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Summary: Allopolyploid speciation and chemical defense diversification are two of the most characteristic features of plant evolution; although the former has likely shaped the latter, this has rarely been documented. Here we document allopolyploidy‐mediated chemical defense evolution in the origin of cyanogenesis (HCN release upon tissue damage) in white clover (Trifolium repens).We combined linkage mapping of the loci that control cyanogenesis (Ac, controlling production of cyanogenic glucosides; and Li, controlling production of their hydrolyzing enzyme linamarase) with genome sequence comparisons between white clover, a recently evolved allotetraploid, and its diploid progenitors (Trifolium pallescens, Trifolium occidentale).The Ac locus (a three‐gene cluster comprising the cyanogenic glucoside pathway) is derived from T. occidentale; it maps to linkage group 2O (occidentale subgenome) and is orthologous to a highly similar cluster in the T. occidentale reference genome. By contrast, Li maps to linkage group 4P (pallescens subgenome), indicating an origin in the other progenitor species.These results indicate that cyanogenesis evolved in white clover as a product of the interspecific hybridization that created the species. This allopolyploidization‐derived chemical defense, together with subsequent selection on intraspecific cyanogenesis variation, appears to have contributed to white clover's ecological success as a globally distributed weed species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to determine the genetic diversity of Ficus salicifolia varieties collected from (Tamanrasset) Southern Algeria. Currently, little is known about the genetic variability between two varieties “Teloukat” and “Eucalyptoïdes”. Thirty-nine fig trees were examined by using six simple sequences repeat (SSR) markers. In total 64 alleles were observed in the samples of two varieties. The number of alleles per locus ranged from seven to eighteen, with an average of 10.66 alleles per locus. The mean values of heterozygosities observed and expected were 0.61 and 0.74 respectively. The positives Fis (Wright inbreeding coefficient) value obtained with (MFC2, MFC8, LMFC26, LMFC30 and FSYCO1) loci indicated deficiency of heterozygote. Considering the PIC (polymorphic information content) results, 5 markers (MFC2, MFC8, LMFC26, LMFC30 and FSYCO1) were classified as highly informative (PIC > 0.5). The phylogenetic diagram performed using the Unweighted Pair Grouping Method with Arithmetic average (UPGMA) showed significant intraspecific polymorphism between the two varieties which was confirmed by Factorial Correspondence Analysis (FCA). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skeletal structures, especially the claspers, neurocrania, and scapulocoracoids have been widely used to characterize and describe new species of elasmobranchs. Intra and interspecific variation of scapulocoracoids in 3 species of Psammobatis (n = 94) from the Southwest Atlantic Ocean were analyzed to assess its utility as a diagnostic character in skates. Moreover, based on scapulocoracoids and body morphometric analyses, the validity of Psammobatis parvacauda McEachran, 1983 was evaluated. A remarkable sexual dimorphism in scapulocoracoids was observed in all species in accordance with original descriptions, which was also evident in the principal component (PCA) and Discriminant Analyses. The number and arrangement of post-dorsal and post-ventral fenestra were highly variable at intra-specific level, in contrast with original descriptions. Particularly, one of the morphotypes observed in females of P. normani was identical to the one reported in P. parvacauda. Results showed intraspecific variation in this structure, as was previously observed in Sympterygia species. Therefore, this structure should not be used as a diagnostic character in skates, at least for these genera. Regarding body morphometry the PCA showed that P. parvacauda grouped with P. normani females and the cross-validated analysis showed that P. parvacauda was classified in the group of P. normani females. P. parvacauda is only known from its original description (one female) and a likely second specimen, but our analyses revealed a lack of diagnostic characteristics. Based on observations and measurements of the holotype of P. parvacauda, and comparisons with congenerics, P. normani is regarded a senior synonym of P. parvacauda.

We surveyed root endophytic fungi of the coastal halophyte Suaeda salsa and detected a population of a novel species that we described here as Laburnicola rhizohalophila sp. nov. No sexual sporulating structure was observed. Instead, it produced a large amount of thalloconidia, 0–1 transverse septa, hyaline to darkly pigmented, often peanut-shaped and sometimes dumbbell-shaped, both ends enlarged with numerous oil droplets inside the hyphal cells. Surprisingly, a high degree of phenotypic and physiological intraspecific variation (e.g., salinity tolerance, growth under different carbon:nitrogen ratios, and carbon utilization pattern) was recorded. The inoculation test indicated that the isolates could successfully infect host roots and form microsclerotia-like structures in cortical cells, a typical trait of dark septate endophytes (DSEs). Furthermore, most isolates were shown to promote host seedling growth. To evaluate conspecificity and infer its phylogenetic affinity, multiloci data including nuclear rRNA loci (ITS1 and 2, partial 28S), partial RNA Polymerase II second-largest subunit (rpb2), and partial translation elongation factor-1α (tef1) were characterized. Genealogical concordance phylogenetic species recognition (GCPSR) detected a genetically isolated clade of L. rhizohalophila within the Pleosporales in the Didymosphaeriaceae. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic reconstruction revealed that the endophytic fungus was genetically close to L aburnicola dactylidis but separated by a relatively long genetic distance. Our work highlights that the pleosporalean taxa might represent an underexplored reservoir of root DSEs. • Laburnicola rhizohalophila sp. nov. is a novel root dark septate endophyte (DSE). • This new fungus shows a high degree of intraspecific variations. • Pleosporalean taxa might represent an underexplored reservoir of root DSEs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitochondrial gene NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1), β-tubulin gene, and elongation factor 1-alpha (tef) were used to characterize and to identify 42 Lecanicillum spp. isolates (former complex species Verticillium lecanii Zimm. Viegas) and to study the phylogenetic relationships in this group. Within the isolates under investigation, Lecanicillium muscarium was the most common species (about 70% of all isolates, collected on the different hosts, predominantly on the insects from the order Hemiptera). Based on nad1 sequencing four main molecular haplotypes were revealed. All four haplotypes have Holarctic origin. Most of them were isolated in the Central part of Russia. One haplotype showed a specific association with the certain geographical area, limited to southwest Georgia and the Krasnodar Territory. For most strains their affiliation to species L. muscarium, L. longisporum, L. psalliotae, L. pissodes were confirmed by the phylogenetic tree, based on the combined sequences of nad1, β-tub, and tef genes. Only five strains of haplotype C and strain F-2643 could not be identified to any present Lecanicillium species and their position remains ambiguous. Thus, the use of multilocus molecular approach based on these genes was useful to identify the Lecanicillium species. Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) study evaluated a high diversity among the L. muscarium strains. The topology of the NJ-tree based on the ISSR-PCR markers has shown the genetic relationships with the support values 62-91% between L. muscarium isolates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clubroot is a soil-borne disease caused by the protist Plasmodiophora brassicae (P. brassicae). It is one of the most economically important diseases of Brassica rapa and other cruciferous crops as it can cause remarkable yield reductions. Understanding P. brassicae genetics, and developing efficient molecular markers, is essential for effective detection of harmful races of this pathogen. Samples from 11 Korean field populations of P. brassicae (geographic isolates), collected from nine different locations in South Korea, were used in this study. Genomic DNA was extracted from the clubroot-infected samples to sequence the ribosomal DNA. Primers and probes for P. brassicae were designed using a ribosomal DNA gene sequence from a Japanese strain available in GenBank (accession number AB526843; isolate NGY). The nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequence of P. brassicae, comprising 6932 base pairs (bp), was cloned and sequenced and found to include the small subunits (SSUs) and a large subunit (LSU), internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2), and a 5.8s. Sequence variation was observed in both the SSU and LSU. Four markers showed useful differences in high-resolution melting analysis to identify nucleotide polymorphisms including single- nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), oligonucleotide polymorphisms, and insertions/deletions (InDels). A combination of three markers was able to distinguish the geographical isolates into two groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] The first analysis of 27 newly sampled P. putrinum strains by two DNA fragments. [•] P. putrinum forms a well separated cluster, divided into five haplogroups. [•] Particular haplogroups may correspond to cryptic species. [•] Their spatial distribution support the both endemicity and ubiquity models with a bias towards the latter. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

New stands of Paramecium tredecaurelia, a rare species of the P. aurelia spp. complex, were identified in Thailand and Madagascar on the basis of mating reactions and molecular markers (rDNA and mtDNA). Analysis of DNA fragments showed that all P. tredecaurelia strains, the recently recorded ones and the ones known previously from France, Mexico, and Israel, form a monophyletic and well-defined clade in the P. aurelia species trees. All of these strains, collected from different localities around the world, represent identical or nearly identical haplotypes in terms of all the studied DNA fragments. Given the huge distances between particular collection sites, such a low level of variability of the studied sequences may result from a slow rate of evolution in P. tredecaurelia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paramecium jenningsi(Diller & Earl, 1958) was formerly considered to be a species with only one syngen (genetic species) based on an inter-strain cross of two strains, cytological analysis, and an investigation of esterases and acid phosphatases. However, the existence of syngens within the species was later suggested by genetic studies, i.e. classical strain crosses of new strains and molecular PCR-based analyses (RAPD, RFLP), as well as by sequencing theH4gene fragment. This issue still needs to be clarified by the application of molecular markers, genetic tests and cytological preparations. In the present study, we tested 12 strains ofP. jenningsioriginating from Asia, North America and Africa. Trees reconstructed on the basis of three genome fragments (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2-5’LSU,COIandCytB) show thatP. jenningsiis divided into two distinct clusters (PJ1, PJ3) and one branch (PJ2) which correspond to reproductively isolated groups revealed by strain crosses. A study based both on strain crosses and a three-locus comparison gives the opportunity for a more complete identification of the reproductively isolated populations ofP. jenningsiand other ciliate species. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Previous study elicited three morphologically distinct forms of Undaria pinnatifida in Peter the Great Bay (Sea of Japan), which were represented by one or more populations. It was supposed that their specific morphology is plastic response to the local environment. In the present study, we used molecular data in order to examine directly the degree of genetic similarity between these morphs. We performed amplified fragment length polymorphism and microsatellite analyses. In addition, offspring of these forms were cultivated in the same environments. It was shown that genetic polymorphism of U. pinnatifida in Peter the Great Bay is low. The genetic distance among five populations representing three forms of U. pinnatifida did not exceed 0.2. The offspring of three forms grown in the same environmental conditions became, in general, morphologically similar. Combination of genetic analysis and cultivation in the same environmental conditions of three morphologically different forms of U. pinnatifida from Peter the Great Bay suggested that their specific morphology is not genetically fixed and is the result of ontogenetic adaptation to the local environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifying and understanding the causes of population differentiation in plants are critical for assessing the taxonomic structure of species, as the level of differentiation among populations may correspond to incipient speciation. Using linear and geometric morphometric approaches, phenotypic variation and associations between leaf traits and geographic and environmental characteristics were investigated in Helichrysum crassifolium and the widespread and sympatric Helichrysum pendulum: two species exhibiting conspicuous leaf variation in size and shape. The morphometric results show that both species have distinct patterns of leaf shape variation. However, overlapping values link the ranges of variation: a significant variance is explained by within-individual and population differentiation, and some environmental variables are moderately correlated with leaf shape parameters in both species. The fact that reproductive barriers between both species are weak, and that the morphological plasticity detected in both species appears to be non-adaptive, and to a high extent non-environmentally induced, allow us to postulate that the variations observed could be mediated by hybridization processes. Our results suggest that niche differentiation, which involves the colonization of a specialized rupicolous habitat, does not necessarily lend itself as an effective strong reproductive barrier between closely related species. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 106, 498-513. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paramecium calkinsi (Ciliophora, Protozoa) is a euryhaline species which was first identified in freshwater habitats, but subsequently several strains were also collected from brackish water. It is characterized by clockwise spiral swimming movement and the general morphology of the “bursaria type.” The present paper is the first molecular characterization of P. calkinsi strains recently collected in distant regions in Russia using ITS1-5.8S- ITS2-5′LSU rDNA (1100bp) and COI (620bp) mtDNA sequenced gene fragments. For comparison, our molecular analysis includes P. bursaria, exhibiting a similar “bursaria morphotype” as well as species representing the “aurelia type,” i.e., P. caudatum, P. multimicronucleatum, P. jenningsi, and P. schewiakoffi, and some species of the P. aurelia species complex (P. primaurelia, P. tetraurelia, P. sexaurelia, and P. tredecaurelia). We also use data from GenBank concerning other species in the genus Paramecium and Tetrahymena (which used as an outgroup). The division of the genus Paramecium into four subgenera (proposed by Fokin et al. 2004) is clearly presented by the trees. There is a clear separation between P. calkinsi strains collected from different regions (races). Consequently, given the molecular distances between them, it seems that these races may represent different syngens within the species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plasmodiophora brassicae is a soil-borne obligate intracellular parasite in the phylum Cercozoa of the Rhizaria that causes clubroot disease of crucifer crops. To control the disease, understanding the distribution and infection routes of the pathogen is essential, and thus development of reliable molecular markers to discriminate geographic populations is required. In this study, the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) repeat unit of P. brassicae was determined, with particular emphasis on the structure of large subunit (LSU) rDNA, in which polymorphic regions were expected to be present. The complete rDNA complex was 9513bp long, which included the small subunit, 5.8S and LSU rDNAs as well as the internal transcribed spacer and intergenic spacer regions. Among eight field populations collected from throughout Honshu Island, Japan, a 1.1 kbp region of the LSU rDNA, including the divergent 8 domain, exhibited intraspecific polymorphisms that reflected geographic isolation of the populations. Two new group I introns were found in this region in six out of the eight populations, and the sequences also reflected their geographic isolation. The polymorphic region found in this study may have potential for the development of molecular markers for discrimination of field populations/isolates of this organism. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Research on intraspecific variation in ciliates is scarce, and in scuticociliate parasite of fish, virtually nonexistent. In this study, seven isolates obtained from turbots affected by scuticociliatosis in different parts of the Iberian Peninsula (northwest Spain and southwest Portugal) were morphologically and genetically characterized to investigate the intraspecific divergence in these amphizoic ciliates. The isolates were stained with ammoniacal silver carbonate and examined in an optical microscope; all were found to have the typical morphological characteristics described for Philasterides dicentrarchi (syn. Miamiensis avidus). Sixteen biometric characteristics of the seven isolates were used in a canonical discrimination analysis (CDA) to select a subset of those that best identified each isolate. Discriminant analysis indicated that the OPK3 width, length of the PM2, length of the buccal field, the body width, L:W ratio, the body length, the OPK1 width and the distance between OPK2 and OPK3 were the most important morphological variables for discriminating the isolates. The first three canonical functions accounted for 86% of the total variance. The scatter plots of the first two canonical variables grouped and separated the P. dicentrarchi isolates into five clusters. Flow cytometry analysis of isolates also indicated intraspecific polymorphisms among P. dicentrarchi isolates. Nuclear markers (a 349-bp and a 390-bp fragment of 18S rRNA and β-tubulin genes) and a 398-bp of the mitochondrial cytocrome oxidase subunit I (Cox1) gene were then used to investigate the intraspecific genetic variation in P. dicentrarchi. Haplotype analysis and neighbour-joining phylogenies of nucleotide sequences of seven isolates revealed a high degree of intraspecific genetic variation among the isolates. Analysis of Cox1 and β-tubulin genes revealed six haplotypes (and clusters) in both cases; however, analysis of the 18S rRNA gene revealed only two haplotypes. The results show clear intraspecific variation at morphological and genetic levels in the scuticociliate P. dicentrarchi, and verify the suitability of mitochondrial (Cox1) and nuclear (β-tubulin) genes for detecting intraspecific genetic variation within populations of scuticociliates that infect cultured turbot. The existence of this intraspecific variation must be taken into account in the design of an effective vaccine to control scuticociliatosis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Intraspecific polymorphism of CHLI 2, which codes for subunit I of the Mg-chelatase complex involved in Mg-protoporphyrin IX synthesis, was investigated in 19 ecotypes of Arabidopsis thaliana. Sequence divergence by 35 nucleotides was found. Nucleotide substitutions in 12 out of the 35 positions result in amino acid changes in the functionally significant C-terminal domain of the protein. Of the two divergent sequence haplogroups identified, haplogroup Col displayed an excess of low-frequency polymorphisms, suggesting the effect of purifying selection and a functional significance of CHLI 2. The results suggest a difference in evolutionary dynamics for CHLI 1 and CHLI 2, which determine different forms of subunit I of the Mg-chelatase complex in A. thaliana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the sea-horse Hippocampus ramulosus Leach 1814 in Tunisia. It notes that 1773 sea-horses were gathered from June 2002 to June 2005. It mentions the from that sample, three studies were carried out including the examination of variance and mean of morphological characters using the Student's T-test, while the second and third study were submitted to multivariate and multidimensional analysis.

A case of fungal keratitis is presented in which corneal scrapings were obtained for microbiological studies, including morphological identification and molecular characterization of the etiologic agent. Comparative sequence analyses of the Internal Transcribed Spacer domain of 5.8S and 26S regions of nuclear rDNA showed 100% identity with different species of Alternaria and PCR-RFLP analysis of Intergenic Spacer regions revealed intraspecific variation. The combination of morphological and molecular characters resulted in the unambiguous identification of the causal agent as Alternaria alternata. Treatment with antifungals contributed to the improvement in the patient's lesions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AFLP profiles, nuclear ITS sequences, and chloroplast psbA-trnH intergenic spacer sequences for representative samples of the New Zealand edelweiss species Leucogenes grandiceps, L. leontopodium, L. neglecta, and L. tarahaoa were examined. Analysis of AFLP profiles from a small number of populations strongly groups samples of each species, and in turn samples of diploid (2n = 2x = 28) L. leontopodium and tetraploid (2n = 4x = 56) L. neglecta cluster together, consistent with a derivation of the latter from the former by autopolyploidy. However, octoploid (2n = 8x = 112) L. tarahaoa does not cluster closely with either L. neglecta or L. leontopodium, indicating this species has an independent origin. Analyses of chloroplast DNA sequences show that although the majority of Leucogenes samples share similar chloroplast sequences not sampled from other species of New Zealand Gnaphalieae, a single accession of L. grandiceps and North island populations of L. leontopodium share chloroplast sequences more similar to other species of New Zealand Gnaphalieae. ITS sequence variation is more complex, with sequences sampled from Leucogenes not constituting a monophyletic group, and striking intraspecific variation detected within L. grandiceps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The trnL- trnF spacer region of the chloroplast tRNA genes was sequenced and characterized in 14 accessions of the genus Spirodela (Lemnaceae). Only a low intraspecific variation of the spacer was observed in geographically isolated and morphologically different accessions of S. polyrrhiza, the most widespread Spirodela species. Five haplotypes of the spacer were identified, differing in mono-and oligonucleotide repeats and extended indels, specific to S. polyrrhiza, Landoltia punctata, and Lemna sp. The result supported the isolation of Landoltia from Spirodela. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

C- mos is a highly conserved intronless gene that has proved useful in the analysis of ancient phylogenetic relationships within vertebrates. We selected the Iberian endemic Schreiber's green lizard ( Lacerta schreiberi) that persisted in allopatric refugia since the late Pliocene to investigate the utility of the C- mos nuclear gene for intraspecific phylogeographic studies. Our combination of DNA sequencing with the high resolving power of single-strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) effectively discriminated four common alleles showing strong population structuring ( FST = 0.46). In addition, reconstruction of allele phylogenetic relationships further improved our understanding of C- mos spatial patterns of variation and allowed a comparison with previously described mitochondrial DNA data. Finally, limited sequencing of an extended C- mos fragment in six additional Lacerta species showed extensive polymorphism, to our knowledge representing a rare example of variation in a highly conserved nuclear gene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phylogeographic and population genetic screens of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) provide insights into seed-based gene flow in angiosperms, yet studies are frequently hampered by the low mutation rate of this genome. Detection methods for intraspecific variation can be either direct (DNA sequencing) or indirect (PCR–RFLP), although no single method incorporates the best features of both approaches. We show that screening universal chloroplast amp li cons for length polymorphism provides an accurate and efficient method for identifying cpDNA variation. By sequencing 4500 bp of cpDNA from 17 accessions of Purshia tridentata (bitterbrush), we detected 9 haplotypes, 8 of which were identifiable by unique multilocus length combinations resolvable by automated fragment analysis. In silico estimates of PCR–RFLP for these loci show that 5 haplotypes would be resolved by agarose electrophoresis. A survey of 4 intraspecific data sets from diverse angiosperms revealed that length variation in cpDNA amplicons is nearly ubiquitous, and 61 of 67 haplotypes identified by direct sequencing could be identified by screening length variation. Combined with automated fluorescent detection, length polymorphism screening of universal cpDNA regions offers a simple screen for intraspecific variation that can be used across angiosperms with minimal optimization, providing detection limits that rival direct sequencing at a fraction of the cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nucleotide sequence of the fragment of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of rDNA comprising the full-length ITS1, the gene encoding 5.8S rRNA, and part of the ITS2 sequence was determined in 22 samples of five diploidAegilopsspecies. The full alignment length of compared sequences was 524 bp. Species-specific substitutions were found in the ITS nucleotide sequence of rDNA of differentAegilopsspecies. Intraspecific differences in ITS structure in diploidAegilopsspecies were detected for the first time. Polymorphism of the ITS nucleotide sequence within the same sample was revealed, which might be due either to differences between the genomes of individual plants comprising the sample or to the presence of several types of ribosomal genes in the genome of one plant. In general, both interspecific and intraspecific variability of the ITS nucleotide sequences of rDNA is extremely low. In total, 26 variable sites, twelve of which were informative, were identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The DNA sequences of GapC intron 8 were determined for three closely related Abies species, Abies firma, Abies homolepis and Abies veitchii, and ten alleles were identified. Although, in most cases, an allele was specifically detected in one species, some rare alleles were found in two species. The phylogenetic analysis of those alleles showed that they trace back to different ancestral sequences, and that a species possessed the different originated alleles. The polymorphism of the GapC gene observed in the three Abies species seemed to have preceded their evolutionary divergence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By using restriction endonuclease digestion patterns, the degree of intraspecific polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA in four diploid species of wheat and Aegilops, Ae. speltoides, Ae. longissima, Ae. squarrosa, and Triticum monococcum, was assessed. The outbreeding Ae. speltoides was found to possess the highest degree of variability, the mean number of nucleotide substitutions among conspecific individuals being 0.027 substitutions per nucleotide site. A very low degree of mtDNA variation was detected among Ae. longissima accessions, with most of the enzyme-probe combinations exhibiting uniform hybridization patterns. The mean number of substitutions among Ae. longissima individuals was 0.001 substitutions per nucleotide site. The domesticated diploid wheat T. monococcum var. monococcum and its conspecific variant T. monococcum var. boeoticum seem to lack mitochondrial DNA variability altogether. Thus, the restriction fragment pattern can be used as a characteristic identifier of the T. monococcum cytoplasmic genome. Similarly, Ae. squarrosa accessions were found to be genetically uniform. A higher degree of variation among accessions is observed when noncoding sequences are used as probes then when adjacent coding regions are used. Thus, while noncoding regions may contain regulatory functions, they are subject to less stringent functional constraints than protein-coding regions. Intraspecific variation in mitochondrial DNA correlates perfectly with the nuclear variability detected by using protein electrophoretic characters. This correlation indicates that both types of variation are selectively neutral and are affected only by the effective population size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses a set of universal primers for mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA in plants. The authors uses DNA from fresh leaves and buds for the creation of template that can be utilized in gene altered evolution. Oak tree primers are used for both insertion and deletions of chloroplast fragments and European Beech tree, despite mitochondrial fragments not showing differences that revealed polymorphism within Q. robur complex. It is concluded that oak family has slow rate of evolution. It is stated that in the future it will be necessary to increase mitochondrial primers to diversify the primers and enhance evolution.

Batesian mimics that show similar coloration to unpalatable models gain a fitness advantage of reduced predation. Beyond physical similarity, mimics often exhibit behaviour similar to their models, further enhancing their protection against predation by mimicking not only the model's physical appearance but also activity. In butterflies, there is a strong correlation between palatability and flight velocity, but there is only weak correlation between palatability and flight path. Little is known about how Batesian mimics fly. Here, we explored the flight behaviour of four butterfly species/morphs: unpalatable model Pachliopta aristolochiae, mimetic and non-mimetic females of female-limited mimic Papilio polytes, and palatable control Papilio xuthus. We demonstrated that the directional change (DC) generated by wingbeats and the standard deviation of directional change (SDDC) of mimetic females and their models were smaller than those of non-mimetic females and palatable controls. Furthermore, we found no significant difference in flight velocity among all species/morphs. By showing that DC and SDDC of mimetic females resemble those of models, we provide the first evidence for the existence of behavioural mimicry in flight path by a Batesian mimic butterfly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]