Search

We derive the asymptotic variance of the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition effects. We show that the delta method approach that builds on the assumption of fixed regressors understates true variability of the decomposition effects when regressors are stochastic. Our proposed variance estimator takes randomness of regressors into consideration. Our approach is applicable to both the linear and nonlinear decompositions. Previously, only a bootstrap method has been a valid option for nonlinear decompositions. As our derivation follows the general framework of m-estimation, it is straightforward to extend our variance estimator to a cluster-robust variance estimator. We demonstrate the finite-sample performance of our variance estimator with a Monte Carlo study and present a real-data application.

We conducted a field experiment involving 720 Italian undergraduate students to investigate the existence of gender differences in performance in competitive settings and whether performance is affected by one's opponent gender. The experimental design was aimed at neutralizing other differences in psychological attitudes, such as self-confidence and risk aversion, that are typically considered as potential explanations of gender differences in competitive environments. Students were invited to undertake a midterm exam under a tournament scheme having as a prize some bonus points to add to the final grade. Students competed in pairs of equal predicted ability but different gender composition. In a competitive setting in which risk aversion, feedback provision and self-confidence have little relevance, we find that women tend to perform similarly to men. The gender of one's competitor does not play any role in shaping students’ behavior. Men and women perform similarly both in the competitive and in the non-competitive environment.

This paper presents the way in which is analyzed the impact of demand for labor, at the female and male population unemployed, in Romania, at NUTS II (8 regions), before the economic crisis and after installation. It uses econometric model with panel data, with the dependent variable, ILO unemployment rate for women and men, for the four age categories and, as independent variables, the rate of job vacancies across six major groups’ occupations: The data used are quarterly, obtained from the household labor force survey (LFS) and survey vacancies made/published by the National Statistic Institute.

The paper presents an approach to unemployment analysis among youth aged between 15 and 24, with the aid of multidimensional exploratory techniques. It analyzes the evolution of unemployment by level of training, duration, as well as how it has affected the female and male population. The analysis is performed with quarterly data for the 1996 to 2014 period, offered by the National Institute of Statistics. The results highlight typologies of unemployment for this age group, traits of youth behavior on the labor market and towards the labor market.

It is a well-established view amongst economists that good-looking people have a better chance of employment and can earn more than those who are less physically attractive. A “beauty premium” is particularly apparent in jobs where there is a productivity gain associated with good looks, though this is different for women and men, and varies across countries. People also sort into occupations according to the relative returns to their physical characteristics; good-looking people take jobs where physical appearance is deemed important while less-attractive people steer away from them, or they are required to be more productive for the same wage.

This paper investigates the heterogeneity of ethnic employment gaps using a new single-index based approach. Instead of stratifying our sample by age or education, we study ethnic employment gaps along a continuous measure of employability, the employment probability minority workers would have if their characteristics were priced as in the majority group. We apply this method to French males, comparing those whose parents are North African immigrants and those with native parents. We find that both the raw and the unexplained ethnic employment differentials are larger for low-employability workers than for high-employability ones. We show in a theoretical framework that this heterogeneity can be accounted for by homogeneous underlying mechanisms and is not evidence for, say, heterogeneous discrimination. Finally, we discuss our main empirical findings in the light of simple taste-based vs. statistical discrimination models.

EnglishThis paper deals with Commons’s and Veblen’s position on the specific institution of family. Commons adheres to the conventional pattern in which men are in charge of the livelihood and woman of the affective side. He admits the inequality between men and women. The historical evolution let simply expect the development of relationships based more on persuasion than on coercion. Veblen, for his part, backs feminism. According to him, women must become emancipated and work outside the home. Keeping them within the household enables men to establish a domination mainly expressed through “conspicuous” consumption and “vicarious” leisure. francaisCet article examine la position de Commons et Veblen sur une institution specifique, la famille. Commons adhere au modele conventionnel, dans lequel l’homme est responsable des moyens de subsistance et la femme, de la dimension affective. Il accepte donc l’inegalite entre les hommes et les femmes. L’evolution historique laisse simplement esperer une relation davantage fondee sur la persuasion que sur la coercition. De son cote, Veblen soutient la cause feministe. Il considere que la femme doit s’emanciper et travailler. La maintenir a l’interieur du foyer permet au contraire l’instauration de rapports de domination qui s’expriment a travers la consommation « ostentatoire » et le loisir « par delegation ».

Turkey experienced a financial crisis in 2000–2001, which led to significant financial reforms. The reforms resulted in a switch to a floating exchange rate, granted greater central bank independence and pursuit of a more credible monetary policy. Investigation of the channels of monetary policy in both periods finds that monetary policy's output effects have been strengthened considerably by the reforms. In the pre-crisis period, monetary policy was highly inflationary, while in the post-crisis period, monetary policy targets low inflation and has become a tool for output stabilization. These results support the importance of central bank independence and a credible policy.

In this paper, we link industry-level data on offshoring activities of U.S. multinational firms, import penetration, and export shares with individual level worker data from the Current Population Surveys. We examine whether increasing globalization through offshoring or trade has led to reallocation of labor, both within and out of manufacturing, and measure its impact on the wages of domestic workers. We also control for the "routineness" of individual occupations. Our results suggest that (1) offshoring to high wage countries is positively correlated with U.S. manufacturing employment (2) offshoring to low wage countries is associated with U.S. employment declines (3) wages for workers who remain in manufacturing are generally positively affected by offshoring; in particular, we find that wages are positively associated with an increase in U.S. multinational employment in high income locations (4) much of the negative effects of globalization operate through downward pressure on wages of workers who leave manufacturing to take jobs in agriculture or services and (5) the downward pressure on aggregate U.S. wages operating through import competition has been quite important for some occupations. This effect has been overlooked because it operates across, not within, industries.

espanolEste estudio examina los efectos de haber asistido a un colegio privado, el ranking de universidades y el aprendizaje del empleador sobre los salarios en Chile. La estrategia empirica se basa en regresiones de salarios tipo Mincer. El analisis se realizo usando una muestra de egresados universitarios. Los principales resultados dan cuenta de un efecto importante y significativo de haber asistido a colegios privados y a universidades prestigiosas sobre los salarios de los trabajadores al inicio de su carrera laboral. Estos resultados son consistentes con un modelo de discriminacion estadistica y aprendizaje por parte del empleador dado que los efectos estimados disminuyen con la experiencia laboral de los trabajadores. Utilizando este modelo, se encuentra que los empleadores reducen en un 50 por ciento la ponderacion que le dan al ranking de universidades de sus trabajadores luego de tres anos. Mis hallazgos, ademas, indican que incorporar rankings basados en el percentil de la prueba de admision universitaria en las solicitudes de empleo puede mejorar significativamente la capacidad del mercado para asignar adecuadamente los sueldos, reduciendo la brecha informativa entre potenciales empleados y empleadores. EnglishThis paper studies the effects of attending a private high school, the university ranking and the employer learning on wages. The empirical strategy is based on the Mincer-type wage regressions. The analysis was carried out using individual-level data from Chile. I find a large and significant effect on wages at the beginning of workers’ careers from attending a private high school and from attending a highly ranked university. These findings can be rationalized by the statistical discrimination and employer learning model since the effects of attending a private high school or highly ranked university decrease with experience. I construct an employer learning model to explain these decreases and find employers decrease by 50 per cent the weight they place on university ranking when setting wages in three years. My findings further indicate that incorporating university admission test percentile rankings in employment applications can significantly improve the market’s ability to appropriately assign wages by decreasing the information gap between potential employees and employers.

This article decomposes the observed gaps in educational attainment and school-to-work transitions between grandchildren of natives and immigrants in Belgium into (i) differences in observed family endowments and (ii) a residual "pure ethnic gap". It innovates by explicitly taking delays in educational attainment into account, by identifying the moments at which the pure ethnic gaps arise, by disentangling the decision to continue schooling at the end of a school year from the achievement within a particular grade, and by integrating the language spoken at home among observed family endowments. The pure ethnic gap in educational attainment is found to be small if delays are neglected, but substantial if not and for school-to-work transitions. It is shown that more than 20% of the pure ethnic gap in graduating from secondary school without delay originates in tenth grade. Language usage explains only part of the gap in school-to-work transitions for low educated.

This paper focuses on estimating the magnitude of any potential weight discrimination by examining whether obese job applicants in Germany get treated or behave differently from non-obese applicants. Based on two waves of rich survey data from the IZA Evaluation dataset, which includes measures that control for education, demographic characteristics, labor market history, psychological factors and health, we estimate differences in job search behavior and labor market outcomes between obese/overweight and normal weight individuals. Unlike other observational studies which are generally based on obese and non-obese individuals who might already be at different points in the job ladder (e.g., household surveys), in our data, individuals are newly unemployed and all start from the same point. The only subgroup we find in our data experiencing any possible form of negative labor market outcomes is obese women. Despite making more job applications and engaging more in job training programs, we find some indications that they experienced worse (or at best similar) employment outcomes than normal weight women. Obese women who found a job also had significantly lower wages than normal weight women.

In this paper I propose and estimate an equilibrium search model using matched employer-employee data to study the extent to which wage differentials between men and women can be explained by differences in productivity, disparities in friction patterns, segregation or wage discrimination. The availability of matched employer-employee data is essential to empirically disentangle differences in workers productivity across groups from differences in wage policies toward those groups. The model features rent splitting, on-the-job search and two-sided heterogeneity in productivity. It is estimated using German microdata. I find that female workers are less productive and more mobile than males. Female workers have on average slightly lower bargaining power than their male counterparts. The total gender wage gap is 42 percent. It turns out that most of the gap, 65 percent, is accounted for by differences in productivity, 17 percent of this gap is driven by segregation while differences in destruction rates explain 9 percent of the total wage-gap. Netting out differences in offer-arrival rates would increase the gap by 13 percent. Due to differences in wage setting, female workers receive wages 9 percent lower than male ones.

Das Thema einer gesetzlichen Mindestquote für Frauen in Führungspositionen der Privatwirtschaft ist in Deutschland politisch und gesellschaftlich umstritten. Der Beitrag beleuchtet die Thematik näher und gibt eine Einschätzung der Frauenquote und weiterer Maßnahmen, die die Ungleichstellung von Frauen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt verringern können.

This article concentrates on the problem of the access of females to labor market in Romania. The raw gap in labor market participation rates over the period 1997-2008 amounts to app. 22%. Demographic characteristics do not seem to explain this gap - the adjusted gap in labor market participation obtained after controlling for age, education, place of living, and presence of young kids in the household is as high as the raw gap. After adding to the explanatory characteristics the existence of previous working experience, part of the gap, amounting to around 7%, becomes explained by differences in endowments. This means that although demographic characteristics do not explain differences in participation of females and males in Romanian labor market, job-related characteristic may do so. However, access to valuable job-related characteristics for females might be also determined by discriminatory behavior, thus it is not clear if they should be controlled for when decomposing gender gaps. In order to decompose gender gaps in labor market participation in Romania we implemented relatively new non-parametric decomposition technique. After covering already 11 years of data, we were not able to identify any improvement when it comes to access of females to labor market in Romania. According to our findings the gender gap in labor market participation in Romania has even increased over the analyzed period.

After Romania’s political and social changes from the 90s, non-theological university students have asked for the introduction of courses with a religious topic, such as: history of religion, philosophy of religion, psychology of religion, sociology of religion. Beyond an individual’s faith and religion, some knowledge about the religious phenomenon and how the sacred is manifested in cults and churches in our country seem necessary. Social life everywhere is impregnated with the religious dimension. Authentic or secular, “homo religiosus” is a reality that must be taken into account and to which any sociological approach relates.

We document changes in relative earnings of the ethnic Turkish workers in Bulgaria through the country’s transition from planning to markets. Using data from four periods: pre-transition communist era (late 1980s), early transition years (early 1990s), late transition years (early 2000s), and post-transition (late 2000s), we find that the level of raw ethnic inequality (measured as earnings differences between Turkish and Bulgarian workers) increased immediately after the regime change and plateaued throughout the course of transition. Ethnic inequality measures adjusted for observable characteristics follow a similar pattern but post-transitional differences between ethnic groups disappear. Changes over time in the ethnic earnings gaps differ for men and women. The raw and adjusted male ethnic gaps increased steadily during transition years but dropped post-transition, while the raw female ethnic gap fluctuated across the four periods. The adjusted female ethnic gap disappeared completely in the postransitional years. We identify different sources of the changes in the level of ethnic inequality, such as changes in the labor market characteristics and in the wage structure. Evidence suggests that the decline in the relative earnings of Turkish men was due primarily to the widening of the wage structure. Turkish working women improved their relative standing mainly from more favorable changes in labor market characteristics. These changes were only partially due to a selection in labor force participation. published

IThe paper deals with the problem of women’s discrimination in the labour market. Significant differences, among women and men in the labour market, are especially in unemployment rate in reward system, and high horizontal and vertical segregation of women. The aspects of discrimination arise despite of existing legislation, which gender discrimination strictly prohibits. An analysis of arguments, consequences and models of women’s discrimination in the labour market can significantly help to remedy this undesirable phenomenon in our economy and society.

This paper studies the relationship between height and leadership. Using data from a representative sample of Swedish men, I document that tall men are significantly more likely to attain managerial positions. An increase in height by 10 centimeters (3.94 inches) is associated with a 2.2 percentage point increase in the probability of holding a managerial position. Selection into managerial positions explains about 15% of the unconditional height-wage premium. However, about half of the height-leadership correlation is due to a positive correlation between height and cognitive and noncognitive ability. © 2012 The President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

This article takes advantage of a unique policy change to examine how principals make decisions regarding teacher dismissal. In 2004, the Chicago Public Schools (CPS) and Chicago Teachers Union signed a new collective bargaining agreement that gave principals the flexibility to dismiss probationary teachers for any reason and without the documentation and hearing process that is typically required for such dismissals. With the cooperation of the CPS, I matched information on all teachers who were eligible for dismissal with records indicating which teachers were dismissed. With these data, I estimate the relative weight that school administrators place on a variety of teacher characteristics. I find evidence that principals do consider teacher absences and value-added measures, along with several demographic characteristics, in determining which teachers to dismiss.

Este trabajo proporciona evidencia empírica en cuanto a los salarios de los inmigrantes en España y ofrece una medida de la discriminación de este grupo en comparación con los asalariados nativos. En base a los datos de la Muestra Continua de Vidas Laborales (MCVL), que permite el análisis de distintos subgrupos de la población extranjera (por región de procedencia, Comunidad en la que trabajan, etc.), se estiman ecuaciones de ganancias para nativos e inmigrantes, utilizando modelos Tobit. Posteriormente, se usan tales resultados para estudiar la distribución de los diferenciales salariales entre españoles e inmigrantes, adaptando la metodología de Jenkins (1994).

Summary This paper estimates trends in absolute poverty in urban China using the Chinese Household Income Project surveys. Poverty incidence curves are plotted, showing lower poverty in 2002 than in 1988 irrespective of the poverty line chosen. Incomes of the poorest fell during 1988–95, contributing to a rise in inequality. However, inequality has been fairly constant thereafter. Models of the determination of income and poverty reveal widening differentials by education, sex, and Communist Party membership. Income from government anti-poverty programs has little impact on poverty, which has fallen almost entirely due to overall economic growth rather than redistribution.

The aim of this paper is to estimate the size of, changes in, and main factors contributing to gender-based wage differentials in Croatia. It utilizes microdata from the Labor Force Surveys of 1998 and 2008 and applies both OLS and quantile regression techniques to assess the gender wage gap across the wage distribution. The average unadjusted gender wage gap is found to be relatively low and declining. This paper argues that employed women in Croatia possess higher-quality labor market characteristics than men, especially in terms of education, but receive much lower rewards for these characteristics. The Machado-Mata decomposition technique is used to estimate the gender wage gap as the sole effect of differing rewards. The results suggest that due to differing rewards the gap exceeds 20 percent on average - twice the size of the unadjusted gap - and that it increased somewhat between 1998 and 2008. The gap is found to be the highest at the lower-to-middle part of the wage distribution.

La existencia de la discriminación laboral es un hecho que se ha podido comprobar tanto en los hechos como estadísticamente. La evidencia empírica muestra que los mayores índices de esta discriminación se encuentran en aquellos puestos de trabajo que implican poder y toma de decisiones. Este trabajo analiza la presencia de la segregación laboral de género y la igualdad de oportunidades en las prácticas diarias de dos instituciones educativas de nivel superior del Estado de Guanajuato, México. Se encontró que al igual que sucede a nivel federal, las mujeres se encuentran poco representadas en las posiciones de poder político y social, e incluso en algunas áreas la participación de la mujer es menor que la de la media nacional.

La fuerte expansión que han experimentado las nuevas tecnologías en España en los últimos años ha propiciado la creación de nuevos nichos de empleo a los que la parte femenina de la población ha acudido de forma considerable, sobre todo si lo comparamos con el incremento de la ocupación masculina en los mismos empleos. A partir de esta evidencia empírica, nos planteamos en este artículo si el empleo TIC presenta mejores resultados a la hora de medir la segregación por género que gobierna el mercado de trabajo español, donde las mujeres se ven seriamente perjudicadas. Los datos nos dicen que, si bien dentro del empleo TIC se produce mayor igualdad entre sexos, no podemos concluir de forma definitiva que no sigan existiendo disparidades por razón de género. A la luz de estos resultados y ya que hombres y mujeres no se relacionan de la misma forma con el empleo TIC, se realizan estudios econométricos para determinar cómo afectan determinadas variables personales y laborales a la probabilidad de trabajar en el ámbito de las TIC.

Recent research has documented that competent-looking political candidates do better in U.S. elections and that babyfaced individuals are generally perceived to be less competent than maturefaced individuals. Taken together, this suggests that babyfaced political candidates are perceived as less competent and therefore fare worse in elections. We test this hypothesis, making use of photograph-based judgments by 2,772 respondents of the facial appearance of 1,785 Finnish political candidates. Our results confirm that babyfacedness is negatively related to inferred competence in politics. Despite this, babyfacedness is either unrelated or positively related to electoral success, depending on the sample of candidates.

The wage gap between Francophone and Anglophone men from 1970 and 2000 fell by 25 percentage points within Quebec, but only by 10 points Canada-wide, largely because the wages of Quebec Anglophones fell by 15 points relative to other Canadian Anglophones. Accordingly, the Canadian measure of the Francophone gap better reflects the changing welfare of Francophones than the Quebec measure. Over half of the reduction in the Canadian Francophone wage gap is explained by rising Francophone education levels. In Quebec, the declining number and relative wages of Anglophone workers is best explained by a falling demand for English-speaking labour. L'ecart de salaires entre les hommes francophones et anglophones est tombe de 25 points de pourcentage au Quebec entre 1970 et 2000, mais seulement de 10 points a l'echelle canadienne, largement parce que les salaires des anglophones au Quebec sont tombes de 15 points par rapport aux autres canadiens anglophones. En consequence, la mesure canadienne de l'ecart prend mieux la mesure du changement de bien-etre des francophones que la mesure quebecoise. Plus de la moitie de la reduction dans l'ecart au niveau canadien s'explique par l'accroissement des niveaux d'education des francophones. Au Quebec, le nombre en declin des travailleurs anglophones et la chute de leurs salaires relatifs s'expliquent par un declin dans la demande de travailleurs parlant anglais.

We present a model of labor markets that accounts for the social network through which agents hear about jobs. We show that an improvement in the wage or employment status of either an agent's direct or indirect contacts leads to an increase in the agent's employment probability and expected wages, in the sense of first order stochastic dominance. A similar effect results from an increase in the network contacts of an agent. In terms of dynamics and patterns, we show that both wages and employment are positively associated (a strong form of correlation) across time and agents. We also analyze the decisions of agents regarding staying in the labor market or dropping out. If there are costs to staying in the labor market, and we compare two networks of agents that are identical except that one group starts with a worse wage status, then that group's drop-out rate will be higher that the other's and there will be a persistent difference in wages between the groups.

Scientific, artistic, and professional work is increasingly performed in groups. In this study, we seek to understand the extent to which norms influence the composition of such groups. In particular, we analyze the effect of the alphabetical norm in academic citations on the composition of research teams in economics. First, we present a model of endogenous team formation given the alphabetical norm and analyze the effect of the norm on the desirability of any two individuals to conduct a joint project. We then examine the last names of co-authors from nearly 100 academic journals and find a significant difference between the matching behavior of authors who obey the alphabetical norm relative to authors who violate the norm. We interpret this finding as evidence that the alphabetical norm results in distortion of the composition of research teams.

This paper studies gender spillovers in career advancement using 11 years of employer-employee matched data on the population of white-collar workers at over 4,000 private-sector establishments in Norway. Our data include unusually detailed job information for each worker, which enables us to define seven hierarchical ranks that are consistent across establishments and over time in order to measure promotions (defined as year-to-year rank increases) even for individuals who change employers. We first find that women have significantly lower promotion rates than men across all ranks of the corporate hierarchy, even after controlling for a range of individual characteristics (age, education, tenure, experience) and including fixed effects for current rank, year, industry, and even work establishment. In measuring the effects of female coworkers, we find positive gender spillovers across ranks (flowing from higher-ranking to lower-ranking women) but negative spillovers within ranks. The finding that greater female representation at higher ranks narrows the gender gap in promotion rates at lower ranks suggests that policies that increase female representation in corporate leadership can have spillover benefits to women in lowers ranks.

The labour market in India has been segmented into a formal and informal sector. More than 85% of the labour force is engaged in the informal sector. Since the informal sector does not follow labour laws such as provisions of minimum wage and social security, there is enough scope for differential treatment against certain weaker sections of society. We term this differential treatment as structural disadvantage. In this paper, we find that structural disadvantage against ST/SC Hindus relative to Upper class Hindus and Upper class Hindus relative to that of Other religious minorities does exist in India. But is non-existent against Muslims given our specification. What is a cause for worry is that the dis-advantage against ST/SCs Hindus has been increasing overtime whereas against Upper Hindus has considerably fallen. Increase in better quality of middle and higher education along with more reservations for ST/SCs in education and in formal labour markets can go a long way to abate the the magnitude of structural dis-advantage.

A holdup problem on workers’ skill investment arises when employers can adopt discriminatory hiring norm to extract higher than socially optimal profit. In such an economy, productivity (skills) and non-productivity oriented characteristics (discrimination) both matter when determining which worker has priority. The resulting firms’ preference is an intertwined ranking order, by virtue of which the strategic interdependence in skill choices between discriminated and favored groups endogenously arises. We consider frictional markets with either posted or bargained wage. With posted wage, discrimination makes all workers worse off, firms gain. Through that payoff interdependence, we identify two effects along which one group’s underinvestment may benefit all groups. With bargained wage, the discriminated (favored) group is always worse (better) off, and firms incur cost for an intermediated range of bargaining power when they discriminate. This suggests that the holdup-discrimination problem can be mitigated when search is random and wages bargained, a result in the opposite direction of Acemoglu and Shimer (1999b).

We evaluate the role skin color plays in earnings and employment for black males in the NLSY97. By applying a novel, scaled measure of skin tone to a nationally representative sample and by estimating the evolution of labor market differentials over time, we bridge a burgeoning literature on skin color with more established literatures on wage differentials and labor market discrimination. We find that while intraracial wage gaps widen with experience, gaps between the lightest-skinned black workers and whites remain constant, suggesting that a blurring of the color line elicits subtle yet meaningful variation in earnings differentials over time. © 2015 The President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

We study the design of promotions in an organization where agents belong to groups that advance their cause. Examples and applications include political groups, ethnicities, agents motivated by the work in the public sector and corruption. In an overlapping generations model, juniors compete for promotions. Seniors have two kinds of discretion: direct discretion which allows an immediate advancement of their cause and promotion discretion ("patronage") which allows a biasing of the promotion decision in favour of the juniors from their group. We consider two possible goals of the principal, maximizing juniors' efforts and affecting the steady-state composition of the senior level towards the preferred group, and show that patronage may be strictly positive in both of them. We also apply the second setting to the case of corruption.

It is widely believed that international wage differences are a result of international productivity differences. That belief has been criticized by various economists for the differential in wages being much higher than in productivity. Another criticism has been that productivity increases in developing countries have tended to lead to lower world prices for their products and services, rather than to higher wages for their workers. The thesis of this article is that international wage differences are, to a large extent, caused by discrimination, rather than by productivity differences.

This article assesses explanations for the different way in which women participate in cooperatives as opposed to employee-owned companies (regardless of whether they are limited or not). It takes as its basis existing empirical evidence on female participation in these enterprises, evidence that reveals a considerable difference between the two in terms of data. In view of the fact that the social economy sector comprises a wide range of different enterprises founded for a number of very different reasons, we pose the question as to whether the different configuration of cooperatives and employee-owned companies impacts in any way on the extent to which women participate in one type of enterprise or another.

This paper investigates how the segregation of women and men into certain occupations, industries, firms and jobs within the firms is reflected in the gender wage gap in the Finnish manufacturing sector. Using matched employer-employee data we evaluate wage differentials between men and women doing the same kind of job for the same employer. This allows us to differentiate between wage differentials caused by human capital differences, wage differentials resulting from labour market segregation and within-job wage differentials. We find that at least half of the gender wage gap can be attributed to labour market segregation while human capital differences by sex account for less than 10 percent.

The main objective of this article is to analyse women’s and men’s relationships with work, especially with the labour market. It covers matters such as training, labour activity, unemployment, job segregation, remuneration and job insecurity. Although the analysis focuses on the labour environment, references to inequality in the distribution of unpaid work are inevitable because this lies behind much of the inequality in the labour market. The second part of the text first discusses the continuing inequality between women and men and the slow progress being made in achieving real equality. It then considers measures taken in recent years to eliminate gender inequality and pays special attention to a new, innovative proposal we consider of interest, the drafting of budgets from a gender point of view.

There are different policies for equality in employment, different “equality plans”, different guidelines, etc. at various levels (European, national, Autonomous Community, etc.) which aim to reduce inequality between men and women in labour matters, such as wages, employment rates, etc. Measures also exist in the social economy to achieve equality between men and women because this principle is behind the cooperation or cooperative principles on which the social economy is based.

Analysis of gender differences in the labour market has given rise to many theories aiming to explain the situation. Most of them are based on a neo-classical economic approach but some inter-disciplinary paradigms adopt a broader focus. This article first analyses empirical evidence from the Social Economy with regard to gender inequality. It then discusses the possible application of the main theories for explaining labour inequality between men and women in Social Economy entities, based on the specific structure of such organisations.

The research presented here studies the link between management style and the management of working teams in a sample of Valencian cooperatives with more than ten workers. It also studies gender-related management stereotypes and compares the perceptions of male and female managers. The conclusions indicate that the traditional stereotypes remain, although the gender variable is not the most appropriate way of classifying the perceptions of the people interviewed.

This paper concerns women’s representation in co-operatives, identifies if women’s representation influences and contributes to co-operatives´ development and is based on secondary data and on interviews conducted with four women managers. The study carries forward the exploration of a link between representation of women and the character and structure of co-operatives. Relations between the members of co-operatives are meant to anchor cooperatives economic and social values in the political process. Legitimised actors interact in order to secure their view of reality. Women are considered to take into account social issues and want to get power without wishing to control others but influence a sustainable development. They are considered to have a holistic view and try to understand the consequences their decisions have on other people and the development. In order to increase the representation of women in cooperatives, the following arguments are given: the issue of democracy, the issue of resource use, and the issue of interest. The results illustrate that women’s representation is a matter of increasing democracy and widening the basis for decision-making possibilities. It is a means to raise new questions, like social, cultural and environmental issues, and new dimensions of thinking and to consider everyone’s interest economic and social. My observations on the issue indicate that women as en interest group manifest different value dimensions. It is argued, it is particularly important to consider women’s interests and representation in co-operatives and thus create conditions allowing women influence cooperatives successful development and bring cooperative issues into the public eye.

Does it matter if you speak with a regional accent? Speaking immediately reveals something of one's own social and cultural identity, be it consciously or unconsciously. Perceiving accents involves not only reconstructing such imprints but also augmenting them with particular attitudes and stereotypes. Even though we know much about attitudes and stereotypes that are transmitted by, e.g. skin color, names or physical attractiveness, we do not yet have satisfactory answers how accent perception affects human behavior. How do people act in economically relevant contexts when they are confronted with regional accents? This paper reports a laboratory experiment where we address this question. Participants in our experiment conduct cognitive tests where they can choose to either cooperate or compete with a randomly matched male opponent identified only via his rendering of a standardized text in either a regional accent or standard accent. We find a strong connection between the linguistic performance and the cognitive rating of the opponent. When matched with an opponent who speaks the accent of the participant's home region – the in-group opponent –, individuals tend to cooperate significantly more often. By contrast, they are more likely to compete when matched with an accent speaker from outside their home region, the out-group opponent. Our findings demonstrate, firstly, that the perception of an out-group accent leads not only to social discrimination but also influences economic decisions. Secondly, they suggest that this economic behavior is not necessarily attributable to the perception of a regional accent per se, but rather to the social rating of linguistic distance and the in-group/out-group perception it evokes.

In this paper we use a large linked employer-employee data set on German establishments between 1993 and 2012 to investigate how the gender composition of the top layer of management affects a variety of establishment and worker outcomes. We use two different measures to identify the gender composition of the top layer based on direct survey data: the fraction of women among top managers, and the fraction of women among working proprietors. We document the following facts: a) There is a strong negative association between the fraction of women in the top layer of management and several establishment outcomes, among them business volume, investment, total wage bill per worker, total employment, and turnover; b) Establishments with a high fraction of women in the top layer of management are more likely to implement female-friendly policies, such as providing childcare facilities or promoting and mentoring female junior staff; c) The fraction of women in the top layer of management is also negatively associated with employment and wages, both male and female, full-time and part-time. However, all of these associations vanish when we include establishment fixed effects and establishment-specific time trends. This reveals a substantial sorting of female managers across establishments: small and less productive establishments that invest less, pay their employees lower wages, but are more female-friendly are more likely to be led by women.

While labor laws are supposed to be operational in a SEZ, they are almost entirely absent in practice. This study is based mainly on secondary data through the evaluative literature review method and study of published and unpublished empirical research work. Data sources have been the reports of ministries of the Government of India and research papers in national and international journals of repute. The study suggests that there are a few companies in all the zones that abide by labor laws and recognize workers’ basic rights as well as the importance of healthy industrial relations. While some fortunate, skilled employees benefit from this positive trend, thousands of others, try to earn their living in an atmosphere of unsecure employment and uncertainty, finds the author.

This literature review starts with a general discussion of young people and their various activities with special emphasis on youth unemployment and the outcome of alternative ways of measuring the prevalence of unemployment among young people. Thereafter the focus turns to measures targeted at young people based on the knowledge provided in relevant national as well as international literature. A distinction is thereby made between the role and impact of the education system, on the one hand, and active labour market policies (ALMP), on the other. The main reason for making this distinction is that early-year education and ALMP measures are typically targeted at differently aged young people. Apart from young people in general, attention is also paid to two special groups of young people: disabled young people and young immigrants. The review concludes with a discussion of main findings and their policy implications.

We investigate wage effects of deviations from peer group body mass index (BMI) to evaluate the influence of social norms on wages. Our approach allows to show the existence of the influence of the social norm and to disentangle it from any (anticipated) productivity effects associated with deviations from a clinically recommended BMI in certain sections of the weight distribution. Estimates of between-effects models for 9 European countries for the years 1998 to 2001 suggest that the influence of the social norm varies considerably between countries, and wage penalties are rather found for upward deviations from the norm and for men.

The informal sector plays an important role in employment creation and poverty reduction among female laborers in Vietnam. Currently, around 70 percent to 80 percent of women in Vietnam work in the informal sector, of which about 60 percent are in the agriculture and 20 percent are in the non-agricultural sectors that are mostly affiliated with small-size production and service units. By investigating the employment, earnings, and social protection policy on female labor in Vietnam’s informal sector, this research is able to answer the following research questions: 1) How important is the role of female labor in the informal sector? 2) What are the important factors that influence job opportunities for women in the informal sector? 3) What are the policy implications on female labor in Vietnam's informal sector? 4) What are the causes of work insecurities among females in Vietnam's informal sector? 5) What areas of social protection are most needed by women workers? 6) How does one address these principal needs for social protection among female workers?

We conduct a résumé audit to estimate the impact of unemployment and underemployment on the employment prospects facing recent college graduates. We find no evidence that employers use current or past unemployment spells, regardless of their length, to inform hiring decisions. By contrast, college graduates who became underemployed after graduation receive about 15-30 percent fewer interview requests than job seekers who became “adequately” employed after graduation. Internship experience obtained while completing one's degree reduces the negative effects of underemployment substantially.