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The human being that Allah has made an offer to is different from other beings in the universe in terms of his characteristics. His own will and power and his freedom in his actions are his most basic characteristics. In the kalam, his function in the actions performed by humans has been discussed. In this context, Mu'tazilah and Ash'ariyyah who have different methods, naturally put forward different views from each other. Samarqandi found it appropriate to characterize the attitudes of the two schools regarding human actions as fate and compulsion. Although he accepted that Allah is the creator of human actions as well as everything in the universe with His power and will, he considered Maturidiyyah as the middle way closest to the truth because he accepted that humans do their actions with their will and power. While Samarqandi addressed issues such as human actions and good deeds within the framework of the principles of the Maturidi's, he criticized the Mu'tazilah's ideas and did not take sides in benefiting from their views. Although he was from the Ahl al-Sunnah, he was able to criticize the views of the Ash'aris. Undoubtedly, in Samarqandi's display of such an approach, in addition to his mastery of the subjects of theology, his accumulation of knowledge consisting of logic, mathematics and philosophy contributed and influenced him. Thanks to the ideas he tried to put forward, it is possible to see that the will and power of Allah and man are balanced in the explanation of the occurrence of human actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Mevzu is the property of Ali Sever and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Mevzu is the property of Ali Sever and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Kelâmın konusu tarihi seyri içinde şekillenmiş ve çağın ihtiyaçlarına göre daha önceleri olmayan bazı hususlar kelâm ilminin konularına dâhil edilmiştir. Nitekim başlangıçta kelâmın konusunu Allah’ın birliği, sıfatları, tekfir ve kader gibi konular oluştururken yapılan ilaveler sonunda bilinen her şey kelâmın konusuna dâhil olmuştur. Kelâmın değişmeyen konusu ise temel inanç esaslarıdır. Bu temel inanç esaslarının açıklanmasında veya savunulmasında yararlanılan ilimler zamana göre değişiklik gösterebilmiştir. Günümüzde bu yaklaşımlar doğrultusunda, bireyin birçok ilgi, inanç, tutum ve davranışları dolayısıyla kelâmın ilgi alanına girdiği belirtilerek kelâmın sosyal boyutu tartışılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda tartışılan hususlardan birisi de dünyanın her yerinde ve her seviyeden insanlar arasında görülebilen halk inançlarıdır. Halk inançları tarih olarak çok eski çağlara uzansa da bilimsel olarak ele alınmaları yeni sayılabilir. Halk inançları günümüzde daha çok sosyal bilimciler tarafından ele alınmıştır. Bu inançlar ekseriyetle kültürel miras olmaları ya da bireylerin üzerindeki psikolojik ve sosyolojik etkileri yönüyle incelenmiştir. Müslüman âlimler sözü edilen alana yeteri kadar ilgi göstermedikleri için yapılan çalışmalarda genellikle konunun itikadi boyutu değerlendirilmemiştir. Kaldı ki halk inançlarının önemli bir kısmı dolaylı veya dolaysız olarak ilahi dinlerin inanç esaslarıyla bir arada bulunamayacak yapıya sahiptir. İşte bu özelliklerinden dolayı halk inançları, insanların birer fiili ya da düşüncesi olduğu sürece kelâmın konusu olacaktır. Zira bir inancın, bir davranışın kuruntu ya da bilim dışı olması, onu kelâma konu olmaktan çıkarmaz. Hatta bazen ona verilmesi gereken önemi artırır, onu gündemin ilk sıralarına taşır. Bilindiği gibi halk inançları içerik açısından çok geniş bir kavramdır. Edebiyat, inanç, hava durumu, güzel sanatlar ve estetik gibi hemen hemen hayatın tüm alanlarında halk inançlarına rastlamak mümkündür. Makalede daha çok yaşayan ve itikadi boyutu olan halk inançlarından bahsedilecektir. İnsanların gündelik yaşamında önemli bir yeri olan bu tür inançlar zaman zaman dinlerin asıl akidelerinin önüne geçebilmekte, bu inançlara göre amel etmeyenler dinî açıdan kusurlu görülebilmekte ve hatta dinden çıkmakla itham edilebilmektedir. Çalışmada halk inançları için bazı tanımlamalar üzerinde durulduktan sonra bu inançların kelâm ilmi ile olan alakasına değinilecektir.

Maveraünnehir bölgesi, Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelâm anlayışının önde gelen âlimlerine ev sahipliği yapmış bir coğrafyadır. Günümüzde İslam dünyasında kabul gören iki kelâm ekolünden biri olan Mâtürîdîlik, bu bölgede doğmuştur. Hanefî-Mâtürîdî kelâmının Hicri 6./12. yüzyıldaki önemli temsilcilerinden olan Nureddin es-Sâbûnî (öl. 580/1184), yaşadığı dönemde bu bölgenin saygın âlimleri arasında yer almış ve görüşleriyle kabul görmüştür. O, halkın itikâdî sorunlarına onların anlayabileceği bir dille cevap üretmek amacıyla dersler veren ve eserler kaleme alan bir mütekellimdir. Bu makalede, Sâbûnî’nin peygamberlerin sıfatlarına dair görüşleri incelenmiştir. Mâtürîdî’den yaklaşık iki buçuk asır sonra yaşamış olan Sâbûnî’nin bu konudaki görüş ve değerlendirmeleri, süreç takibi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Çalışma, esasen Sâbûnî’nin görüşleri ve eserleri ile sınırlı tutulmuş, fakat zaman zaman Mâtürîdî’nin eserlerine de başvurulmuştur. Araştırmada, genel anlamda sosyal bilimlerin, özelde ise ilm-i kelâm ve mezhepler tarihi disiplinlerinin araştırma yöntemleri kullanılarak fikir ve olaylar arasındaki bağlantı kurulmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonucunda, Sâbûnî’nin, dönemin diğer kelâmcıları gibi peygamberlerin sıfatlarına dair müstakil bir başlık açmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Sâbûnî, peygamberler için temel nitelikler olarak “beşer olmak, akıllı ve zeki olmak, güvenilir olmak, vahiy almak, tebliğ etmek ve ismet” sıfatlarını kabul etmiş ve bu hususlarda Mâtürîdî ile aynı görüşü paylaşmıştır. Ancak Mâtürîdî’nin “peygamberlerin şehirli olması gerektiği” yönündeki kanaatine eserlerinde yer vermeyerek ondan ayrılmıştır.

In Islamic theology, it is accepted as an ethical principle that holds the person responsible for the consequences of their behavior. However, there are different opinions among the schools of theology regarding whether it is an attribute of the act and the factor that makes the act preferable. While Mu’tazilite scholars argued that human beings have created, active, and free will, Ash’arites centered on the absolute will of God and said that humans will be passive. Although the Māturīdīs, like the Ashʿarīs, accept that God’s will is involved in everything, they also state that humans will be active in the act. Scholars who argued that the will is an accident adopted the view that it is a faculty independent of the biological structure of the human being. However, modern science has revealed that the will is not independent of the biological structure of the human being, contrary to what theologians claim. Neurobiologists have stated that human behavior is largely caused by brain activity and that biological factors directly affect behavior. Hormones and genetic factors have been found to significantly affect human behavior. Empirical research has also revealed that human beings do not have a will independent of their physiological structure. In this context, examples of the neurobiological basis of human behavior are presented in our study, and a theological analysis is made of the deep debates on the nature of human behavior. Based on personality changes after frontal lobe damage, the relationship between neurobiology and willpower was established, and this relationship was elaborated with different examples. Brain tumors, nervous system disorders, and medications can lead to behavioral changes, and the biological basis of pedophilia, excessive sexual behavior, and aggressive attitudes has been discussed. Thus, it has been determined that the human will is a structure related to the brain and biological processes. Based on the information obtained, the theological perspective and neurobiology were compared, and it was determined that there was a difference between the theological view that human beings are always responsible for having a will and neurobiology. Despite the view that people’s actions are generally conscious choices and that they are responsible for their consequences, biological factors that determine human behavior should not be ignored. It has been suggested that neuroscience can better explain human behavior, and that responsibility for action should be reconsidered theologically along with biological reasons. Finally, the distinction between theology and law was emphasized, and it was stated that each individual should be subject to a unique theological evaluation and that the social order should be implemented in a balanced manner of theology and law. It is concluded that discussions on the relationship between theology and neurobiology will help us understand the complexity of human behavior in more depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is believed that the origin of translation activities in Islamic thought dates back to the Umayyad period. These activities were first carried out during the reign of Khalid b. Yazīd (d. 85/704 [?]). In particular, the Greek texts of antiquity (antiquity) began to be translated. Initially, translations were made in the fields of medicine and chemistry. Later on, during the Abbasid period, the translation process, which was continued by the Caliph Abū Ja'far al-Mansūr (d. 158/775), eventually expanded the field of research with the establishment of the Bayt al-Hikma. Thus, translation activities continued systematically in the fields of philosophy, ethics, politics, physics, metaphysics, botany and zoology. As a result, the Greek heritage of antiquity was inherited by Islamic civilisation, and many translated texts were received by Islamic thinkers, which paved the way for discussions on them. This situation facilitated a better analysis and understanding of Greek texts and provided an opportunity to compare them with the views of Islamic thought. One of the areas translated was zoology. In this context, one of the thinkers who was influenced by zoological texts and included Greek zoology in his works was Amr b. Bahr al-Jāhiz (d. 255/869), a Muʿtazilite scholar and naturalist from Basra. In fact, al-Jāhiz included many animals and their characteristics in his seven-volume Kitāb al-Hayawān, which can be regarded as the zoologicalzoographic literature. He also mentioned animals from time to time in his other works. All his knowledge about living creatures is based on the Qur'an, hadiths, idioms, proverbs, poems of the Jahiliyya period, and experiences of Bedouins, animal trainers, dogs, pigeon and rooster owners, sailors and hunters. On the other hand, he makes many references to Greek zoology, especially to Aristotle (384-322 BC), whom he calls “Ṣāḥib al-Mantiq”. In Aristotle's Kitāb al-Hayawān, he mentions Aristotle's views on the vital processes of many species, such as pigs, birds, fish, elephants, snakes, insects, their status in their habitats, feeding methods and reproduction. Although al-Jāhiz accepted Aristotle as an authority in the field of zoology, he investigated the information he received from him. He consulted Bedouins, sailors and hunters who had experience with animals and tried to confirm the accuracy of Aristotle's ideas. He even tested Aristotle's ideas by conducting experiments and observations himself. This situation shows that sometimes al-Jāhiz did not take the information he received directly, but researched its accuracy and included it in his own work. In addition, al-Jāhiz also included the ideas of Greek thinkers such as Galen (d. 200 [?]) and Polemon (Aflimun) (d. 314 BC) about animals in his work. From this point of view, he was influenced by Galen's experiments on the digestive system of animals; he provided information on the digestive system of animals and how they digest food. In this regard, he mentioned the experiments of his teacher, Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Nazzām (d. 231/845) on animals. Examples include observations such as feeding stones to ostriches, the resistance of animals such as dogs, wolves, lions and horses to digesting food and bones or measuring the endurance of some animals by giving them a drink. He also mentioned Polemon's views on pigeons and how their living conditions should be. He emphasised what a good and beautiful pigeon should look like and where it can best live out its life, such as in the field. It can be concluded from this that al-Jāhiz consulted Polemon’s ideas because of his interest in pigeons and their ubiquitous use in his time. The knowledge he acquired from his own culture, from many different sources, and the information he received from Greek thinkers enabled him to accumulate a deep and wide zoological knowledge. Thus, his accumulation of knowledge influenced many people after him. In fact, the knowledge he transmitted, especially from Greek zoology, was included in the works of Kamāluddin al-Damīrī (d. 808/1405) Hayāt al-hayawān and Zakariyyyā al-Qazwīnī (d. 682/1283) ʿAjāʾib al-makhlūqāt wa gharāʾib al-mawjūdāt. Like al-Jāhiz, they called Aristotle “Ṣāḥib al-Mantiq” and referred to his views. This situation shows that al-Jāhiz served as a bridge to transfer Greek zoology to later periods. This study attempts to determine how al-Jāhiz received the Greek zoological heritage and how he incorporated it into his own work. It will also discuss the extent to which he was influenced by Aristotle and whether or not he accepted his views as they were. As a result of the study, it will be understood that al-Jāhiz transmitted the information he received, sometimes directly, sometimes by testing its accuracy, and even by resorting to experimentation and observation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study confidently evaluates views on taqlid al-faith in classical theological literature, asserting that they can be assessed in light of neurobiology and modern learning theories. It is evident that a considerable number of believers base their understanding of faith in taqlid (mimicry). However, whether most people meet the criteria for achieving Tahqiq faith (research-based) remains uncertain. The criteria for achieving internalized faith are well-established and can be met with proper guidance and effort. This assertion is based on the perspectives of Muslim theologians on faith, which highlights the differences between taqlid and internalized faith. Taqlid faith is not based on reason. However, critical faith is based on reasoning and logical deductions, leading to the conclusion that Allah is the absolute creator of everything. It is important to note that while arguments based on reasoning and deduction alone may be insufficient to establish the existence of the divine in matters of faith, theological scholars assert that they are still a valuable tool in understanding and interpreting religious beliefs. Theological schools should reconsider their justification of the method of reasoning employed regarding the subject of internalized faith. Faith is not solely a cognitive process but also encompasses behavioral and emotional dimensions. This framework asserts that theological approaches that reduce faith in a cognitive process must be evaluated in the light of modern science's mirror neurons and learning theories. Mirror neurons, discovered by a group of scientists from the University of Parma, Italy, led by Giacomo Rizzolatti, are a crucial biological mechanism that significantly influences the way people relate to each other, empathy, and learning processes. The text clearly and confidently explains how mirror neurons in the brain respond to various experiential factors and how they affect cognitive function. It asserts that the theory of mirror neurons is grounded in human physiology and emphasizes that imitation involves both actional similarities and cognitive processes. The cognitive process in the theory of mirror neurons, whereby individuals believe in observing others, implies the use of reasoning. Additionally, the connection between imitation and social learning theories was examined, highlighting its crucial role in the development of genuine beliefs. Learning theories emphasize the interaction between individuals and their environment, highlighting the significance of social interactions such as modeling and imitation. Theological schools should reconsider their justification of the method of reasoning employed regarding the subject of the Tahqiqi (research-based) faith. Faith is not solely a cognitive process but also encompasses behavioral and emotional dimensions. This framework asserts that theological approaches that reduce faith in a cognitive process must be evaluated in the light of modern science's mirror neurons and learning theories. Mirror neurons, discovered by a group of scientists from the University of Parma, Italy, led by Giacomo Rizzolatti, are a crucial biological mechanism that significantly influences the way people relate to each other, empathy, and learning processes. The text clearly and confidently explains how mirror neurons in the brain respond to various experiential factors and how they affect cognitive function. It asserts that the theory of mirror neurons is grounded in human physiology and emphasizes that imitation involves both actional similarities and cognitive processes. The cognitive process in the theory of mirror neurons, whereby individuals believe in observing others, implies the use of reasoning. Additionally, the connection between imitation and social learning theories was examined, highlighting its crucial role in the development of genuine beliefs. Learning theories emphasize the interaction between individuals and their environment, highlighting the significance of social interactions such as modeling and imitation. Bandura, one of the main proponents of this theory, argues that people learn by observing the behavior of others around them. He also emphasizes that learning is not limited to imitating observed behaviors but that cognitive processes also play an important role. Therefore, he argues that the process of learning by imitation depends not only on external factors but also on the internal thought processes of the individual. This study discusses the effects of imitation on human behavior and its relationship with cognitive processes within the framework of social learning theory. It has been argued that the process of modelling the behavior of the person being imitated overlaps with the process of inference and deduction underlying social cognitive theories. In addition, the interplay between the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions of faith is emphasized, and it is stated that the Prophet taught faith using live models, symbolic models, and verbal instructions in the Prophet's message, and that these teachings were observed and imitated by the Companions. The article is unique in its field as it is a multidisciplinary study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The question of whether divine kalām is created or eternal is one of the fundamental issues that caused differences of opinion among the sects. The debates around this issue, the Khalq al-Qur'an, began in the middle of the second century Hijri and deeply affected Islamic thought. With the process of confrontation that occurred as a result of these debates, the phenomenon of identifying oneself through the opposing opinion emerged, hadiths on the subject were fabricated, works of refutation were written, and the impact on hadith literature was quite extensive. The Salaf and Ahl al-Hadith engaged in a fierce struggle with sects such as the Mu'tazilites and Jahmiyya. In this process, the rejection of some narrations that Ahl al-Hadith considered to be religious by the Mu'tazila, Jahmiyya and Ahl al-Ra'y further increased the tension between the sects. This tension took on a new dimension with the intervention of politics, resulting in the famous Mihna incident. There is no second event in the history of Islam with a similar effect and characteristic to the Mihna incident that took place with the confrontation of Khalq al-Qur'an. The belief that "the Qur'an is created", which was adopted by the Mu'tazilites during the Mihna period, was adopted as the official policy of the Abbasids during the reigns of Caliphs al-Ma'mūn, Mu'tasim and al-Wāshiq. In this period, those who insisted that "the Qur'an is not created" were interrogated, tortured, imprisoned and subjected to certain sanctions. It is seen that sectarian factors were effective in the external reflections of the Mihna incident, in which politics was also involved and different clans and groups played a leading role. The Mihna and its aftermath, a period of evolution or rupture in Islamic thought, was a period of intense sectarian influence and affected Islamic thought in political, social, epistemological, scientific and sectarian terms. In this article, the possible causes of the discussions on the Khalq al-Qur'an and the Mihna event are discussed, the effects of the sectarian factor on the Mihna event and the discussions on the Khalq al-Qur'an are investigated, and the post-Mihna period, in which these effects are intensely seen, is also scrutinized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the science of kalām, which played an important role in the construction of the Islamic belief system in the historical process, and the denialist movements that oppose these belief systems differ from each other in terms of foundations and goals, they sometimes showed similarities in terms of procedure, method and discourse. This situation gave the impression that there is a harmony and parallelism between thought structures that differ from each other in many points, as in the case of Muʿtazila and deism. These structures, which constitute two opposing movements of thought regarding the possibility and necessity of prohethoot and revelation, have reached different results by using the same procedure and method to prove their own theses. This study aims to question the reality of the similarity in method between Muʿtazila and deism, which at first glance seems to support such an impression, in terms of the source of morality. Deism accepts the existence and unity of God, as in the classical period, but argues that prophethood and revelation are impossible and unnecessary by putting forward rational justifications. There are three basic arguments put forward by deism in terms of the source of morality. The first of these is that moral values are inherent in the essence of things and actions, secondly, these inherent features of things and acts bring about a deterministic necessity because they are the determining reasons that necessitate the value of the act, the last one is that moral values can be known by reason alone, without divine help. On the other hand, the Muʿtazila school of theology defends the possibility and necessity of prophethood and revelation on rational grounds and accepts it as a divine obligation. The conclusion reached by Muʿtazila, who tries to reveal the source of morality with a similar discourse and method, is different from deism. Although there are different views against these three basic arguments of deism, some Muʿtazila theologians argue that moral values are inherent in the essence of things and actions, while others take into account the states and conditions related to moral values. One of the most important reasons behind Mu'tazila's different views on this issue is their natural philosophy. Contrary to deism's thesis that moral values can only be known through reason, although Muʿtazila grants the mind a wide range of competence both a priori and theoretically, this is not a mind independent of divine declarations. In this context, the fact that revelation and reason are both created by God brings about harmony and coordination rather than contradiction and disharmony between the two. In contrast to deism's understanding of a deterministic necessity regarding moral values depending on the ontological structure of things and actions, Muʿtazila argued that values of things and actions were essentially created by God and that this situation did not cause a necessity independent of His power and will. By making a comparison between deism and Muʿtazila regarding the source of morality, the study aims to reveal the differences in the context of the foundations and goals between these two movements of thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ḍirār b. ʿAmr and ʿAbd Allāh b. Yazīd al-Fazārī were important and prominent Islamic theologians of their era. On the other hand, our knowledge of the two mutakallim had based solely on doxographic and historical accounts of other writers. Fortunately, recent developments have changed this situation. The first and to date the only book by Ḍirār titled Kitāb alTaḥrīsh was published in 2014. Despite the book not being in his primary field (kalām), it provides insights into how different religious groups utilize prophetic traditions against each other. While this work may not appear directly related to kalām, it stands as one of the earliest surviving Muʿtazilite sources, offering significant material on the intellectual life of the Muslim world in the second/eighth century, particularly notable for its narrative style. Ḍirār’s influence on subsequent generations through this work was profound. In terms of the availability of his works to us, Fazārī appears more fortunate. Since 2004, eleven of his works have been published. Fortunately, the editions include several texts on his systematic-rational Islamic theology. Contemporary Islamic scholars now have the opportunity to study ʿAbd Allāh’s ideas directly from his own pen, without relying on the limited references available from doxographic writers. The significance of the editions is heightened by his role as a contemporary witness, offering insights into early Islamic thought. One of these publications, Kitāb al-Rudūd, is particularly noteworthy due to its parallels with Kitāb al-Taḥrīsh. The similarities between Taḥrīsh and Rudūd are remarkable. Given such overlaps between two texts, we would not hesitate today to discuss plagiarism. The absence of a chronological gap between the two mutakallim further complicates efforts to ascertain the true originator and copyright holder. In our case, both of them worked in the same room at the same time. Ḍirār and ʿAbd Allāh seem to have been aware of each other: Both resided in Kūfa, later moved to Baghdād during the reign of the ʿAbbāsid caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd (786-809), where they engaged in a dispute on imamāte with Hishām b. al-Ḥakam (d. 179/795), organized by the famous ʿAbbāsid vizier Yaḥyā b. Ḫālid al-Barmakī (d. 190/805). Considering the originality and impact of their works, a pertinent question arises: which of the two scholars, both contemporaries and from the same hometown, exerted influence upon the other? This paper first presents the biographical similarities between these two thinkers, followed by comparisons between their respective books based on the alignment of the themes addressed in the texts with their biographies, and particularly the inner-textual structures per se. The focus lies on identifying differences rather than parallels between them. Finally, the investigation questions the existence of a common source that may have influenced both scholars. With the evidence obtained, clarity can be sought regarding who influenced whom between the two scholars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article aims to examine the problem of the possibility of value and the source of attributing value to actions in the context of the thought of the Ottoman scholar Shams al-DīnAhmad b. Mūsā al-Hayālī. The question of what is the approach to the issue of value in the Hanafi-Maturidi tradition vis-à-vis the Mu'tazila and Ash'arites is discussed with reference to al-Hayālī's views. al-Hayālī expressed his own thoughts in the commentary he wrote on his teacher Hızır Bey's ode called al-Qasīda al-Nūniyya. He especially examined the issue of husn and qubh in the interpretation of the lines of this ode: "Goodness and evil are religious, but / we say that they can be known by reason". In analyzing and interpreting his thoughts, Muhammad 'Umar b. al-Shaykh 'Abd al-Jalīl b. al-Shaykh 'Abd al-Jamīl al-Baghdādī al-Hanafī’s work titled alHawāshī al-Futūhiyya li-Sharh al-Nūniyya and Mehmet Emin Uskudārī's work titled Hāshiya 'alā Sharh al-Hayālī 'alā alQasīda al-Nūniyya are used. Ash'arites claimed that knowledge of value is not possible for humans and accepted that the source of our knowledge about good and evil is religion. Mu‘tazilite thinkers, on the other hand, associated good and evil with the essence of actions or with the attributes found in the essence of actions. Some Mu‘tazilite thinkers, such as the al-Jubbā’ī stated that the context and conditions in which actions are performed are also important in attributing value. Regarding value, Hanafī scholars from Bukhara stayed close to the Ash'arite understanding of value, while Māturīdīs stayed close to Mu‘tazilite ideas. Although Māturīdīs accepted that religion gives information about good and evil, they claimed that the value of some things could be known through reason. In our study, it has been shown that al-Hayālī’s basic approach is in favor of al-Māturīdī’s understanding of values. Attention has been drawn to the similarities between the Mu‘tazilite and Māturīdī scholars regarding the meanings of good and bad attributed to actions. It has been explained that good and evil have three meanings. First, goodness means that a person's deeds are praised in this world and rewarded in the afterlife. Evil means being blamed in this world and punished in the afterlife. Secondly, good is what is fit for purpose, and bad is what is not fit for purpose. This also means that good is what is beneficial and bad is what is harmful. Thirdly, good is an attribute of perfection and evil is an attribute of deficiency. For example, knowledge is good because it makes people more perfect. Ignorance is bad because it leaves man in a deficient and low state. According to Mu'tazila, the goodness and evil of everything can be known through reason, while according to al-Māturīdī the goodness and evil of some things can be perceived through reason. In this context, Mu'tazilite and Māturīdī thinkers criticized the arguments of the Ash'arites, who accepted that religion is the source of value knowledge that necessitates responsibility. The article also discusses the relationship between the source of value and the liar paradox which arises from the combination of truth and falsehood in a single sentence. Believing that there is a solution to the liar paradox, al-Hayālī stated that al-Māturīdī’s understanding of value can be justified through this solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article attempts to determine the source of moral obligation in al-Māturīdī’s thought. First of all, a classification of concepts of morality in his writings is presented. These concepts are found to be three in number: Utility, Virtue and Right. However, of these, the concept of right is found to be the ultimate representative of moral obligation, since it alone offers us the idea of a categorical imperative which is essential for morality to be objective. Thereafter, two main sources of moral obligation are noted. One is revelation and the other is reason. Revelation presents the notions of divine lordship and sovereignty together with the divine command and prohibition. Yet, at the same time, reason determines our moral understanding with objective principles and supports revelatory teachings. This means that the findings of reason in the field of morality are usually in accord with revelation; where they differ, it is often because humanity lacks access to the necessary knowledge, which makes it impossible for them to reach the correct conclusions. Hence, al-Māturīdī also notes that revelation is especially needed in regards to areas of morality that are obscure and controversial, since it offers answers that humans would not otherwise be able to know with certainty. At the same time, it is understood that reason is a source of obligation in accordance with natural law theory, and therefore this latter theory is a basic way to categorize al-Māturīdī’s thought. The natural world offers guidance to reason and is a source of knowledge from which moral conclusions can be derived that are in line with basic human needs and desires. Al-Māturīdī, in particular, cites peace and prosperity as fundamental aims for humanity that can only be ensured by a guiding foundation. However, since God is the creator and designer of the world, the principle that ultimately determines the form of morality is divine wisdom. In the third section of this article, the topic of moral motivation is addressed. This is the key to understand how people can behave morally, and it is concluded that al-Māturīdī shows that we can act for objective reasons and judge actions morally without only taking into consideration their consequences. This is because reason allows one to judge actions according to criteria that are not based only on contingent and subjective aspects of reality but also on categorical principles and imperatives. In the last part of this study, it is suggested that al-Māturīdī views reason as independently bringing moral obligations. This allows us to overcome the gap that David Hume presented between is- and ought- statements. Thus, it is concluded that for al-Māturīdī the source of moral obligation is not simply based on revelatory commands, but also derived from the principles of reason. These principles are to a significant degree the result of derivations made from observations on human nature and the natural world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of rü'yetullah, which refers to the visibility of Allah, is an important issue that has been studied in depth by different theological disciplines throughout history. In the history of theology, there are two main perspectives on this issue: those who accept and those who reject ruʿyat Allāh. While Ahl al-Sunna is one of the leading groups that embrace ruʿyat Allāh, the Mu'tazilite sect firmly rejected it, considering it incompatible with the station of divinity because ru'yat involves corporeality or requires some issues related to it. Those who accepted ruʿyat Allāh resorted to a number of rational and empirical justifications. From the perspective of Ahl al-Sunnah, it is seen that in the early period, vision of Allah was justified on the basis of "qiyām with its essence", while later it was justified on the basis of "existence". In this study, the approaches of Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210) and his close follower Sirāj al-Dīn al-Urmawī (d. 682/1283), two thinkers belonging to the Ashʿarī school, on the subject of rū'yat Allah based on existence will be discussed. Al-Rāzī is an enlightened scholar who has different views on many subjects. One of the issues on which he expresses more than one opinion is whether existence-centred vision can be justified or not. He exhibits three different approaches to the method of justifying the existence-centred rū'yat Allah: acceptance, rejection, and tawaqquf. His change of opinion on many metaphysical and theological issues, especially on rū'yat Allah, is attributed to the approach he adopted. The fact that he changed his views on many metaphysical and theological issues, especially on rū'yat Allah and that he justified the approaches he adopted from different perspectives, on the one hand, reveals his philosophical and theological depth, and on the other hand, it is directly related to his method of tahqiq. Therefore, philosophical commentators such as Shihāb alDīn al-Qarafī (d. 684/1285) attributed this change in al-Rāzī's thought to the maturity of his knowledge, the superiority of his intellectual abilities, and the depth of his religious comprehension. Indeed, this change shows that al-Rāzī was always in search of truth and constantly questioned his ideas. Al-Rāzī, who made various criticisms about the "existence"-focused vision in many of his works, endeavours to explain this issue in a more organised system and in items in his work alArʻbaīn. In the aforementioned work, al-Rāzī tries to justify his criticism by focusing on some philosophical and theological proofs such as "the defectiveness of 'adam", "whether every judgement must be based on a cause", and "whether substances and accidents can be parallel with different causes". Urmawī, who summarises and criticises al-Rāzī's work, objects to al-Rāzī's findings and arguments in the Lubāb and thinks that the existence-centred rationality can be justified. The arguments presented by both scholar thinkers put forward centred on rū'yat Allah reveal their conception of God on the one hand, and their philosophical and theological views on the other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Folk beliefs encompass a fairly broad range of content. Just as there are folk beliefs in the religious field, it is common to encounter folk beliefs in every conceivable field such as weather, social, economic, military or civil life, entertainment, and sadness. The focus of this article is predominantly on folk beliefs that continue to exist vividly among people and are related to Islamic beliefs. These folk beliefs are not only religiously incorrect but also hinder the proper understanding of Islamic beliefs. In this regard, the subject falls within the field of kalām, as kalām deals with the principles of belief. Therefore, for kalām, it is important to understand the structure of people’s beliefs and their reflections on daily life. Despite some social disciplines conducting studies in this area, there is an evident gap in terms of kalām, as these disciplines treat religious issues as a case without making value judgments. However, kalām does not merely settle for determination; it evaluates from the perspective of the religion to which it belongs. To the best of our knowledge, there are few studies examining people’s beliefs and behaviors using modern research methods in the field of kalām. In this article, an attempt was made to determine the religious acceptance and life of the people through questions covering some of the basic religious principles and certain folk beliefs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of signs of apocalypse was not given much place in the Sunni theological works of the classical period. The subject of signs of the apocalypse has been discussed more in recent times and different views have been adopted on the subject. The discussions mostly have took place around the great signs of the apocalypse. There are those who see the great signs of the apocalypse as a matter of faith, but there are also those who do not accept them as a matter of faith. This article aims to examine this issue, which is the subject of different ideas and question marks, from the perspective of Mu’tazila. For this reason, the ideas of Zamakhshari, who gave relatively more information on the subject among Mu’tazila, were emphasized. As a matter of fact, it has been seen that there is no research in the literature that deals with the views of Mu’tazila and Zamakhshari on this subject independently and in detail. The aim of the article is to determine Zamakhshari’s views on the signs of the apocalypse. Moreover, it is to get an idea about Mu’tazila’s approach to the subject. Document analysis method was used in the study. Zamakhshari’s work called al-Kashshaf was examined. Additionally, his works named al-Minhaj and Asas al-Balaga were consulted. It has been seen that Zamahshari, in his work called al-Kashshaf, mostly took the narrations into consideration and accepted the signs of the apocalypse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the main subjects of the science of Kalam (Islamic theology) is the issue of the existence and oneness of Almighty Allah. He is a being that is both transcendent with His essence and immanent with His attributes. Allah has created beings to manifest His essence and has created His art to manifest His attributes. Humans can attain knowledge of His existence by reflecting upon creation. Among the most important topics in the science of Kalam is the section on "divinity" (ulūhiyya). A relationship is established between divinity and the universe. This relationship is pursued through the evidence of Allah’s existence. Among the classical proofs, there is the argument from purposiveness and order in existence. The content of the argument from purposiveness and order encompasses the issue of beauty, which is the most important topic of the science of aesthetics. The aesthetic proof holds a significant place in recognizing the existence of Allah. In attaining the existence of Allah, we draw upon both the material beauty in existence and the moral beauty found among human behaviors. Therefore, at the core of this subject lies the concept of "beauty." "Beauty" is a universal reality. The highest expression of beauty is manifested in art. The greatest aim of Islamic art is to establish the connection of tawhid (oneness) between religion and art. This is achieved through the concept of beauty in existence. In this context, all the beauties we observe in the universe are reflections of Divine art. The concept of beauty in existence is too vast to be confined to matter alone. In this context, beauty has both material and spiritual dimensions. In Islamic belief, the essential aim is not just to know what is purely beautiful, but to seek the absolute truth through beauty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to objectively examine the criticisms feminist theologians have directed at the concept of a masculine God in Judaism and Christianity, and the consistency of these criticisms. Additionally, the antiwomen views attributed to theology in Judaism and Christianity due to patriarchal and social pressures and their consequences are investigated. By utilizing critical, interpretative, and holistic methods of analysis, we strive to create a context to explore issues such as whether the religions of Judaism and Christianity are/are not monopolized by men as feminist theologians claim, the alleged dominance of patriarchal mentality in this regard, and the language of religion has always been used by men. Furthermore, this paper examines the different teachings on gender roles, contemporary debates on gender equality in various societies, and the definitions of male and female roles developed by Judaism and Christianity. From this perspective, feminist theology emphasizes the association of religious texts with gender and advocates for women's voice in the theological discourse. Feminist theology criticizes the notion of a masculine God and male-dominated mindset with various arguments, asserting that this idea exists in Judaism and Christianity. The primary goal of feminist theology is to eliminate generalizations about women, especially in theological contexts. It also seeks to demonstrate that women, like men, have a voice in theological matters. Feminist theology is a discipline that examines and critiques gender issues within the religious domain. This discipline re-evaluates and critiques religious texts and practices that have traditionally been interpreted from a masculine perspective. Feminist theologians criticize the attribution of theological teachings, passed down through generations, to a single gender. The aim of feminist theology is to reshape religious experience and belief on the basis of gender equality and justice. It critically assesses traditionally male-dominated religious doctrines, texts, and practices, advocating for changes in current practices. Feminist theology, playing a significant role in gender issues within religion, contributes to moving towards a more just and equitable structure, supporting women's increased visibility and influence in religious fields. It provides a significant contribution to understanding the relationships between gender and religious matters more deeply and creating a more just society. This paper will address the issues tackled by feminist theology, their solutions, and the criticisms directed at the concept of a masculine God. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ibn 'Adil was an important theologian who shed light on the theological debates of his time with his thoughts and remarkably contributed to the Hanbali theological tradition. His theological views deserve a thorough examination within a broad framework. This study aims to shed light on some of his theological views, indicating his position in the realm of theology. His opinions are evaluated within the Hanbali theological tradition and offer significant contributions to theological debates. A better understanding of Ibn 'Adil's thoughts might provide new perspectives for research in theology and help in evaluating his place within the theological tradition more accurately. The study discusses Ibn 'Adil's approach to the proof of necessity within the framework of his theological views. It is observed that he defended the existence of God using rational and logical arguments, showcasing an original approach in this regard. Furthermore, his distinct doctrinal line can be discerned through his views on the relationship between names and attributes, essence and qualities, as well as on issues such as changes in faith and human actions. This study aims to lay the groundwork for a broader examination of Ibn 'Adil's theological views. In this context, it serves as an important step to elucidate his position in theology and to better comprehend his thoughts within the realm of theology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Muʿtazilite thought, reasoning precedes religion and deserves to be the first of the obligatory duties. For this reason, it is the first duty of man to use the intellect, which is a special gift of Allah. This is because man is a special being who has the ability to remove possible harms from himself through his thinking, to obtain benefits, and to reach the unknown based on the evidence to which his mind is directed. Therefore, by enduring the arduous nature of reasoning, this duty, which is the basis of unity, must be fulfilled. A person can turn to the evil eye and to himself/herself (inner voice) with the fear of not thinking and ignorance and realize that thinking is necessary. He/She has a nature that makes him think, and he is a being under the influence of stimuli that call him to think. In Muʿtazilite thought, the fear of not thinking that prepares the individual for the evil eye before the evil eye is called ḥātır. One of the themes that will be emphasized in this article is that the ḥātır can occur due to many reasons arising from the individual's self and the external environment. In this article, we will try to examine the ontological and epistemological importance of the reasoning and the khawatır for a rational being, the logical relation of both concepts to the fear of ignorance, and the qualities and characteristics of their essence through a descriptive method. In our study, we will not include detailed lexical and terminological analyses of the basic concepts and their historical background. We will focus on the basic parameters that the Mu'tazilites wanted to achieve with both concepts and construct the main theme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kemalpashazāde, who witnessed the golden age of the Ottoman Empire, conformed to his family tradition and served in military class for a while and then transferred to Ilmiye class (authority on religious law and education). After getting an advanced education, Kemalpashazāde both taught many students and wrote many books. On the other hand, he had the opportunity to utilize his expertise in bureaucracy. Although he was a prominent Fiqh scholar, he proved to be a competent Kalam scholar with the explanations and footnotes he wrote on the classic writings of Kalam Kemalpashazāde wrote genuine risalas on the most Specific topics of Kalam such as qada and qadar (destiny, predestination), and appointed time; in this manner, in his books Risāle fi’l-cabr ve’l-kader ve Risāle fi’l-ecel he also interpreted the topic of appointed time on the same line with Ahl-I Sunnah’s qadar understanding. By evaluating the concept of appointed time in two categories as inevitable and suspended, he discussed a dual concept of appointed time and accused the ones who claimed one appointed time as erroneous. Nonetheless, in order not to be seen on the same line with Mu’tazila, he did not abstain from stating that his understanding of appointed time is different from theirs. Kemalpashazāde who considered the topic of appointed time from the Qur’an perspective used Tafsir and Qur’an works as his references. In Qur’an, the appointed time, which is one of the topics Kemalpashazāde wrote independent books, is used in different context and appropriate to its lexical meaning; and it refers to the lifetimes of humans and of the world, and also to the end of those lifetimes. Furthermore, the verses and the hadith use the concept of appointed time outside of its lexical meaning and they present it as an opportunity for humans to use it for performing good deeds. In this meaning, the appointed time is presented as a source of motivation that encourages humans to perform good deeds. The kalam sects (Sunni schools of law), they shaped the issue of appointed time in the direction of the qadar doctrines of their sects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge theory is a discipline that interacts between different disciplines and examines issues such as the source, nature, transfer and use of knowledge. Discussions about the nature and source of knowledge have increased the importance of knowledge theory along with technological developments and changes in the field of communication. This offers many interesting areas for future research. There are various views on the definition and approaches of knowledge. One of the scholars who put forward important opinions on this subject is Abū ‘Alī al-Yūsī (d. 1102/1691). Yūsī, who had important views on the definition and value of knowledge, lived in the 17th century and was a prominent Mālikī scholar of Morocca, well-versed in rational and natural sciences, and distinguished in theology, philosophy, logic, and methodology. Yūsī’stheory creates a comprehensive framework that transcends the boundaries of disciplines. This interdisciplinary approach promotes a holistic understanding of knowledge and encourages scientists from different fields to collaborate and contribute to the advancement of knowledge theory. According to him, the capacity to access and understand knowledge varies between man and other beings. The idea that man has limited knowledge and God has absolute knowledge is an important point in understanding the sources and the nature of knowledge. At the heart of Yūsī’s theory is the recognition of the multidimensionality of knowledge. It goes beyond a simplistic view that equates knowledge with mere awareness or understanding. Instead, he argues that knowledge encompasses cognitive processes, epistemological considerations, and broader metaphysical dimensions. According to Yūsī, knowledge comes from three sources: reason, revelation, and senses. According to him, reason alone is not sufficient to understand the complexity of existence. Therefore, it emphasizes the importance of revelation, which represents divine guidance and transcendent wisdom. Revelation expands the scope of human knowledge by providing insights and truths beyond our limited reasoning abilities. Sensory experiences such as perception and observation also contribute to our understanding of the world. By interacting with the senses, we gain empirical knowledge and discover physical manifestations of reality. Yûsî’s theory underscores the need to integrate these different sources of knowledge. According to him, knowledge can be valuable in itself or serve another purpose. Yūsī’s theory underscores the need to integrate these different sources of knowledge. According to him, knowledge can be valuable in itself or serve another purpose. The division of knowledge into two categories: sciences for its own sake and sciences that serve another purpose, reveals the value and use of knowledge. In this perspective, it can be said that Yūsī’s theory of knowledge has a deep and versatile understanding within the tradition of Islamic thought. The six basic sciences and eight auxiliary sciences that stand out among Islamic sciences are a reflection of this understanding. Likewise, his theory of knowledge encourages in-depth studies in the relevant field by providing interaction between different disciplines and emphasizes the value of knowledge, showing that it plays an important role in human life. The study aims to provide a basis for studies on Yūsī’s other theological views, especially his theory of knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ʿAbd al-Latīf al-Kharpūṭī is a modern theologian based in Turkiye in the 19th century and took the first concrete step to introduce new ilm al-kalām. He aimed at defending Islam using both rational (‘aql) and narrative (nass) evidence, thereby envisioning a methodological renewal in kalām. Using wisdom, al-Kharpūṭī wanted to eliminate the issues that would harm the Islamic faith through wisdom. Such objectives are evident in the definition of wisdom, he quoted from Qādī Bayzāwī. He interpreted wisdom in the sense of demonstrations (burhan) that express certain knowledge and rhetorical (khitabī) and falsifiable (zannī) proofs in order to eliminate doubt and uncertainty. Al-Kharpūṭī considered the demonstrations and evidences used in kalām as wisdom. He attached so much importance to wisdom, and he claimed that Islam was built on wisdom. With the meaning he attributed to wisdom, he aimed to interpret the Qurʾān and Sunnah and to uncover the secrets of religion. He believed that through wisdom, religion could reach great masses of people. In this way, both the common (hawas) and elite (ʿavām) people would benefit from religion. He used wisdom as a method and emphasized its encompassing, functional and enlightening characteristics. The fact that al-Kharpūṭī’s definition of wisdom supports the purpose of the science of kalām is a clear manifestation of the relationship between the science of kalām and wisdom. At the same time, wisdom’s characteristic of precise knowledge that eliminates doubt and its persuasive appeals with evidence and demonstrations are also among the goals of kalām. Evaluating wisdom based on the rules of logic, al-Kharpūṭī established a relationship between reason and science through wisdom. A concrete example of this can be found in his treatise “On the Tawjīh and Tawfīq of the Apparent (Zahirī) Dispute Between ‘Ilm al-Hay’at and Qurʾāb al-Muqaddasa” and in his work Tanqīh al-Kalām. In this treatise, he established a relationship between revelation and science, emphasized the science of hayat and wisdom,, mentioned some earlier astronomical theories, and tried to prove that Islam was not opposed to science and reason by supporting them with verses. Al-Kharpūṭī often referred to natural sciences and scientific facts and emphasized the power and wisdom of Allah. He associated various verses from the Qurʾān with scientific informations, thereby drawing attention to the wisdom in religion. Al-Kharpūṭī considered all humanity in the service of science as a portal of service to Islam, regardless of whether it is through the hands of a disbeliever or a Muslim. For him, service to Islam is wisdom, and it is this wisdom that will continue for centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diya' al-Din 'Umar al-Razi (d. 1164-65 [?]), the father of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606/1210) was a prominent figure in the fields of fiqh, Sufism, rhetoric, literature, and Kalam. His literary aspect extended to his theological views, as he employed poetry as a tool to substantiate his ideas on imamate, the leadership of the Muslim community. The discovery of the second volume of his lost work, Nihayat al-Maram fi Dirayat al-Kalam, has provided valuable insight into his thoughts. While adhering to Sunni tradition on imamate, Diya' al-Din 'Umar al-Razi presented novel perspectives, re-examined the views of earlier kalam and fiqh scholars in light of contemporary circumstances, offered a theological perspective on his society's socio-political issues, and proposed solutions. This study delves into Diya' al-Din 'Umar's perspective on the necessity of appointing an imam, the qualities an imam must possess, the process of imamate, the possibility of removing an imam from office, the possibility of having two imams simultaneously, whether an imam is appointed through nass (divine decree) or bi'ah (pledge of allegiance), and who is the most virtuous/superior individual after the Prophet Muhammad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Muslim thought, the relationship between aqliyyat (reason) and sam'iyyat (Things that can only be known through the Quran and the Hadith) is an important issue that is axiomatically continuous. One of the scholars who interpreted the relationship between two concepts in the most accurate and original way in the literature is Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar. In Ahl al-Sunnah, the reason is regarded as an important blessing for human beings in religious understanding due to its wisdom and functionality, and it is accepted as one of the basic sources of knowledge such as news and senses. In Islam, the relationship between reason and revelation has been dealt primarily within the context of the value of reason itself in terms of maslahat (public interest), and then in terms of the correct understanding of revelation. In the thought of kalam, the question of faith has been tried to be grounded on a rational basis through the principle of the compatibility of knowledge with its object, that is, the inference obtained by making an observation on existence Al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar took this content to a higher level with his original method. According to Qadi, the intellect is the most important element in comprehending and implementing the proposals of prophethood and Shariah and in attaining perfection. This study is an overview of Kādī's solution to the problem of the reason's competence in the relationship between reason and revelation in the method of kalam, which constitutes an original method by taking into account the accumulative tradition that preceded him on the subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern scholarship has largely rejected the decline paradigm, allowing for the evaluation of the Islamic intellectual tradition on its own terms. Rather than viewing the commentary tradition as a sign of decline, scholars have sought to understand the different literary genres and their functions. However, a gap has emerged between the insights gained from works published in Anglo-Saxon languages and those published in Arabic and Turkish. This paper presents insights from recent works published in the Muslim World on the commentary tradition, focusing on the concept of taqrīr and how it helps to solve an issue regarding the debate surrounding Sa'd al-Dīn al-Taftāzānī's madhhab in fiqh and kalām. The conclusion of the investigation argues that al-Taftāzānī should be considered an Ash'arī in kalām and Shāfi'ī in fiqh based on a careful reading of his works in the context of the commentary tradition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article attempts to systematically set out al-Māturīdī's theory of free will and human action. To this end, firstly, a presentation is given of his refutations of both his main rivals, determinists and libertarians, as represented by the Jabriyya and Mu'tazila, respectively. The following section then presents those arguments al-Māturīdī offers in direct support his own theory. These arguments are discussed in terms of different possible interpretations and are used as the basis for an analysis of his theory that maps out its overall framework by listing its main concepts and principles. By this means, key terms such as power and free will, as denoted chiefly by the Arabic terms qudra and quwwa, and ikhtiyār, are clarified. In the third and final section of this study, questions regarding the specifics of al-Māturīdī's theory of human agency in relation to divine creation are addressed, and some problems are identified as fundamental. A resolution is undertaken with aid from Aristotle's metaphysics and J.L. Mackie's analysis of causation in order to determine exactly what human power consists of and how it relates to the effects with which al-Māturīdī says it is connected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Islamic thought, the evaluation of the subject of proposal by different sects on the axis of revelation and reason is an activity aimed at finding solutions to the problems related to the source of the divine responsibility of independent human existence. Does human being, due to his creation, have the opportunity and power to know, comprehend and fulfill this responsibility on his own, without divine help and guidance? Or does human responsibility turn into obligation through divine notifications, and is the human being held accountable after this stage? The concept of taklîf was shaped within the framework of the value theories of the theological schools. In this context, there has been a simultaneous discussion of the ontological status of value in ethics and the sources of human knowledge of this value, and these two themes have rarely been clearly distinguished. Three different attitudes have developed in relation to these two issues. According to the first, values have an objective existence and can be known by independent human reason or revelation, or both. According to the latter, values are essentially shaped by God's commands and are ultimately known only by revelation, and reason has a secondary position to revelation. According to the third, values are objective and can be fully known by the independent intellect of those who have knowledge. In contrast to the Mu'tazilites, who stand out with their rationalist attitude towards the knowledge of good and evil in things and actions, Ash'arites are positioned with an attitude that prioritises revelation. According to the Hanafî-Mâturîdî school of theology, which endeavours to reconcile revelation and reason in the middle of these two, reason can act on its own up to a certain point without divine help. In the Hanafî-Maturîdî school of theology, the theology of value constitutes a common area where reason and revelation act together. While reason knows the good and evil in things and actions in general terms, revelation reinforces and elaborates it. On the other hand, reason serves as a ground and foundation for the knowledge and understanding of the values revealed by revelation. As a result, although good and evil are known through revelation or reason, all these processes take place on the ground and basis of reason. Although there is a similarity between the Hanafî-Maturîdî school of theology and the Muctazilites with regard to the knowledge of good and evil by the intellect, the two sects differ from each other at the point of imposing a responsibility on human beings based on this knowledge. For, although the intellect knows the good and evil inherent in things and actions, it does not have the authority to make judgements in line with this knowledge. In addition, the presence of certain obstacles in the mind at the point of thinking in a healthy way and finding the truth negatively affects its ability to make the right decision alone and unaided. Another effective factor in this is that the intellect has a limited power of knowing and perceiving in terms of creation. Since the intellect is essentially a tool and a means of grasping good and evil, the function of the intellect varies according to the state of value that objects and actions have or acquire. In this context, objects and actions are divided into two parts in terms of goodness and evil. The first are those who are ontologically good and bad, and the second are those who are good and bad for reasons other than their essence. Since goodness and evil originate from its own essence, reason commands truthfulness and justice, which it sees as innately good, and forbids lies and cruelty, which it sees as bad. The divine command and the reward in return can only be realised on the basis of this rational necessity. From another point of view, judgements are divided into three as wajib (necessity), impermissible and possible. In this study, which deals with the ideas of the kalam sects in general and the Hanafi-Maturidi school in particular, regarding the proposal, the subject will be examined in the context of the disciplines of kalam and fiqh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Kullarının hidâyet ve doğru yoldan ayrılmalarını istemeyen Allah zaman içinde bozulan ve hak yoldan uzaklaşan toplumlara, onları uyarmaları ve hak yola davet etmek için peygamberler göndermiştir. Her biri birer hidayet rehberi olan peygamberler, Allah’ın emir ve yasaklarını gönderilmiş oldukları toplumlara tebliğ etmişler ve bu uğurda türlü sıkıntılara göğüs gelerek büyük mücadele örnekleri sergilemişlerdir. Böylesine zorlu bir vazifede peygamberler elbette yalnız bırakılmamış, nübüvvet davalarında haklı olduklarını ispatlamaları için her birine Allah tarafından farklı mucizeler bahşedilmiştir. Hz. Salih’in devesi, Hz. İbrahim’in ateşte yanmaması, Hz. Musa’nın asası, Hz. İsa’nın ölüleri diriltmesi vb. olağanüstü hadiseler Kur’an’da zikredilen mucizelerden bazılarıdır. Hz. Peygamber’e verilen en büyük mucizenin Kur’an-ı Hakîm olduğu konusunda İslam âlimleri arasında ittifak vardır. Kur’an dışında hissî mucize olarak adlandırılan ayın ikiye bölünmesi, hurma kütüğünün inlemesi, taşların konuşması, kızartılmış koyun etinin zehirli olduğunu haber vermesi gibi mucizeler de nübüvvet bahislerinde ele alınmaktadır. Bu makalede söz konusu hissî mucizeler incelenmiş ve kelâm ilmi açısından değerlendirmeye tabi tutulmuştur. Özellikle pozitivist okuma biçimlerinin de etkisiyle hissî mucizelerin varlığını kabul etmeyenler olmakla birlikte ulaştığımız deliller neticesinde bu tür mucizelerin Hz. Peygamber’e verildiği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Bu makale, genelde İslam düşüncesini özelde kelâmı Aristo’nun Fizik VIII’inden yola çıkarak fizik ve metafizik arasındaki ilişki açısından incelemekte ve İbn Rüşd’ün (öl. 595/1198) İbn Sînâ’ya (öl. 428/1037) ve Eşʻarî kelâmına dair eleştirilerini isbât-ı vâcib meselesi minvalinde yeniden değerlendirmektedir. İbn Rüşd, Eşʻarî kelâmcılarının bir metafizik inşa edemediklerini ihsas ettirerek, hudûs delillerinin yapısal problemler içerdiğini iddia etmektedir. İbn Rüşd'ün analizine göre, kelamcıların hudûs delili odaklı kozmolojik argümanları, polemikten bağımsız olamayacak şekilde son derece karmaşık bir yapıya ulaşmış ve bu durum, konunun uzmanları için dahi kavranması zor bir hal almıştır. Somutlaştırmak gerekirse, kelamcıların isbât-ı vâcib delilleri, hadis-ezeli (fizik-metafizik) ilişkisine dair problemleri çözme yerine daha içinden çıkılmaz hale getirme eğilimindedir. Diğer bir yandan ise İbn Rüşd, ezelî-hâdis dikotomisine dair ana problemleri metafizik üzerinden çözen İbn Sînâ ve İbn Sînâcılara karşı sükutunu korurken, isbât-ı vâcib meselesinde filozofların Aristo fiziğini atıl hale getirmelerini tenkit etmektedir. Öte yandan kelâmcıların hudûs delilleri ile kozmolojik/fizik temelli bir argüman sunmuş olmaları, İbn Rüşd’ü tatmin etmemiştir. İbn Rüşd zaviyesinden bakıldığında kelâmcılar, ne -biraz önce bahsedildiği gibi- ezelî-hâdis problemini metafizik önermelerle çözebilmişlerdir ne de kozmolojik argümanlarında fizik prensiplerini doğru bir şekilde uygulayabilmişlerdir. Kelamcıların fiziği doğru bir şekilde icra edememeleri iddiası, insicamlı bir metafizik de inşa edemekleri ithamını da beraberinde getirmektedir. İbn Rüşd haklı mıdır ve İbn Sînâ’nın ve kelâmcıların isbât-ı vâcib delilleri fizik-metafizik ilişkisi açısından yapısal sorunlar içermekte midir? İsbât-ı vâcib açısından fizik hala zorunlu mudur? Ya da isbât-ı vâcib için fizik kendi başına yeterli midir? Metafiziksiz bir isbât-ı vâcib delili mümkün müdür? Fiziği ya da metafiziği ihmal etmek ne gibi sorunlara neden olmaktadır? Makale, bu soruları çeşitli açılardan inceleyecektir.

İslam düşüncesi ve kelâmının oluşum ve gelişim sürecinde Mu‘tezile’nin önemli katkıları olmuştur. Ancak çeşitli nedenlerle ilgili ekol zayıflamış, düşünce sistemlerini aktaran kaynaklara erişim zorlaşmıştır. Bu nedenle Mu‘tezilî düşünceye dair bilgiler, daha çok muhaliflerince aktarılan bilgiler üzerinden değerlendirilmiştir. Bu durum aleyhlerinde; aklı nakle önceledikleri, rivayetleri terk ettikleri yönünde teyide muhtaç bazı olumsuz iddiaların şüyû bulmasına sebebiyet vermiştir. Mu‘tezilî kaynaklarda ise naklî bilginin ötelenmediği hatta rivayete dayalı bilginin önemli yekûn oluşturduğu görülmektedir. Şefaat ve kabir azabı gibi bazı konularda muhaliflerine kıyasla daha dar bir yaklaşım benimsemelerinin, ilgili meselelerin topyekûn inkârı şeklinde yorumlandığı anlaşılmaktadır. Bu açıdan Mu‘tezilî düşüncenin kendi kaynaklarından tespit edilmesi önem taşımaktadır. Bu bağlamda ele alınması gereken önemli bir mesele Mu‘tezilî ekolün Kur’ân kıssalarına yaklaşım biçiminin tespit edilmesidir. Kur’ân kıssalarında genellikle olaylar ve şahıslar mübhem olarak ifade edildiği için ilgili anlatıların detaylarına dair çeşitli rivayetler aktarılmaktadır. Kıssalarda yer alan mûcizevî anlatılar, bazı aklî çıkarımlara da imkân vermektedir. Mu‘tezilî düşüncenin Kur’ân kıssalarına yaklaşımı, akıl-nakil anlayışlarıyla yakından ilgilidir. Kur’ân kıssalarından Hz. Nûh ve kavmine dair anlatılarda yer alan; peygamberlik, inkâr, vahiyle gemi yapımı, tûfan ve kavmin helak edilmesi gibi konular, Mu‘tezile’nin temel ilkeleriyle irtibatlı hususlar içermektedir. Bu nedenle Cüşemî örnekliğinde Mu‘tezilî düşüncenin Nûh kıssasına yaklaşımının araştırılması faydalı olacaktır. Doküman ve içerik analiz yönteminin uygulandığı çalışmada; Mu‘tezilî âlimlerin Nûh kıssasına yaklaşımı, Cüşemî kaynaklığında tahlil edilmiş, itikadî düşüncelerinin Kur’ân kıssalarına yaklaşımlarındaki etkisine yer verilmiştir. Sonuç olarak Mu‘tezilî âlimlerin rivayetlere önem verdiği, Kur’ân kıssalarından mezhebî ilke ve teorilerine dair çeşitli deliller çıkardıkları tespit edilmiştir.

Gazzâlî’nin âdetullah ve sünnetullah kavramlarına yüklediği anlamlar ve Tehâfütü’l-felâsife adlı eserinde nedensellik konusunda söyledikleri ile İhyâ ve diğer bazı kitaplarındaki ifadeleri arasında çelişki olduğu izlenimi uyanmaktadır. Makalede öncelikle âdetullah ve sünnetullah kavramlarının anlamları izah edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Gazzâlî’den önceki dönemlerde yaşamış kelâm ve tefsir âlimlerinin bu kavramlara yüklediği manalar araştırılmıştır. Sünnetullah kavramının Kur’ân’daki anlamları kısaca ele alınmıştır. Daha sonra Gazzâlî’nin eserlerinde âdetullah ve sünnetullah kavramlarına yüklediği anlamlar gruplandırılarak tahlil edilmiştir. Sebep ile sonuç arasındaki ilişki ile mutlak nedensellik ve sünnetullahın değişmezliği konusundaki düşünceleri aktarılmıştır. Gazzâlî’nin nedensellik konusundaki fikirleri hakkında yapılan çalışmalar incelenmiş ve bu çalışmaların onun Tehâfütü’l-felâsife’de söyledikleri üzerinde yoğunlaştığı, İhyâ’daki ifadelerine nadiren değindiği görülmüştür. Bu nedenle bu araştırmada yazarın bütün eserleri dikkate alınmıştır. Gazzâlî’nin, filozoflarla girdiği tartışmanın odağında bulunan mucize konusundaki düşünceleri aktarılmıştır. Yapılan çalışma sonucunda “sünnetullah” tabirinin Kur’ân’da sosyal yasalar ile fıtrat kanunlarını ifade etmek üzere zikredildiği anlaşılmıştır. Taberî, Tirmizî, Mâtürîdî, Bâkillânî ve Cüveynî gibi Gazzâlî’den önceki bazı âlimlerin de âdetullah ve sünnetullah tabirlerini tabiat kanunları ile sosyal yasalar manasında kullandıkları görülmüştür. Gazzâlî’nin ise eserlerinde âdetullah ve sünnetullah kavramları arasına fark gözetmeden fizik ve tabiat kanunları ile insanın fıtratı ve toplum düzeniyle ilgili kanunlar manasında kullandığı tespit edilmiştir. Onun sebep ile sonuç arasında bir ilişki olduğunu kabul ettiği ancak filozofların aksine belli sebeplerin belli sonuçları doğurmasını zorunlu görmediği anlaşılmıştır. Bunun yanında sonuçların sebepsiz ortaya çıkamayacağını, insanların bunlara uygun davranması ve rızık araması gerektiğini, yasalara aykırı davranışın tevekkül sayılamayacağını savunduğu belirlenmiştir.

Bu makalenin konusu, iman ve istikamet ilişkisini temellendirmek ve toplumda görülen ahlâki savrulmayı nihilizm perspektifinde okumaktır. İnsanın dünya görüşü, inancından bağımsız değildir. İnancın dindeki adı olan iman, köklü bir teslimiyet ve bağlılığın adıdır. İman ahlâkla ilişkili kabul edilmektedir. Ahlâk, çeşitli faziletleriyle istikamet bilinci olarak somutlaşır. Bu, zayıfladığı zaman inanç da zayıflayabilir. İstikamet bilinci, temeli iman ve ibadet üzerine inşa edilmiş bir ahlâk anlayışıdır. Günümüzde özellikle dijitalleşmeye eşlik eden din karşıtı anlayışlar ahlâki yozlaşma ve itikadi savrulmayı beraberinde getirmektedir. Bir çeşit istikamet kaybı olarak nitelenecek bu hal sadece bireysel değil, toplumsal sonuçlar da doğurmaktadır. Peygamberler insanları ahlâk krizlerinden korumak ve onlarda iman esaslı bir istikamet şuuru geliştirmek istemişlerdir. Dini referanslar ibadetlerle desteklenmiş bir imanın, insanda istikamet için güçlü bir neden olduğunu göstermektedir. Diğer taraftan, saha araştırmaları ve gözlemlerimiz modern toplumda dinin geri çekilmeye başladığı yönünde bir izlenim uyandırmaktadır. Bu çalışma, istikametin iman ve ibadetle ilişkisine bağlı olarak iman ve ahlâk zorunlu ilişkisini desteklemektedir. Bu ilişkinin kırılması halinde ortaya çıkacak ahlâk krizinin bir çeşit nihilizm olduğu iddiasından hareketle toplumda görülen ahlâki yozlaşma bu zaviyeden tartışılmaktadır. Makalede söz konusu problem, gençler üzerinde yapılmış saha araştırmalarının analizi ışığında kaynak incelemesi yöntemiyle tartışılacaktır.

Allah, who does not want His servants to stray from the right path, sent prophets to warn peoples and to invite them to the true path. The prophets, each of whom was a guide, conveyed the orders and prohibitions of Allah to the individuals and societies to which they were sent, and for this purpose, they showed great examples of struggle by enduring all kinds of troubles. Of course, the prophets were not left alone in such a difficult task, and each of them was given different miracles by Allah to prove that they were right in the cases of prophethood. Hz. Salih’s camel, The fact that Abraham did not burn in the fire, Hz. Moses’ staff, Hz. Jesus’ resurrection, etc. It is one of the miracles mentioned in the Qur’an. There is an agreement among Islamic scholars that the greatest miracle given to the Prophet is the Qur’an. Miracles such as the splitting of the moon into two, the groaning of the palm stump, the speech of stones, the news that fried mutton is poisonous, which are called sensory miracles outside the Qur’an, are examined in this article and evaluated in terms of the discipline of theology. Even though there are those who do not accept the existence of sensory miracles, especially under the influence of positivist reading styles, as a result of the evidence we have obtained, it is clear that such miracles are related to the Prophet Muhammad. It has been concluded that it was given to the Prophet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ahmad Shīrānī (1879-1942), one of the late Ottoman scholars and one of the important writers of the constitutional monarchy press, is a person who expressed his scientific, political and religious views in various magazines of his period. Among the issues on which he expressed his opinion in the religious field are the issues of faith, isbat al-wajib and divine attributes. Among the issues he touches upon are the position of people in terms of faith, the place of deeds in relation to faith, apostasy under threat, the collective and detailed faith, investigative and imitative faith, the period of responsibility for faith, and whether it is permissible to spread faith through coercion. On the subject of Isbat al-wajib, he touched upon issues such as the justification of Allah's existence through the need for Him, the evidence that the universe contains in this regard, the progress made by science and science in this direction, the impossibility of substituting nature for Him, the proof of disposition and the proof of general acceptance. In the subject of divine attributes, he tried to explain the essential and positive attributes of Allah in a very short style that adopted everyday language instead of using technical terms. Shīrānī touches upon the subjects of faith and of Isbāt al-wājib in a scattered manner, mostly through references he makes on the subject in his various articles. He dealt with the issue of divine attributes independently, mainly in a series of articles titled "İlmihal Dersleri". He developed a language according to the position of his interlocutors in explaining the relevant issues. In this context, he generally addressed his readers who did not have sufficient scientific knowledge in a simple and easy way, and those with a relatively high intellectual level, often with an intermediate level, and sometimes with a completely technical language and style. In the "İlmihal Dersleri" series of articles, he chose a simple language because he determined his addressees as the public and children in general. In his other writings, he followed a more scientific style. In this article, the ideas put forward by Ahmad Shīrānī within the framework of the above-mentioned subjects will be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines Islamic thought in general and theology in particular in terms of the relationship between physics and metaphysics, based on Aristotle's Physics VIII, and reevaluates Averroes' (d. 595/1198) criticism of Avicenna (d. 428/1037) and Ash'arī theology regarding the matter of proof for God's existence. Averroes claims that the Ash'arī theology lacks metaphysics, so the ḥudûth evidence (the proof of contingency) contains structural problems. Drawing from Averroes' analysis, the cosmological arguments revolving around theologians' proof of God's existence from the universe's contingency have developed into a profoundly intricate framework, generating polemics to the extent that even scholars in the field struggle to grasp its intricacies. Expanding on this point, theologians' efforts to establish God's existence often exacerbate rather than alleviate complexities surrounding the relationship between contingency and eternity (physics and metaphysics). On the other hand, Averroes maintains his silence against Avicenna and Avicenians, who seem to have solved the main problems regarding the eternal-temporal dichotomy through metaphysics, while he still criticizes them for rendering Aristotelian physics inactive in the proof of the Necessary Being. Conversely, Averroes remains unconvinced by the theologians' cosmological/physics-based arguments through the proof of contingency. However, when viewed from the perspective of Averroes, the theologians were neither able to solve the problem of the relationship between eternal and temporal with metaphysical propositions nor were they able to correctly apply physical principles in their cosmological arguments. The assertion that theologians could not implement physics accurately also carries the insinuation that they failed to formulate a coherent metaphysical framework. Is Averroes right, and do Avicenna's and the theologians' proofs for God's existence contain structural problems regarding the physics-metaphysics relationship? Is physics still necessary in terms of proof of God's existence? Or is physics sufficient to prove God's existence? Is it possible to have a proof for God's existence without metaphysics? What kind of problems does neglecting physics or metaphysics cause? The study will examine these questions from various perspectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One gets the impression that there is a contradiction between the meanings that al-Ghazālī attributes to the concepts of ādatullah and sunnatullah and what he says about causality in his book Tahāfut al-falāsifah and his statements in the Ihyā and some of his other books. In the article, first of all, the meanings of the concepts of ādatullah and sunnatullah were tried to be explained. The meanings attributed to these concepts by theology and tafsīr scholars who lived in the periods before al-Ghazālī were examined. The meanings of the concept of sunnatullah in the Qur'ān are briefly discussed. Later, the meanings that al-Ghazālī attributed to the concepts of ādetullah and sunnatullah in his works were grouped and analyzed. His thoughts on the relationship between cause and effect, absolute causality and the immutability of the sunnatullah have been tried to be conveyed. His views on the immutability of the sunnatullah are discussed. During the research, studies which focused on al-Ghazālī's ideas on causality were examined and it was seen that these studies focused on what he said in Tahāfut and rarely touched on his statements in Ihyā. For this reason, in this research, the author's thoughts on causality were tried to be explained by taking into account all his works. al-Ghazālī's thoughts on miracles, which were at the center of his debate with philosophers, were conveyed. As a result of the study, it was understood that the term "sunnatullah" was mentioned in the Qur'ān to express social laws and laws of nature. It has been determined that al-Ghazālī used the concepts of ādatullah and sunnatullah in his works in the sense of biology, physics, natural laws and laws related to human nature and social order. It has been seen that he accepts that there is a relationship between cause and effect, but unlike philosophers, he holds the opinion that it is not necessary for certain causes to produce certain results, and he opposes an understanding that would exclude God, the "doer", from being the power behind the causes. In addition, it was understood that he argued that consequences cannot occur without a reason, that God will not change the laws, that people should live their lives and seek sustenance by acting in accordance with them, and that behavior contrary to the law cannot be considered tawakkul. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of God's oneness holds a central position in Islamic thought. This is because the oneness of God is one of the most important and absolutely uncompromising principles of the Qurʾān. Moreover, the Qurʾān's recognition of shirk as the greatest unforgivable sin shows the importance of its opposite, tawḥīd. The science of kalām is also called the science of tawḥīd because it aims to prove the unity of God. The Qurʾān's emphasis on tawḥīd and the objections and challenges of polytheist believers who threatened the principle of tawḥīd prompted theologians to employ rational arguments in addition to the evidence of divine revelation to defend the uniqueness of God. Al-Shāhrastānī describes God as one and unique in all aspects. For him, the most special divine attribute is the power of creation. Al-Shāhrastānī, interprets burhān altamānu ʿ and burhān al-tawārud, which were used by previous theologians to prove God's uniqueness, in his own personal way, and presents his original proof, which we call burhān al-istignā, in order to reinforce and support the proofs. All the assumptions in these proofs show that multiple deities are intellectually impossible and strengthen the uniqueness of God. In this study, al-Shahrastānī's related views are comprehensively examined, analyzed and evaluated in detail, and finally a holistic conclusion and evaluation is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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