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The article deals with the issues of prospects for increasing the level of protection of interests in the field of customs security of Ukraine, including through the expansion of institutional capacity of the Sta Customs Service in the field of law enforcement. The author analyses the existing functional powers of customs authorities in the field of combating criminal offences related to illegal movement of goods and items across the border. The current state and mechanisms of implementation of measures to combat smuggling and other crimes at the border are investigated. The importance of granting domestic customs authorities the right to carry out operational and search activities and conduct pre-trial investigations in smuggling cases is considered in detail. It is noted that after the entry into force of amendments to the legislation criminalising smuggling of goods, almost all law enforcement agencies in Ukraine, except for customs, have the authority to counter smuggling. At the same time, they are the only ones who can directly detect the facts of concealment of goods, objects and substances from customs control or movement outside customs control. The author emphasises that the customs administrations of almost all European countries have the powers of criminal prosecution and the right to conduct operational and investigative actions, which significantly increases the effectiveness of combating such crimes. Accordingly, without similar powers, the customs service of our country cannot count on a full partnership. The author emphasises the requirements and recommendations of the World Customs Organisation regarding the formation of institutional capacities of national customs administrations with the inclusion of the widest possible and unified range of law enforcement functions in their powers. The expansion of procedural powers will enable the Ukrainian customs service to become an equal partner in the interaction and exchange of intelligence with similar services of other countries in the fight against commercial fraud and drug trafficking. It is emphasised that the ability to detect illegal acts related to smuggling of goods, including through the use of operational and investigative measures, will enable customs authorities to ensure prompt and high-quality investigation of criminal offences and prosecution of both direct perpetrators and organisers of crimes. Ways of implementing international standards in the field of law enforcement procedures to strengthen border security are highlighted. An additional argument for the expansion of such opportunities is that the prospect of membership in the European Union imposes on Ukraine the task of protecting not only its own customs interests, but also the eastern borders of the EU as a whole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the content and level of human rights protection in the activities of the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine. It analyzes various aspects of the border agency’s operations, including organizational and legal foundations, methods and forms of control, and personnel training. The importance of clarifying the content of international human rights documents and standards for the effective work of border guard agencies and units is thoroughly discussed. The authors emphasize that knowledge and understanding of these provisions are crucial for law enforcement officers in their daily activities. Emphasis is placed on the fact that understanding the requirements of these documents helps ensure that the actions of the border agency comply with international standards and norms regarding human rights protection. Additionally, it is noted that such activities contribute to the formation of appropriate approaches and behavior among law enforcement officers when dealing with citizens, detaining individuals, and resolving conflict situations. Accordingly, understanding and utilizing international standards is an important element in the professional activities of border guards to ensure the protection of human rights and freedoms. Various approaches and strategies that can be applied to ensure and protect human rights and freedoms during the operational activities of the border service are analyzed. Possible ways to further enhance the effectiveness of this work are highlighted, including improving legislation, increasing personnel qualifications, and implementing new methods and technologies for working with people. Attention is drawn to the importance of developing and implementing a comprehensive approach to ensuring human rights and freedoms in the activities of the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine, which takes into account various aspects of its functioning and human needs. Such an approach allows optimizing the work of the service with maximum protection of citizens’ rights and freedoms. The conclusion is made about the necessity of restructuring the relationship between border guards and people on the basis of partnership, as well as improving the forms, methods, and means of ensuring human rights and freedoms. It is important that the service personnel adhere to international human rights standards in their activities and continually enhance their competence in this area. The need to improve the efficiency of the border service requires a thorough and systematic scientific analysis of its organizational and legal foundations in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines key aspects related to threats to freedom of speech in the online environment, particularly censorship and persecution. The author explores tools that help protect this freedom, restore access to information and expressions that have been restricted. Special attention is given to the role of international standards in the field of human rights and their importance in ensuring freedom of speech in the digital age. The author analyzes innovative approaches and technologies used to protect internet users from censorship and online persecution. The research reflects current trends in the field of information freedom and offers recommendations for further steps to support the values of democracy and human rights in the digital space. Overall, the article analyzes the impact of social media and other online platforms on freedom of speech and expression. It highlights the role of digital literacy and education in shaping users’ awareness of their rights and opportunities on the Internet. Ethical aspects of using freedom of speech in the online environment and the importance of balancing freedom of expression with protection against negative influence and discrimination are also considered. Analyzing innovative approaches and technologies for protecting freedom of speech in the online environment, the article emphasizes current trends in information freedom. The results and recommendations of the article can serve as a basis for the development of policies and programs aimed at protecting the values of democracy and human rights in the digital age. This research can also assist government bodies, civil society, and IT companies in their efforts to protect freedom of speech and raise awareness among users about their rights and opportunities on the Internet. Such an approach reinforces the role of science and research in addressing important issues in the modern world, particularly in the realm of digital freedom and human rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the approaches towards understanding the concept of the electoral system, which may be the subject of research outside the field of law. The author distinguishes different opinions of foreign and Ukrainian scholars on the term “electoral system”, in particular, narrow and broad interpretation. The author analyzes the elements which inherently fill and reveal the concept of the electoral system. The article provides an overview of scientific research and concepts that study electoral systems, including the works of prominent Ukrainian and foreign scholars, as well as documents of international organizations and institutions. The author analyzes different approaches to the interpretation of the concept of “electoral system”, its legal nature and key elements that have a significant impact on the formation of elected bodies and the organization of electoral processes, and further establishment of democratic principles. The author presents various positions on the elements through which the concept of the electoral system is revealed, such as the electoral formula, electoral district, method of expressing the will of voters, structure of the ballot and the process of filling it out, method of voting, etc. The author shows the importance of these elements and how they are reflected in the definition and modification of different types of electoral systems. The author emphasizes the need for further study of the concept of an electoral system and its systemforming elements, which allow constructing an appropriate type of electoral system, in the context of Ukraine’s experience in organizing and conducting elections. This will have a positive impact on the process of improving the electoral systems used in the formation of elected bodies at the legislative level, which will consequently contribute to ensuring greater transparency of a number of electoral procedures, obtaining fair results and minimizing the risks of their distortion. The author outlines the problem of periodic unsystematic changes in electoral systems in the formation of elected bodies in Ukraine, which in turn generates negative trends in the decline of citizens’ electoral culture, trust in the results of voters’ expression of will and unpredictable consequences in the socio-political context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The International Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Reference Center launches annual global HPV genotyping proficiency panels to enhance the precision and international standardization of HPV genotyping services. This study aims to assess the proficiency levels achieved in the global HPV genotyping proficiency panels conducted in 2022 and 2023, and to evaluate trends in performance over time. The proficiency panels comprised 44 blinded samples each, including 40 samples containing various purified plasmids corresponding to HPV types combined with human DNA, plus four control samples (one negative control and three extraction controls). Proficiency required a sensitivity of 50 International Units (IU)/5 µL for HPV 16 and HPV 18 500 IU/5 µL for HPVs 6, 11, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58 and 500 genome equivalents (GE)/5 µL for other HPV types in both single and multiple infections, while avoiding false positivity. In 2022, 78 laboratories submitted a total of 154 data sets, and in 2023, 81 laboratories contributed 141 data sets. Most data sets (87%, 258/295) utilized commercially available HPV assays. Proficiency was common, with 77% of data sets meeting the proficiency criteria in 2022 and 79% in 2023. False positive results significantly decreased from 22% in 2022 to 13% in 2023. The high proficiency and increasing specificity in HPV genotyping services indicates progress toward more reliable HPV testing. High accuracy is crucial for supporting global efforts in HPV and cervical cancer elimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss environmental, social and governance (ESG) considerations in international development projects, especially those funded by the World Bank and International Finance Corporation (IFC). Their social safeguard policies were adopted because of neglect of social impacts by projects. Although development assistance goals have shifted from economic growth towards poverty reduction and shared prosperity, mitigating adverse impacts of projects does not necessarily address the multiple dimensions of poverty or the Sustainable Development Goals. 'Do no harm' has limited ability to achieve social development objectives. Instead, a significant contribution to international development could come by embedding community investment in the environmental and social frameworks of international financial institutions, and social impact assessment and international development practise. This would ensure that projects contribute to improving the lives of project affected peoples. We propose changes to the IFC Performance Standards that could be implemented by other multilateral development banks and in the Equator Principles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Preamble of the Constitution of Cameroon Indent 17 affirms the Nation's aim to protect and promote the family which is the natural foundation of human society as well as protecting women and the young. Families generally start with marriage. Protecting the family therefore implies protecting marriage which goes by setting rules for its validity and maintenance. For a marriage to be valid, parties must fulfil formalities and have capacity. Capacity to marry determines whether an individual may legally be entitled to get married or not. The minimum age for marriage is a key component of capacity to marry as no marriage is valid if contracted under that age. This stems from the fact that age determines other criteria such as the capacity to give valid consent and to comprehend marriage's commitments. Setting the minimum age for marriage is a requirement enshrined in all relevant international human rights instruments ratified by Cameroon. The question is as to whether Cameroon's domestic law on marriage complies with international standards. In order to tackle that question, the exegetic method has been used to extract the contents of the relevant international and national instruments, analyse and interpret them in order to determine whether and, if so, to what extent the Cameroonian law on marriage complies with international standards relating to the minimum age for marriage. It is found out that while Cameroonian law complies with some aspects of international standards, it is still lacking in others and that, the only solution is to amend the existing law so that it may fully comply with international precepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The limit behaviour of I-shaped welded steel cross-sections subjected to axial force, shear, and bending moment is a crucial matter to ascertain the reliability of framed structures constituted by non-standard beam elements. International standards provide an approximate solution to the problem, and other studies have proposed improved approximate formulations to ascertain the real features of the relevant cross-sections. The present paper is devoted to enhancing the problem of the limit behaviour of plane I-shaped welded steel cross-sections subjected to axial force N , shear T and bending moment M ; therefore, new appropriate formulations are proposed in order to define suitable new domains, both in planes N , T , N , M , and M , T and in the space N , T , M . The material is assumed as elastic–perfectly plastic and the Von Mises limit condition is adopted as the resistance criterion. The elastic stresses are described by the Navier formula and the Jourawski formula. The limit stress condition related to the contemporaneous presence of the acting forces is defined as the one that, at each point of the cross-section, fulfils the Von Mises limit condition as equality. The formulation is rigorously devoted to factory-made welded I-shaped steel cross-sections. Some numerical examples are reported in the application stage and useful comparison are carried out, with the results being obtainable by the application of the classical known standard formulae, proving the reliability and effectiveness of the determined domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article carries out a systematic and critical analysis of doctrinal sources of existing systems of human rights protection in international and national Islamic (Muslim) law. The scientific approaches of Ukrainian and foreign international lawyers, researchers of comparative jurisprudence regarding the nature and essential characteristics of Muslim law, Islamic law, relevant legal systems and legal families of the modern world are singled out. Although there is considerable scientific interest in the issues of human rights protection in international law, national legislation of Ukraine and law enforcement practice, not enough attention is paid to the systems, mechanisms, subjects of human rights protection in Islamic (Muslim) law. In the existing studies, the emphasis is mainly on the general theoretical, historical and comparative legal features of the development of Islamic law, the Muslim legal family, but there are practically no scientific studies on the specifics of the protection of human rights and freedoms in certain areas, the implementation of international universal and regional standards on human rights in national legislation of Islamic (Muslim) states, guarantees and mechanisms for the protection of human rights and freedoms, judicial practice. The effects of such processes as globalization and regionalization, integration, as well as the interaction of existing legal systems at different levels turned out to be regular. The influence of European legal traditions, the experience of reforming national and supranational scales in the field of human rights protection in the European region, which was reflected in both the international legal doctrine and the legal doctrine of the studied states, the modernization of political and legal views, in particular regarding the revision of the elements modern and traditional, effective and dogmatic in the direction of protecting the rights of women and children, expanding the forms of international human rights cooperation etc. It is important to draw attention to the regional systems of human rights protection in international and national Islamic (Muslim) law, to consider the issue of their identity and effectiveness, their relationship with other international regional and universal, supranational systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to issues of international standards for the use of coercive measures by police authorities. It is noted that the main goal of reforming law enforcement agencies in our country, which has chosen the path of European and Euro-Atlantic integration, is to improve their activities by ensuring proper protection of the rights and legitimate interests of citizens, as well as an emphasis on the prevention and prevention of offenses. To achieve this goal, it is important to introduce international standards and practical experience of foreign police bodies into the national legislation of Ukraine, as well as their effective implementation in the practice of law enforcement agencies. This will not only contribute to the development of the rule of law, but will also improve the international image of our country. Attention is focused on the fact that when analyzing international legal documents, it is important to note that in accordance with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment and Punishment, adopted by the UN General Assembly, as well as the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment and Punishment, recognition of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human community is the basis of freedom, justice and universal peace. Since the use of coercive measures by the police affects the protection of human rights and freedoms, police activities should be organized in accordance with the main international standards developed in this direction. It noted that in most of the disputed use-of-force incidents, the officers could not be blamed because their actions were consistent with the specific training they had received. Thus, in the training of US police officers, special attention is paid to training through realistic exercises that reflect the different types of situations that police officers may encounter. It was concluded that the police in the democratic countries of the world focus their activities on ensuring human rights and freedoms through crime prevention, crime prevention and crime fighting, introducing new methods and modern technological means. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The national legal order is a broad, multifaceted, multi-level and complex formation that is formed and maintained by two counter interests generated by both civil society and the state. At the same time, the interests should not be antagonistic, since both society and the state are objectively striving for order, which creates the necessary conditions for orderly existence, safe existence of all elements of the state mechanism and each individual, organization to solve urgent problems, predictability of the future, and sustainable functioning with the help of social and legal norms. Among the features of the national legal order, the most important is strict civil discipline, which, among other things, is ensured by all means of the state, up to the use of coercion. The national legal order is closely related to the international legal order, but there should be a reasonable balance between them, which is achieved through creative thinking, perception of foreign experience and establishment of the process of effective implementation of international law into the national legal system. Under the national legal order as a whole, the author analyzes a reliable state of legal orderliness in all spheres of society’s life, which implies the establishment of a reasonable and fair legal order based on international standards and legal norms of the existing branches of law in the State. On this basis, the article examines the key points of interaction between public international law and the national legal order throughout history. By focusing on the changes that have occurred in this regard during different historical periods, the article aims to determine the impact of public international law on the structure and functioning of national legal systems. This article provides an insight into the relationship between public international law and the national legal order, taking into account historical contexts and contemporary realities. The author reveals key aspects that help to understand the evolution of this important area of international legal development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fundamental rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of a person, being subject to the greatest restrictions during criminal proceedings, are guaranteed by the existence of substantive and procedural rules in the legislation aimed at protecting, defending and implementing procedural guarantees of participants in criminal proceedings. The dynamics of social, political, economic and legal life, the social mentality of today, as well as convergence processes determine the adaptation of national criminal procedure legislation to International law. However, the issues of adaptation of national legislation to the provisions of foreign legislation in terms of guaranteeing each participant in criminal proceedings the protection, defence and realisation of their rights, freedoms and legitimate interests in accordance with international standards remain controversial. At the same time, there are a number of gaps and inconsistencies in the provisions of the criminal procedure legislation, the gradual elimination of which will allow Ukraine to reach the international level as a state that guarantees each participant in criminal proceedings the protection, defence and exercise of their rights, freedoms and legitimate interests in accordance with European standards, as well as reduce the number of applications to the European Court of Human Rights. Based on the results of the study, and on the basis of a selective analysis of foreign experience of certain countries, the article identifies the existing problematic issues related to the guarantee of the rights of participants to criminal proceedings, and also formulates proposals for improving criminal procedure legislation in this area, using international experience. The problematic areas of guaranteeing the rights of participants to criminal proceedings include the legal status of individual participants to criminal proceedings, compensation for damages, and the use of procedural terminology. In order to improve and bring the criminal procedure legislation of Ukraine closer to international standards in terms of protection, safeguarding and realisation of the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of participants in criminal proceedings, the following proposals have been presented: to establish a unit, body or organisation for the protection of the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests of witnesses with the development of appropriate programmes for their protection; to introduce the use of separate procedural terminology; to develop a procedure for granting and exercising the right to free legal aid to victims, civilians as well as the procedure for compensation for damage caused by a criminal offence.

By encouraging businesses to report on sustainable development, information about the impact of companies' activities on the environment is becoming increasingly available to all stakeholders. Given that the integrated report contains more qualitative and quantitative, subjective and prospective information about the company's values, traditional approaches used during the audit of financial statements may not provide adequate assurance about the reliability of the integrated report data. The article aims to reveal the conceptual foundations of providing integrated reporting assurance by analyzing the development of regulatory support for this process. The features and advantages of the integrated reporting assurance were disclosed. It was revealed that the main factor in developing the concept of providing integrated reporting assurance is the standardization processes of such a service, both at the international and national levels. The authors conducted a detailed review of the standards used by assurance providers for integrated reporting/sustainable development reporting. The primary standards in this area are AA1000AS and ISAE 3000, and from 2024, ISAE 3000 will be replaced by ISSA 5000. The article also described two types of assurance the auditor could obtain during the audit of integrated reporting. The study results indicate different forms of assurance regarding integrated reporting based on the list of providers performing the verification and the standards they use. Based on applying analogy and abstract thinking, the authors outlined the necessary steps to introduce the concept of integrated reporting assurance in Ukraine. The results of this study support the findings of other researchers that the institutional environment in a country has a decisive influence on the adoption of integrated reporting and the need for its assurance.

Since the introduction of IFRS in the European context and various countries worldwide, several studies have examined the impact of this new approach to asset and liability valuation on financial ratios and company values. The present study attempts to determine whether accounting figures prepared in accordance with this new international accounting regime better reflect the market value of companies listed on the Moroccan market compared to those prepared under Moroccan accounting standards. Empirically, the study is based on association studies using the returns model and covers a sample of 27 companies listed on the Casablanca Stock Exchange for the period 2015–2020, i.e., 162 observations. The regression results show that accounting figures prepared according to IFRS standards better reflect stock market profitability than those prepared according to local standards, with the explanatory power increasing from 16.76% to 23.64% for the pre-IFRS period compared to the post-IFRS period. This means that by adopting IFRS standards, accounting values tend to be closer to stock market values, thus confirming the hypothesis that IFRS standards deliver a better information content of accounting figures.

The subject of the study is the segmental manifestation of the rule of law principle and its elements in the activities of justice authorities, courts and public associations, taking into account the economic basis of its influence. The purpose of the study is to examine the forms of manifestation of the rule of law principle and its individual elements in the activities of justice and court authorities, to clarify the role of the public in its practical application, and to identify opportunities for its economic support. Methodology. The study used general scientific and special methods of scientific knowledge: the method of system analysis, the dialectical method, the formal logical method, the structural and functional method, as well as a number of empirical methods. In particular, the method of comparison was used to determine the transformation of penitentiary bodies and their transformation into penitentiary justice bodies. The results of the study demonstrated the need for: qualitative consideration of the aspect of ensuring the correction of a convicted person after serving his or her sentence; involvement of representatives of civil society institutions in the resocialisation processes; and identification of potential ways to implement effective reforms that can increase the efficiency and fairness of the judiciary. Conclusion. The article reveals the relationship between the transformation of the penal system into the penitentiary system and the implementation of the rule of law in this area and its comprehensive enforcement. It is noted that the criminal executive system takes into account the aspect of ensuring the serving of sentences, and in the penitentiary system, which operates under the rule of law, the authors additionally identifies such a qualitative component as ensuring the correction of a convicted person after serving his/her sentence and his/her resocialisation. It was found that the economic rationale for the transformation of the judiciary based on the rule of law consists in reducing the costs of: court functioning due to the possibility of digitalization of the preparatory stages before the court hearing and the holding of court hearings in videoconference mode; reducing costs for the court apparatus through optimization of its functions; reducing the number of court cases due to active mediation and other possible options for resolving disputes peacefully, etc. It is noted that justice in judicial proceedings means not only formal compliance with the law, but also the exercise of rights and freedoms of individuals with due regard for equality, objectivity and impartiality. The authors prove that non-governmental organisations are an important institution capable of promoting the principle of justice as an integral element of the rule of law, since they ensure the right to apply to court and the right to protection of members and third parties. The role of the public in shaping the economic basis for reforms and the proper functioning of state bodies was also highlighted. It is noted that national legislation needs to be amended in terms of granting NGOs the right to apply to court in the interests of third parties, in particular, in cases where a person is unable to protect his or her rights for valid reasons. The study analyses the fundamental provisions on economic support for the implementation of the rule of law in various spheres of public relations.

This research delves into Human Resource Management (HRM) strategies within the Port and Shipping Management sector, focusing on the perspectives of graduates from the Maritime Institute (Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Pelayaran Jakarta). Through qualitative analysis, the study identifies key HRM indicators, including training and development, safety and compliance, talent acquisition and retention, performance management, and leadership development. Additionally, it examines the alignment of HRM practices with international standards, emphasizing the importance of integrating global education benchmarks into organizational strategies. The findings underscore the critical role of HRM in driving professional development and organizational effectiveness within maritime environments. By aligning HRM practices with international standards, organizations can enhance professionalism, promote diversity and inclusion, and foster ethical leadership. This research offers valuable insights for HRM practitioners, policymakers, educators, and industry stakeholders seeking to navigate the complexities of the global Port and Shipping Management sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative study examines pedagogical strategies in maritime cadet management studies at Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Pelayaran Jakarta (STIP Jakarta). Through interviews and document analysis, researchers explore how STIP Jakarta aligns with international standards, fosters professionalism, and meets industry needs. Findings reveal a curriculum emphasizing practical application and interdisciplinary learning, complemented by adherence to international regulations and guidelines. Experiential learning and industry immersion nurture professionalism, while emphasis on teamwork and communication prepares graduates for the maritime sector. The research underscores the importance of effective pedagogy in preparing graduates for successful careers and contributes to ongoing discourse on education management and social science. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the integration of computer literacy and social skills within Maritime Institute programs, focusing on the readiness of cadets for the contemporary maritime industry. Through qualitative analysis of 30 graduates from Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Pelayaran Jakarta and quantitative data collection, the study elucidates the importance of these competencies in navigating the dynamic challenges of the maritime sector. Findings reveal a consensus among participants regarding the critical role of computer literacy, while variability exists in the perceived integration of social skills within curricula. Additionally, the research identifies research needs, dimensions of professionalism, and alignment with international standards, providing insights for education management and professionalism in the maritime industry. By addressing these challenges and opportunities, Maritime Institute programs can better prepare graduates for the demands of the global maritime marketplace, contributing to the advancement of the sector and ensuring the competitiveness of future maritime professionals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to analyse the current mechanisms of state regulation of food security in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan to identify and assess their effectiveness. Among the methods used were analytical, statistical, functional, method of system analysis, deduction, synthesis, and comparison. A comparative analysis of state regulation of food security in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan was conducted, leading to recommendations for enhancing regulatory measures. Suggestions include integrating new agricultural technologies, fostering international partnerships, and learning from other nations' exfperiences. The study also highlighted opportunities for sustainable agricultural development, product quality improvement, and ensuring food accessibility across various population segments in both regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On December 31, 2023, World Federation of Acupuncture-Moxibustion Societies (WFAS) officially issued Technical Benchmark of Acupuncture and Moxibustion: Filiform Needle. This technical benchmark clarifies terms and definitions, operating procedures and requirements, safety requirements, etc. The promulgation and implementation of this technical benchmark would provide a standard for acupuncture practitioners to apply filiform needle in clinical practice, and may play a positive role in the safe use and promotion of filiform needle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Annual of the Faculty of Law / Godišnjak Fakulteta Pravnih Nauka is the property of Pan-European University Apeiron and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The purpose of this study was to identify the main international standards for the application of the principle of independence in the judicial process and the specifics of its implementation in Ukraine. The main methods used for scientific cognition included analysis and synthesis, formal-logical, historical-formal, induction and deduction, specification and generalisation, comparison. The study identified the principal international standards for the implementation of the principle of independence of participants in criminal proceedings, including judges and prosecutors, which include proper legal regulation of the status of judges and prosecutors, direct prohibition of influence from other branches of power. The study found certain differences between the independence of judges and prosecutors, which include the following features: the independence of a judge means being subject to the law and impartiality in relation to any party to the trial, while a prosecutor cannot be independent in this sense, since they represent the prosecution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This scientific article carefully examines the differences in the penal systems of the criminal law of Ukraine and the United States. The content of the article is focused on the comparison of different approaches to criminal liability, various types of punishments, their application in practice and general consequences for the criminal himself and society as a whole. The main goal of the study is to identify features and propose potential improvements to the Ukrainian penal system based on the experience of other countries, namely the US penal system. In general, the Ukrainian penal system focuses on three main aspects: compensation for harm caused by criminal offences, correction of the offender's deviant behaviour, and prevention of recidivism through rehabilitation measures. Moreover, the criteria for classifying such measures of state coercion and the characteristic features of each group are highlighted. The US system, especially at the federal level, is characterised by a complex and diverse range of punishments. This structure is a result of long historical development and the accumulation of practical experience over centuries. In the context of our research, it was revealed that the US places greater emphasis on maintaining public order, preventing crime, and rehabilitating offenders. Despite this, some US states retain the practice of capital punishment for particularly serious crimes. However, this type of punishment is used extremely rarely and only in exceptional circumstances, confirming its exceptional nature. The comparative legal analysis allows us to identify advantages and disadvantages in both systems, as well as to establish effective methods of punishment, which can contribute to the further improvement of the system of punishment for criminal offences in both legal systems. The significance of this article lies in its analytical and comparative approach, which facilitates the identification of effective ways to improve Ukraine's national legislation, taking into account best international practices and generally recognized standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article researches international standards for the protection of the rights of convicts and prisoners. It was determined that international standards for the protection of the rights of convicts and prisoners are a set of norms and principles established by international organizations, which determine the minimum requirements for the treatment of persons in places of deprivation of liberty, which must be observed in the countries that are parties to the relevant international treaties for ensuring the appropriate level of protection of their rights. It was noted that the standards of the international mechanism for the protection of the rights of convicts and prisoners establish specific criteria and norms that must be observed in different countries to ensure an adequate level of protection of the rights of people who are in places of imprisonment. It is emphasized that, depending on the classification and type of standards, they have a universal, regional, mandatory, advisory, general and specialized character, and are applicable to different categories of convicts and prisoners. It is substantiated that thanks to the implementation of international standards for the protection of the rights of prisoners to the legislation of Ukraine and the practice of penitentiary activities, positive changes have been noted in this area: a number of reforms aimed at humanizing the system of execution of punishments, including reducing the number of convicts and prisoners by introducing alternative types of punishment, have been implemented, such as probation; state bodies monitor compliance with the rights of convicts and prisoners, includingthrough cooperation with international organizations such as the Committee for the Prevention of Torture of the Council of Europe; the living conditions of convicts and prisoners were improved in penitentiary institutions; educational and vocational training programs are implemented, which help convicts and prisoners acquire new skills and prepare for reintegration into society after release; the cooperation of the penitentiary system with nongovernmental organizations is developing through the implementation of joint projects, monitoring, legal assistance and advocacy, etc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fundamental element of the development of any state is the strengthening of its legal ties, as well as the formation of a high-quality and new legal system for the protection of the rights and legitimate interests of a person and a citizen, including the sphere of acquiring Ukrainian citizenship. The legal framework that regulates the institution of Ukrainian citizenship at this stage is fragmented and inconsistent, and the process of forming such a framework is not systematic and consistent, which causes problems in legal regulation. It is important to examine the doctrinal approaches and views that relate to the institution of citizenship. There are different approaches to defining the concept of citizenship. It is interpreted from different aspects – political, legal or philosophical. The content of citizenship can be a stable legal connection with a certain state or a person’s belonging to a certain state, the people of a nation. Among the key characteristics of the institution of citizenship, the most important is its influence on ensuring the rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen. Citizenship gives a person a number of rights, including the right to protection by the state, participation in elections and public administration, access to social services and protection in court. It also imposes obligations, including: protecting the homeland, paying taxes, being loyal to the state, obeying the law, and participating in society. This interaction determines the ways of realizing civil rights and responsibilities, solving conflicts and problems related to citizenship and migration, as well as the formation of civil identity and joint responsibility for the future of the country. The definition of the signs of citizenship is also insufficient in the legal literature. These problems make it necessary to study the general legal and doctrinal characteristics of the institution of citizenship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Foco (Interdisciplinary Studies Journal) is the property of Revista Foco and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the realm of electrical engineering, standards play a pivotal role in ensuring the quality and reliability of electrical systems. This paper conducts a comprehensive comparative analysis of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) standards, with a particular focus on power quality engineering. Specifically, it focused on key parameters such as the K-factor, the factor K, the Harmonic Loss Factor FHL and the unbalanced factor. By elucidating the differences and similarities between these standards, this study aims to provide insights into their respective impacts on electrical infrastructure, guiding engineering practices, and facilitating global trade. Understanding the regional applicability and industry impact of IEEE, IEC, and CENELEC standards is essential for engineers, manufacturers, and policymakers to navigate the complexities of electrical quality engineering in a diverse and interconnected world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU's human rights policies and actions have two main components: protecting the fundamental rights of EU citizens and promoting human rights around the world. One of the aspects that the UN focuses on is the relationship between democracy and human rights, as the organisation upholds the importance of equal political participation of citizens of its states and full respect for human rights, including the recognition, protection and promotion. As defined by the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), human rights are norms that recognise and protect the dignity of all people, meaning they apply to everyone, without distinction of race, gender, education, political opinion, sexual orientation or any other type of moral judgement. The realisation of human rights also obliges states to be responsible for protecting these norms and prohibits certain acts that violate them. Human rights can be said to be one of the greatest achievements of mankind. One of the most important human rights documents is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed in 1948 at the UN General Assembly. Consisting of 30 articles, the Declaration formalises all the theoretical developments made earlier on civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. Another innovation of the Declaration was the inclusion of human rights in the universal character, becoming the rights of all peoples. Thus, for the UN, human rights "are universal legal guarantees that protect individuals and groups from acts and omissions by governments that violate human dignity". Human rights are fundamental and therefore inalienable human rights, i.e. those rights whose violation would lead to an attack on the very essence of humanity. For this reason, it is important that everyone is aware of and knows about human rights, their content and the forms of protection provided for them, as everyone should be able to enjoy their fundamental rights for the sole purpose of living in peace, without distinction. Human rights, democracy and the rule of law create an environment in which countries can promote development, protect people from discrimination and ensure equal access to justice for all.

This article examines the evolution of international legal standards aimed at defining responsibility for violations of laws and customs of war from the second half of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century. It emphasizes that war is undoubtedly one of the most dreadful events that can impact people's lives and society. However, if it is not controlled or conducted in accordance with international norms and standards, its consequences can be even more devastating and catastrophic. Since the beginning of the full-scale armed aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine, the term «violation of laws and customs of war» has become widespread. Responsibility for such actions is provided for by Article 438 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine. However, the criminalization of this act is not related to Ukraine's domestic legal order, as violations of laws and customs of war are an international crime that causes serious harm to people, economic objects, and cultural heritage, creating a high level of societal danger. The article covers an analysis of key international documents such as the Geneva Conventions, decisions of the Hague Conferences, and UN resolutions, exploring their influence on shaping legal norms in this area. It examines changes in legal regulation, their causes, and consequences, as well as the role of specific individuals and historical events in this process. This research is important for understanding past experiences in the context of current challenges and conflicts, as well as for further development of international law and ensuring the protection of human rights during armed conflicts. In conclusion, it is noted that the second half of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries witnessed significant development of international legal standards concerning responsibility for violations of laws and customs of war. This period was crucial in shaping the fundamental principles of international humanitarian law aimed at protecting human rights during armed conflicts. As a result of this process, a series of international treaties and conventions were adopted, which established rules of conduct in armed conflicts and mechanisms for accountability for their violations. These standards have been an important step in humanizing war and protecting human rights during armed conflicts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides an analysis of the legislative regulation of criminal prosecution of judges for making a deliberately unlawful decision or in violation of procedural law. International standards on of criminal liability of judges and judicial immunity, as well as judicial decision, and generalized approaches of legislators of other states to criminalization of rendering an unjust, illegal and/or unreasonable or biased judgement, and for comparison and other acts related to the performance of judicial duties. The article examines the provisions of the Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine regarding the legality and validity of a court decision. A court decision is based on the principles of the rule of law, it must be made by a court in accordance with the substantive law and in compliance with the procedural law, and must meet the objectives of the relevant legal proceedings, but if it is made on the basis of insufficiently and comprehensively clarified circumstances, then it is an unreasonable court decision that is not deliberately unjust. The study was also based on the case law of national and international courts. The issue of interpretation of “criminal liability” was based on the study of the practice of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Compliance with the procedural procedure for bringing judges to criminal liability contributes to the observance of guarantees of their inviolability and independence, plays an important role in the resolution of criminal proceedings on the merits and is a prerequisite for observance of the general principles of criminal proceedings and the delivery of a lawful, reasoned and motivated court decision. The article highlights that the concepts of “injustice”, “illegality” and “unreasonableness” are not synonymous and have different procedural content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research aimed to identify the availability of professional competencies among teachers with autism spectrum disorder in light of international standards in the city of Jeddah, and to reveal the differences between the professional competencies of teachers with autism spectrum disorder depending on experience, gender, and academic qualification. To achieve these goals, the research relied on the descriptive analytical method, using the questionnaire as a tool to collect data from a sample of (59) male and female teachers of students with autism spectrum disorder in public schools in the city of Jeddah, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, using a simple random method. The research reached a set of results, most notably: a high level of availability of the professional competencies required for teachers with autism spectrum disorder in the city of Jeddah, with an arithmetic mean of (3.80), with a standard deviation of (0.45), and the arithmetic mean is in the high category. The study also found that there were statistically significant differences at the significance level (0.05) in the availability of the necessary professional competencies for autism spectrum disorder teachers in the city of Jeddah due to the gender variable, and in favor of females. The study found that there were no statistically significant differences in the availability of the necessary professional competencies among teachers with autism spectrum disorder due to the educational qualification variable. The current study found that there were statistically significant differences at the significance level (0.05) in the availability of the cognitive foundation's competencies dimension due to the educational qualification variable, and in favor of those with a postgraduate qualification. The study found that there were no statistically significant differences in the extent of the availability of the necessary professional competencies among teachers with a postgraduate qualification. Autism spectrum disorder is attributed to the variable years of experience. In light of the findings of this study, it recommends the need for school administrations to conduct training courses for teachers of children with autism spectrum disorder to familiarize them with the regulations and legislation in the field of autism spectrum disorder, develop transition plans for individuals with autism spectrum disorder, and the need to inform teachers of children with autism spectrum disorder in a comprehensive manner. Continuing to learn new information and research in the field of autism spectrum disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article has examined the legal framework and status concerning crypto currency in Pakistan. It has highlighted the associated issues that Pakistan is facing like other developing countries. It has discussed the examples of other jurisdictions who have best standards and practices that are appreciable in regulating digital currencies and provides a crypto-friendly ecosystem. It highlights the necessity of recognizing and regulating crypto currencies in Pakistan. This study analyzes the situation of legal and regulatory framework of Pakistan and offer recommendations for reforms in the laws governing financial structures and cyber-crimes in Pakistan and suggested ways of promoting best practices by taking guidance and lessons from international standards and approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of protecting the suspects’ rights during criminal investigations is an important aspect of the functioning of the legal systems of modern democratic states. The effectiveness of European mechanisms plays a leading role in strengthening the rule of law, promoting the transparency of justice, and guaranteeing the rights and freedoms of every person. The article aims to study the effectiveness of the legislative and procedural frameworks for protecting the suspects’ rights in criminal cases in the European space using the case of Sweden. The paper examines the judicial system’s activity, focusing on practical and legal aspects, and highlights European mechanisms for protecting suspects’ rights. Special attention is paid to the Swedish model, which is an example of effective protection of the rights of suspects due to the developed system of socialisation and rehabilitation. The analysis revealed the need to strengthen international cooperation and harmonise the legislative framework at the EU level. The practical significance of the article is the identified basic advantages of the Swedish judicial system in protecting suspects’ rights, as well as the developed recommendations for improving the criminal process in European countries and in Ukraine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Critique of Law: Independent Legal Studies / Krytyka Prawa: Niezalezne Studia nad Prawem is the property of Akademia Leona Kozminskiego and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The requirements of accounting measurement and disclosure for the visual production industry in Iraq differ from accounting standards, as accounting recognition according to local accounting rules requires conditions and events that differ from those required by international standards, and that the adoption of international accounting standards leads to the possibility of comparison between the financial statements of companies and what serves many parties, including investors In making their investment decisions, the research aims to identify what is visual production in companies in accounting thought and to identify shortcomings in measurement and disclosure of treatments in visual production companies under the local accounting rules and the unified accounting system by comparing it with the relevant international accounting standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The EU's human rights policies and actions have two main components: protecting the fundamental rights of EU citizens and promoting human rights around the world. One of the aspects that the UN focuses on is the relationship between democracy and human rights, as the organisation upholds the importance of equal political participation of citizens of its states and full respect for human rights, including the recognition, protection and promotion. As defined by the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), human rights are norms that recognise and protect the dignity of all people, meaning they apply to everyone, without distinction of race, gender, education, political opinion, sexual orientation or any other type of moral judgement. The realisation of human rights also obliges states to be responsible for protecting these norms and prohibits certain acts that violate them. Human rights can be said to be one of the greatest achievements of mankind. One of the most important human rights documents is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed in 1948 at the UN General Assembly. Consisting of 30 articles, the Declaration formalises all the theoretical developments made earlier on civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. Another innovation of the Declaration was the inclusion of human rights in the universal character, becoming the rights of all peoples. Thus, for the UN, human rights "are universal legal guarantees that protect individuals and groups from acts and omissions by governments that violate human dignity". Human rights are fundamental and therefore inalienable human rights, i.e. those rights whose violation would lead to an attack on the very essence of humanity. For this reason, it is important that everyone is aware of and knows about human rights, their content and the forms of protection provided for them, as everyone should be able to enjoy their fundamental rights for the sole purpose of living in peace, without distinction. Human rights, democracy and the rule of law create an environment in which countries can promote development, protect people from discrimination and ensure equal access to justice for all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why are international regulatory standards not set? While most of the literature focuses on explaining positive cases of standard-setting where international rules are agreed upon, weak or negative cases remain prevalent and yet surprisingly under-explored. To explain these cases in the area of financial services, we integrate an inter-state explanation, which focuses on competition between major jurisdictions, with a transgovernmental explanation, which relates to conflict between different regulatory bodies at the international level. We also consider how these dimensions interact with financial industry lobbying. This allows us to construct a typology differentiating between distinct types of cases concerning international standard-setting: (1) absent standards, (2) non-agreed standards, (3) symbolic standards, and (4) agreed standards. The explanatory leverage of our approach is illustrated through a systematic structured focused comparison of four post-crisis cases related to “shadow banking.” The article generates novel insights into regulatory conflicts and the scope conditions for international agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It was established that, despite the universal recognition of the right to education as one of the fundamental human rights enshrined in international documents and the constitutions of many states, there are a number of significant challenges in the implementation of this right at the national and global levels, including unequal access to quality education, limitations of opportunities for individual social groups, as well as the need to adapt educational systems to the rapidly changing conditions of the modern world. It is emphasized that the right to education is one of the fundamental human rights, enshrined in the constitutions of many countries of the world and international documents and is recognized not only as an important individual freedom, but also as a necessary condition for the development of democracy, the rule of law and social progress. It is noted that the right to education, as an important component of the system of human rights and freedoms, is characterized by a number of main features: universality - the right to education belongs to every person without any exceptions or restrictions based on gender, race, nationality, language, religious beliefs, social origin, state of health, beliefs or any other characteristics; every person has equal opportunities for access to education at all levels, in particular, it is also about overcoming gender inequality, as well as inequality related to physical or mental limitations, socio-economic status or place of residence; accessibility for all, which means the absence of any barriers that can prevent a person from getting an education (both financial barriers and barriers related to the place of residence, social status or special needs of a person); the quality of the process of realizing the right to education, which includes not only access to educational institutions, but also the guarantee of obtaining a quality education that contributes to the full development of the human personality; adaptability - the education system should be flexible and adapted to the needs of different population groups, including persons with special educational needs, migrants, national minorities and other vulnerable groups. In summary, the right to education is an integral part of the system of constitutional rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen and is at the basis of the development of a fair and free society, providing every person with the opportunity to realize their potential and actively participate in society. Ensuring access to quality education for everyone without exception is a key task of the state and the international community on the way to achieving sustainable development and strengthening human rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rehabilitation centers in Egypt suffer from a failure to provide functional requirements in terms of ergonomic and anthropometric standards that suit the comfort of the elderly patient with limited mobility or who is unable to move. From here stemmed the research problem: which is the existence of deficiencies in the application of ergonomic and anthropometric functional standards for each of the interior design and furniture in rehabilitation centers, in a way that does not suit most of the needs of elderly patients with mobility impairment or inability to move. The research aims to present the international ergonomic and anthropometric standards for each of the interior design and furniture in the physical rehabilitation centers for the elderly. The importance of the research lies in the fact that it provides standards that must be followed as solutions for the interior design and furniture of the motor rehabilitation centers for those with weakness or inability to move. satisfactory quality and time. Research Methods: The research follows the descriptive analytical approach. The limitations of the research are limited to international ergonomic and anthropometric standards and physical rehabilitation centers for the elderly. Research results: There are important standards that must be taken into account in rehabilitation centers to suit people with wheelchairs and people with crutches, especially in dry and wet treatment areas, residence rooms, bathrooms, corridors of all kinds, and slopes. Research recommendations: The need for the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Housing to apply international standards in interior design and furniture, governmental and private physical rehabilitation centers, as well as the competent authorities related to that.

Ensuring human rights and freedoms is the primary task of national development in Ukraine and the main social values and freedoms that determine the need to ensure the transparent, efficient, and population-oriented functioning of all state institutions that ensure the protection of people's and citizens' rights. The purpose of this research is to identify the state of human rights protection and enforcement in law enforcement activities in EU countries and Ukraine and to outline trends for further improvement in human rights law enforcement activities. The methodological basis of the investigation is the dialectics of worldview and general and specific scientific methods for understanding national phenomena and legal realities. The research finds the promotion and protection of human rights and freedoms are foundational to effective law enforcement activities, requiring alignment with constitutional, legal, and international standards. The modernization of policing principles involves expanding the role of national institutions, fostering accountability, diversity and partnerships, while humanizing police activities to establish trust-based relations with citizens. The research further emphasizes the critical role of implementing these insights into the actual activities of Ukrainian law enforcement agencies for a more meaningful and impactful transformation in ensuring human rights and freedoms. The study is of great scientific and theoretical importance, since scientific achievements in this field define the general direction of its understanding of the state, making it possible to understand and identify new trends in the development of ensuring compliance with human rights and freedoms in the world.

The need to find ways to improve the quality characteristics of milk as a basis for increasing the competitiveness of dairy products in the global market determines the relevance of the study. Ukraine’s dairy industry is one of the critical ones in the agricultural sector of the economy, as it provides the country’s population with vital foodstuffs. The purpose of this study was to substantiate the areas of solving organisational and economic problems of development of the dairy industry to meet the needs of the domestic market with quality dairy products and increase export potential. The study was conducted to identify the main reasons for the transformational changes that have taken place in dairy farming and to outline the promising areas for the development of this industry in the context of improving product quality. This study focused on European and national requirements for the quality of raw milk. The following methods of economic research were used in the analytical material: economic and statistical, comparative analysis, graphical, logical generalisation, systematic approach, systemic and structural analysis, calculation, and design. The study analysed the data of agricultural enterprises and households engaged in milk production in Ukraine for 2010-2022 and recalculated the purchase prices for raw milk in relation to the European quality indicators. The findings of this study showed that ensuring the competitiveness of dairy products depends on the quality of milk. It was found that it is higher in European countries, and therefore high standards for the quality of raw milk become a barrier to entry into European markets for most domestic dairy processing enterprises. Accordingly, the state’s strategy should focus on increasing the production of high-quality raw milk and growing export potential by forming specialised milk production cooperatives for dairy processing enterprises. The practical significance of the obtained results is that the author’s recommendations can be used by agricultural enterprises or private households in their everyday activities

Through the promotion of the human security concept, the UN Development Agency offered an analytical framework that enables the identification of the security problem sources. By monitoring relevant indicators within seven areas essential for people's quality of life, the Human Security concept enables directed action on recognized sources and their elimination. The importance of applying standards of International Organization for Standardization as a platform for creating public policies to achieve sustainable development goals is indisputable. One of ISO's missions is to help developing countries build their capacities in areas such as designing development strategies, technical and operational expertise and familiarizing policymakers with the benefits of applying international standards. Certainly, for the realization of this potential, more active participation of the governments of developed countries is necessary; with their political authority based on economic power, the developed countries would contribute to ensuring that the standards are equally respected regardless of the level of development of a country.

Software quality is a critical aspect of software development that significantly impacts business performance and customer satisfaction. However, defining software quality can be challenging, as different sources provide various definitions and perspectives. The article presents a literature review of software quality, acknowledging an ongoing debate over the years regarding the definition of software quality and the methods used for its assessment. Among all the different ideas about software quality, the article highlights key concepts that are crucial in understanding software quality: meeting requirements, satisfying users, using software features, and spotting defects. The article also checks out international standards like ISO/IEC 25010:2011 and ISO/IEC 5055:2021, introducing terms such as "Quality in use" and "Structural Quality." Unveiling a tripartite perspective elucidated in international standards—internal quality, external quality, and quality in use - the article underscores the intricate interplay between subjectivity and objectivity. The subjective dimension, influenced by user perception and contextual factors, is juxtaposed with more objective criteria such as conformance to requirements and the absence of defects. The standards provide helpful perspectives, but the human side of things, like user feelings and specific contexts, makes finding a universal definition tricky. The pivotal role of business analysis and requirements engineering in ensuring software quality is underscored. Business requirements, stakeholder needs, and the quality of functional and non-functional requirements emerge as integral components. The article argues that software quality is intricately tied to the quality of its requirements, presenting a dual perspective: compliance with quality criteria and alignment with stakeholders' expectations and business goals. Practical software quality assessment is built upon the foundational understanding of contextual nuances, user needs, and operational conditions, all discerned through business analysis.

Scientific relevance. The clinical effects and the expiration of patents for original (reference) biotechnological medicines based on monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) stimulated the development of biosimilar mAbs. The quality profile of a biosimilar mAb should correspond to the quality of the reference medicinal product. When demonstrating biosimilarity and determining the activity of medicines as part of batch quality control, analysts should study the biological properties of mAbs using suitable reference standards. The lack of international standards (ISs) makes mAb manufacturers use in-house reference standards. There is a risk of obtaining non-uniform quality and efficacy data because of the use of in-house reference standards, the heterogeneity and structural complexity of mAbs, and the relationship between the biological activity and efficacy of mAbs.Aim. This study aimed to analyse the relevance of and need for ISs for the biological activity of biotherapeutic mAbs and to define the role of reference medicinal products and ISs in assessing biosimilarity and testing medicines throughout their lifecycle.Discussion. This review covers the issues arising from the lack of ISs for assessing the biological activity of mAbs and the role and significance of reference products and ISs for biosimilars. The authors describe the specifics of studying the biological properties of mAbs and summarise the data on the need to develop and use ISs for the standardisation of biological tests. This review presents the results of studies on the first ISs established by the World Health Organisation to assess the biological activity of mAbs; these results suggest the need to standardise mAbs using ISs to ensure the quality, safety, and efficacy of mAb therapy.Conclusions. The use of ISs for mAbs plays a key role in harmonising biological activity assessments. Publicly available ISs serve as primary standards for the calibration of secondary reference materials. Moreover, ISs are required for the harmonisation of activity evaluation (in IU) between laboratories and for the consistency of the activity of various medicinal products from different manufacturers that share the same INN. The use of ISs by mAb manufacturers will contribute to ensuring the quality of mAbs and clinical monitoring of the effectiveness of their use.

The limit behaviour of I-shaped welded steel cross-sections subjected to axial force, shear, and bending moment is a crucial matter to ascertain the reliability of framed structures constituted by non-standard beam elements. International standards provide an approximate solution to the problem, and other studies have proposed improved approximate formulations to ascertain the real features of the relevant cross-sections. The present paper is devoted to enhancing the problem of the limit behaviour of plane I-shaped welded steel cross-sections subjected to axial force N, shear T and bending moment M; therefore, new appropriate formulations are proposed in order to define suitable new domains, both in planes N,T, N,M, and M,T and in the space N,T,M. The material is assumed as elastic–perfectly plastic and the Von Mises limit condition is adopted as the resistance criterion. The elastic stresses are described by the Navier formula and the Jourawski formula. The limit stress condition related to the contemporaneous presence of the acting forces is defined as the one that, at each point of the cross-section, fulfils the Von Mises limit condition as equality. The formulation is rigorously devoted to factory-made welded I-shaped steel cross-sections. Some numerical examples are reported in the application stage and useful comparison are carried out, with the results being obtainable by the application of the classical known standard formulae, proving the reliability and effectiveness of the determined domains.