch resistance, adhesion resistance, and surface hardness properties. In this study, the water-based lacquer coatings were prepared with natural dyes obtained from purple cabbage (Brassica oleracea), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), Red beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) and three synthetic paints that were black, blue and light blue as a comparison. Coated MDF test panels used for evaluation of performances of dyes to abiotic factors that are determined by mechanical tests such as scratch resistance, adhesion resistance, and surface hardness. As a result of the study, it has been observed that, except for scratch resistance, natural dyes perform as well as synthetic ones as alternative colorants in the lacquer coatings. Thus, natural and aesthetic raw materials that are environmentally friendly dyes can be used safely especially in children's furniture and for wood-based products that are especially used indoors.

The aim of this study was to determine the usability of selected natural dye extracts as environmentally friendly colorants that are used in painting of MDF based furniture and evaluate their resistance to scratch resistance, adhesion resistance, and surface hardness properties. In this study, the water-based lacquer coatings were prepared with natural dyes obtained from purple cabbage (Brassica oleracea), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), Red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) and three synthetic paints that were black, blue and light blue as a comparison. Coated MDF test panels used for evaluation of performances of dyes to abiotic factors that are determined by mechanical tests such as scratch resistance, adhesion resistance, and surface hardness. As a result of the study, it has been observed that, except for scratch resistance, natural dyes perform as well as synthetic ones as alternative colorants in the lacquer coatings. Thus, natural and aesthetic raw materials that are environmentally friendly dyes can be used safely especially in children's furniture and for wood-based products that are especially used indoors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the addition of extractive substances on the VOC emission of lacquer products in the liquid state. Three water-soluble acrylic resin products were investigated using the stationary phase microextraction technique in combination with gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS). The extraction of volatile compounds was analysed at three temperatures: 22 ℃, 35 ℃ and 45 ℃. 20 µg of an extract obtained from the leaves, branches and bark of black cherry (Prunus serotina Erhr.) were added to commercial products. Flavonoids accounted for almost 75% of the total phenols in the used extract. The spectrum of volatile compounds emitted by the liquid coating products selected for the studies was examined before and after adding the extract to them. It was found that the addition of black cherry extract caused a significant reduction in the emissions of volatile compounds emitted by the researched products. The compounds, whose amounts did not decrease under the influence of the addition of the extract, were esters of propenoic acid. The applied extract was a source of emissions from an additional compound: benzaldehyde. The total VOC emissions of the investigated liquid coating products was reduced by 8-55% and depended on the extraction temperature. The paper also proposes the mechanism of chemical reactions between phenolics and VOC, which may cause the reduction in VOC emissions from lacquer products. The IBM RXN tool was utilised to find possible reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The guqin, a seven-string Chinese zither invented three thousand years ago, is made of natural organic materials. For optimal acoustics, ancient makers used highly selected materials and experimented with complex manipulations. The sound box was carved from aged wood and artificially aged wood. The urushi lacquer contained organic additives, inorganic additives, and volume-extending particles. The silk string was coated with collagen, starch, and herbal extracts. Here, we review guqin-making materials and methods in ancient records and compare them to current chemical knowledge and analytical evidence. Understanding the technical art history of Chinese guqin is critical for its conservation and revival in the 21st century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the production technology of black burnished pottery from the royal fortress and tombs in the Hanseong period of Baekje (fourth to fifth century AD), Ancient Korea. This pottery can be classified into two types based on the form of the black layer on the cross-section: a thick, progressing layer (smudging black (SB)-type) and a thin and fine layer on the surface (coating black (CB)-type). Raman spectroscopy detected combustion carbon with an amorphous structure in the black portion of the SB-type (surface/core/inner surface) and CB-type (outer surface/inner surface). Micro Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (micro-FT-IR) and time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry (ToF–SIMS) results showed that urushiol, the main component of lacquer, was found on the outer surface of pottery. Results showed that SB-type is a pottery in which combustion carbon is smudged inside the pottery using plant ash, and the outermost surface is lacquered for gloss. In CB-type pottery, a thin combustion carbon layer is formed using a lacquer after firing the pottery body. X-ray diffraction studies showed that most of the pottery may have been fired at 550–850 °C. This study identified the colouring component of black pottery and presented examples of the lacquer usage in pottery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lacquerware is a type of ancient and unique Chinese artwork that was also popular throughout Asia and Europe. The process of mixing tung oil in lacquer sap was a milestone in lacquerware history. However, the proportions of tung oil in different types of art forms are still not clear and are disputed, due to the lack of noninvasive quantitative technology. To solve this problem, tung oil and lacquer sap from different sources were used to make 140 standard samples with different ratios. A quantitative test model was built based on near-infrared spectroscopy and a partial least squares algorithm. Additionally, 14 typical Chinese ancient lacquer artworks were analyzed. The proportions of tung oil in different types of lacquerwares are discussed. All the spectral data from this study will be open to other researchers to ensure that this technology can be improved and applied to correlation research as soon as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effects of the lacquer applied to the printing materials which were printed by electrophotographic printing method on printing quality were investigated. In practice, printing materials with the same weight and different optical properties were used and the study was carried out in three stages. The optical and physical properties of the printing materials used in the first part were determined, in the second part, the printing of these materials by electrophotographic printing method and printability tests were performed. In the third chapter, matte and glossy lacquers were applied to these printed materials and printability tests were repeated. As a result of the study, it was observed that the application of gloss and matte lacquer caused a decrease in the printing density values and also the application of matte lacquer caused a decrease in the gloss values.

Scholars of Greek and Roman art have long recognized that many sculptures that today appear unpainted were originally covered in bright, polychrome paint. In contrast, the hallowed works of China's classical antiquity, the bronzes, are generally believed to have been monochrome works. In recent years, however, many varieties of bronzes have been unearthed with polychrome ornamentation including sacrificial vessels, figural sculptures, mirrors, lamps, weapons, and personal ornaments. This article summarizes and interprets the current evidence for painting on early Chinese bronze artifacts based on recent archaeological discoveries and on newer advances in technical analysis. In particular, I show that the practice of applying paint to bronzes goes far beyond embedding pigment into the intaglio channels of bronzes such as occurred during the Shang and Western Zhou eras. I also demonstrate that especially in the Warring States and early imperial periods, painted coloration on bronzes took off in diversely rich and compelling ways. This article highlights the various modes and techniques of painting bronze in early China, and offers several hypotheses as to why such polychrome ornamentation was desirable in early China, reconciling those motives with our quite different modern sensibilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Chemistry & Industry of Forest Products is the property of Chemistry & Industry of Forest Products Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Chemistry & Industry of Forest Products is the property of Chemistry & Industry of Forest Products Editorial Department and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this study, the effect of silica nanoparticles and heat treatment of beech (Fagus orientalis), walnut (Juglans regia) and spruce (Picea abies) woods on adhesion strength and drop contact angle of clear coating lacquer were studied. For this purpose, samples with 8% moisture and 200 × 100 × 20 mm dimension were prepared. The wood samples were heat treated in oven at different temperatures of 160 and 180 °C for 3 hours. After treatment, the surface of the specimens was finished using 120 and 180, sand papers. Transparent lacquer folders containing 0, 0.5, 1 and 1.5% silica nanoparticles were used to cover the samples. The results showed that heat treatment increased the drop contact angle and the adhesion strength of the coating and increased the temperature of the drop contact angle treatment and the adhesion strength as well. Thermal treatment at 180 °C with coating containing 1% nano and lowest drop contact angle was observed in control samples. Wood samples treated with walnut at 160 ° C and containing 1% nano coating had the highest adhesion resistance. The water uptake of treated wood samples decreased compared to the untreated samples in all three species and this trend continued with the increase of nanoparticles in the coating so that the walnut control samples had the highest water uptake at 180 °C. and 1% nano coatings were the lowest water absorption in spruce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Yangtze River Delta, natural lacquer has been used as coating and adhesive since the Neolithic. At Jingtoushan Neolithic site, the earliest, deepest buried prehistoric shell mound site discovered in China's coastal areas, where stratigraphic age lies between 7,800–8,300 cal BP, we discovered the earliest lacquerwares of China. The relics are a piece of dowelled wood and an oblate wooden stick. The black coatings on the two relics were studied by using non‐destructive infrared analysis, pyrolysis‐gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py‐GC/MS), and enzyme‐linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA), and the analysis determined that black coating on the two relics is natural lacquer. This discovery refreshes the history of natural lacquer used by humans in the Yangtze River Delta to more than 8,000 years ago and also complements the history of organic coatings used during the Neolithic period in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Onychomycosis, a common nail disorder caused by fungal infection, can be managed pharmaceutically with oral or topical treatments. While oral treatments are often used first-line to treat nail infections, these systemic antifungals are not appropriate for all patients, and no oral treatments are approved for use in children in the USA. Given this need, topical antifungals were developed, which can be used as monotherapy or in combination with oral drugs. Efinaconazole 10% solution is an azole antifungal indicated for topical treatment of toenail onychomycosis in pediatric and adult patients. This qualitative literature review summarizes available chemical, pharmacological, efficacy, safety, and post-marketing surveillance data of efinaconazole 10% topical solution. Efinaconazole 10% has been shown to be safe and efficacious regardless of disease severity/duration at baseline; patient gender, ethnicity, or age (including pediatrics); or comorbidities such as diabetes or tinea pedis. Overall, efinaconazole is a safe and effective clinical option for the treatment and management of onychomycosis. Efinaconazole is the first new antifungal approved for onychomycosis in 10 years in the USA. It has comparable efficacy to systemic antifungal agents such as itraconazole, and a favorable adverse events profile with minimal systemic exposure and no drug-drug interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lacquered wooden sculptures of fantastic hybrid beasts adorned with real deer antlers are among the most extraordinary examples of sculpture found in Chu tombs dated from the sixth through the third centuries BCE. Conventionally known as zhenmushou 镇墓兽 or “protecting tomb beasts”, the antlered sculptures have grotesque features, including bulging eyes, fangs, and protruding tongues. In the fourth century BCE, production and use of these sculptures increased and peaked in the Hanxi region of Hubei province. Although most of these figures have been found in tombs in Hanxi (west of the Han River), distinctive variations of antlered tomb sculptures are also documented in regional areas of the Chu polity, including the Nanyang Basin, the Upper Huai, Eastern Hubei, and Jiangnan. Through a systematic regional analysis of Chu antlered sculptures, this paper presents a spatial framework for analyzing this unique genre of Chu funerary sculpture. This approach provides fresh insight into the interregional networks of interaction across the Chu state and beyond, via waterways and the Suizao corridor from the sixth through the third centuries BCE.

This article presents the results of a systematic investigation on the identification of minerals used in lacquers. Micro-Raman combined with Infrared spectroscopy can serve as a highly specific and complementary micro-destructive technique for successfully identifying the molecular structure of the minerals. Both 532-nm and 785-nm laser radiations were used to compare the spectral information and to clarify which wavelength was suited to balance the signal to noise ratio. The spectra of fourteen minerals were analyzed and compared in detail, which can provide support for the research on the developmental changes of lacquer materials in different historical periods by establishing an identification method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We established a method to test if bones have been varnished with lacquer. Handheld X-ray fluorescence was employed to detect the elemental at the surface of porcine femoral bones (n=10) that served as lacquer-free bones (control group). Eight elements – silicon (Si), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), titanium (Ti), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd) and tin (Sn) – plus light elements (LE) showed a significant discrepancy between lacquer-varnished and lacquer-free bones (p