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In the 21st century, mega-constellations and interconnected satellite constellations deployed at various orbital altitudes, such as LEO, MEO, and GEO, with low Earth orbits (LEOs) being the most commonly used, have emerged as a trend, aiming to enhance the productivity and reduce the costs in space service delivery. The UNOOSA has noted the uncertainty in the exact number of satellites but conducted simulations based on a substantial sample, projecting a significant increase from the 2075 satellites recorded in orbit in 2018. This surge in the launch of mega-constellations poses profound challenges to existing international space laws, originally formulated with limited consideration for private space actors, who are increasingly engaging in space activities, particularly with the cost-effective utilization of mega-constellations. This study critically analyzes the compatibility of mega-constellations with the current international space laws by examining the applicability of mega-constellations concerning equitable access and the non-appropriation principle, addressing their potential occupation of substantial orbital spaces during activities, and analyzing whether the acquisition of orbital slot licenses violates these two principles. Following an in-depth analysis, this study proposes recommendations to amend the existing laws, aiming to resolve ambiguities and address emerging challenges. Recognizing the time-consuming process of amending international space laws, this study suggests practical recommendations for supplementary rules of the road, prompting reflection on the potential obsolescence of the current international space laws in the face of evolving space activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION. This article examines the space laws adopted by Luxembourg in 2017 and 2020, which allow private persons, subject to the conditions provided by these laws, to explore and use the natural resources of celestial bodies. At the same time, the authors proposed an international legal assessment of these laws.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The study of the designated laws of Luxembourg is based on the scientific works of domestic and foreign specialists in international space law, especially in terms of the analysis of previously adopted national legislation on space activities. Both general scientific methods of cognition and methods of legal sciences, including formal-legal and comparative-legal, are used. RESEARCH RESULTS. The analysis of Luxembourg laws in the general context of applicable international law presented in the article shows that these laws have basically adopted the new US legal space policy, initially outlined in the US Commercial Space Launch Competition Act of 2015. At the same time, Luxembourg laws on space activities have proposed a number of legal mechanisms that differ from the US ones, which further exacerbates the interstate competition for a more favorable legal environment for private persons to invest in economic activities in space. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. International legal issues of the use of outer space, including those affecting the status of celestial bodies, have long been resolved at the universal level, primarily on the basis of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. The situation has changed with the involvement of the United States since 2020 of an increasing number of states in a separate treaty-legal regime of space activities created by the Artemis Agreements, concluded by the United States with more than 40 states. These agreements, in turn, adopted the basic provisions of the new US legislation on natural resource activities in space, starting with the aforementioned US Law of 2015. The basic “space” laws of Luxembourg - the Law on the Exploration and Use of Space Resources of 2017 (which established the national legislative basis for the commercial exploration and use of natural resources of celestial bodies) and the Law on Space Activities of 2020 (which clarified this legislative system), while creating a favorable environment for investments by individuals and legal entities of this state in the development of natural resources of celestial bodies, also have negative international legal consequences for the community of states: Luxembourg, with these laws, supported the separate policy of the United States aimed at revising universal international space law, according to which the use of outer space, including celestial bodies, constituting the “patrimony of all mankind”, “is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries” (Article I of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967).

This article attempts to provide an overview of the most important international regulations relating to the provision of telecommunication services by private companies to one or more belligerent parties in times of an armed conflict. Taking as an example the recently widely commented issue of Starlink allegedly withholding its services otherwise provided to the Ukrainian Armed Forces, this article reviews the issue from the perspective of general public international law as well as international space law. Specifically, the customs and regulations concerning the attributability of private parties actions as well as peaceful utilisation of outer space are scrutinised.

Every human culture has reflected the Moon’s influence in its cosmology, spirituality, science, creative and social life. For these reasons, the exploration and use of the Moon should be done thoughtfully and carefully, and possible resource extraction should not harm the Earth's only satellite and its environment as a whole. The adoption by some States of national legislation affecting the commercial exploitation of space resources, as well as the resumption of lunar programs by several leading spacefaring nations at a time, prompt the need for legal regulation in this area. However, to develop a detailed international legal regime for lunar exploration, the efforts of the States parties to the UN COPUOS alone are not sufficient since in practice other actors in international relations, including the so-called epistemic communities representing various types of non-governmental organizations, are also active participants in space activities. Such communities offer their own vision of the international legal regulation of relations arising in the framework of the exploration and use of the Moon basing on the norms of international space law and involving active participation of non-governmental legal entities, considering the interests of present and future generations, as well as of emerging space nations. The study presents a comprehensive analysis of the influence of epistemic communities on the development of the future international legal regime for lunar exploration. The authors consistently review the activities of non-governmental organizations within the UN COPUOS since its formation. Special attention is paid to the contribution of such communities to the progressive development of international space law and its codification, including the legal nature of the documents developed by such communities. The study concludes with a comprehensive international legal assessment of the activities of the epistemic communities.

Copyright of University of Sharjah Journal of Law Sciences (JLS) is the property of University of Sharjah - Scientific Publishing Unit and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the 21st century, mega-constellations and interconnected satellite constellations deployed at various orbital altitudes, such as LEO, MEO, and GEO, with low Earth orbits (LEOs) being the most commonly used, have emerged as a trend, aiming to enhance the productivity and reduce the costs in space service delivery. The UNOOSA has noted the uncertainty in the exact number of satellites but conducted simulations based on a substantial sample, projecting a significant increase from the 2075 satellites recorded in orbit in 2018. This surge in the launch of mega-constellations poses profound challenges to existing international space laws, originally formulated with limited consideration for private space actors, who are increasingly engaging in space activities, particularly with the cost-effective utilization of mega-constellations. This study critically analyzes the compatibility of mega-constellations with the current international space laws by examining the applicability of mega-constellations concerning equitable access and the non-appropriation principle, addressing their potential occupation of substantial orbital spaces during activities, and analyzing whether the acquisition of orbital slot licenses violates these two principles. Following an in-depth analysis, this study proposes recommendations to amend the existing laws, aiming to resolve ambiguities and address emerging challenges. Recognizing the time-consuming process of amending international space laws, this study suggests practical recommendations for supplementary rules of the road, prompting reflection on the potential obsolescence of the current international space laws in the face of evolving space activities.

Copyright of Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Luridica is the property of Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Lodzkiego and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This research article explores the issue of the formation of international legal principles on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space (1959-1979). The historical prerequisites and main provisions of key international treaties related to this issue are analyzed. The gradual formation of key agreements in the context of political confrontation and mistrust between the leading space powers, which is considered in the research, was an important step in limiting and containing the arms race in outer space. The article also discusses the limitations and gaps of the main agreements of international space law and related agreements, which only partially regulate the military use of space and do not address new types of weapons and technologies that can be deployed or used in outer space for military purposes. The article suggests that one of the ways to strengthen the international legal framework for outer space demilitarization is the development of new international agreements that would prohibit the proliferation and use of such weapons and technologies in space, and that would protect outer space from aggressive military activities. Moreover, the article justifies the importance of the international legal regulation of the military use of outer space as a tool for preventing an arms race in outer space. It can include such issues as regulation of new types of weapons and their deployment that are not prohibited by main international agreements of international space law and ensuring the peaceful use of outer space. The article also presents an explanation concerning a concept of «weaponization of space», which is part of the military use of space. In this vein, it evokes the necessity of further strengthening of the international legal regulation of the discussed topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of China's national resources in the space domain may change the gap in power between China and the United States in relevant international rulemaking. This article proposes an analytical framework for identifying, comparing, and analyzing states' power resources critical to international rulemaking and uses the framework to compare the relevant resources between China and the United States in the space domain. First, this paper develops a method for identifying resources crucial to international rulemaking in outer space. The relevant resources of the two countries are then compared in this article. Finally, the article explores comparative advantages, consensus, differences, and cooperation possibilities of the two countries in specific international space rules. The framework could be adapted to compare diverse nations' resources critical to international rulemaking in other fields; it contributes to research on space law, international legislation, and national power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a comprehensive examination of the current and emerging challenges in the governance of space activities, focusing on promoting safety and security. Key international treaties and resolutions, including those under the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), are discussed, highlighting their evolution in response to changing geopolitical dynamics and the expansion of space activities across various sectors. The paper addresses several critical challenges: ensuring diverse global voices are heard in space governance, managing the dichotomy of space in terms of its strategic value and dual-use nature, achieving consensus among the rapidly growing number of space-faring nations, defining and delimiting space, adapting to the commercialization of space activities, and confronting the growing problem of space debris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a comprehensive examination of the current and emerging challenges in the governance of space activities, focusing on promoting safety and security. Key international treaties and esolutions, including those under the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), are discussed, highlighting their evolution in response to changing geopolitical dynamics and the expansion of space activities across various sectors. The paper addresses several critical challenges: ensuring diverse global voices are heard in space governance, managing the dichotomy of space in terms of its strategic value and dual-use nature, achieving consensus among the rapidly growing number of space-faring nations, defining and delimiting space, adapting to the commercialization of space activities, and confronting the growing problem of space debris.

The urge to go where no man has gone before has led to great leaps in space technology that only seemed real in cinema. As more private companies, such as private asteroid mining companies in China, attempt to take this leap, it has become clear that there are significant gaps in international space law regarding liability with private parties. Within Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty, there is a laid-out structure on how states can be held liable for damages caused by celestial bodies. However, the Outer Space Treaty ignores what happens if a private company causes injuries in another country or to another space craft. While there has yet to be an example of a private company causing damages from negligence under space law, we know what may happen through Maritime Law. With multiple similarities between maritime and space law, already established maritime regulations can easily be used as a supplementation for space law. In part I of this article, there will be a discussion of the history of space law and modern-day technology done by private Chinese companies. Part II will then examine maritime law concepts and outer space collisions. Part III, IV, and V will move to an in-depth analysis on limitations of liability, vessel insurance, and employees' insurance. Part VI will finalize, discussing how limitations of liability, vessel insurance, and employee's insurance create a stable supplement for Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Space debris is defunct artificial objects in space which no longer serve a useful function (nonfunctional spacecraft and abandoned launch vehicle stages, mission-related debris, and particularly numerous in Earth orbit, fragmentation debris from the breakup of derelict rocket bodies and spacecraft; solidified liquids expelled from spacecraft, and unburned particles from solid rocket motors) and represents a risk to spacecraft and also for the Earth. Collisions with debris have become a hazard to spacecraft; the smallest objects cause damage especially to solar panels and optics like telescopes or star trackers that cannot easily be protected by a ballistic shield. It is theorized that a sufficiently large collision of spacecraft could potentially lead to a cascade effect or even make some particular low Earth orbits effectively unusable for long term use by orbiting satellites, a phenomenon known as the „Kessler Syndrome”. The accumulation of space debris has become an irreversible process since and it is a fact that the space debris began to accumulate in Earth orbit immediately with the first launch of an artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit, in October 1957. Even there is no international treaty minimizing space debris, limiting the amount of space debris, by all possible means, it is now a duty, with the basic provisions in the existing international space law, particularly in the Outer Space Treaty (1967) and the Liability Convention (1972).

The article is devoted to the analysis of the legal mechanisms of managing the orbital interactions of spacecraft that are pivotal for the development of space (orbital) systems. Scientific-theoretical research methods: abstraction, idealization, construction of hypotheses and models, documentary analysis and synthesis, objective truth, cognitive-analytical, etc. Results: the origin and contemporary genesis of constituent elements of the legal mechanisms of the management of orbital interactions of spacecraft and the problems of adapting these mechanisms to the trends of the “new space,” are analyzed. The scientific aim is to contribute to the development of an adequate and integrated legal regime of the management of space systems and to improve the effectiveness of its institutional framework. Discussion: the evolution of the legal framework of international orbital interactions is analyzed on the background of the contemporary international space activities. The management of space systems needs comprehensive legal regulation and its harmonization with the respective regime of the leading space-faring nations. The inconsistency of international law with the practice of on-orbit interactions of spacecraft under the jurisdiction of different states, creates a risk of international conflict. The article formulates recommendations for improving the legal regime of orbital interactions arising from servicing spacecraft and de-orbiting them, in particular the licensing of such activities, their supervision, and the formation of institutional mechanisms for space systems management.

This article is dedicated to an analysis of the background, modern practice, and the likely consequences of the measures taken by the United States to monopolize the global markets of space products, which today can be considered as a new global challenge to humanity. It is concluded that the bilateral Artemis Accords, initiated in 2020 with the declared purpose of exploring the circumlunar space and the Moon itself under the leading role of the United States, have features of a future transnational space megacartel. The largest, primarily American, companies that are already working on the creation of the main elements of the program for the commercial exploration of the Moon may become participants in this megacartel. As an optimal response from Russia to the monopolization of the global space economy, the authors propose the development of an integrative model of the space economy. Such a model should combine both measures to develop competition among national entities of the domestic markets of space products and steps towards concentrating the efforts of all interested economic entities to achieve the maximum competitiveness of Russia and Russian companies in the global markets. The necessity of forming an international legal basis for combating cartels in the markets of space goods is substantiated, including the development of measures to counter the monopolization of global space markets and the establishment of control over outer space and celestial bodies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article studies the issues of international space law and analyses the reasons for its occurrence. At the moment, space law actively develops, and space exploration has become increasingly popular and demanded. Nevertheless, this field’s legal regulations were drawn up in the mid-20th century and are now partly obsolete. Moreover, the set of space-related legal relations in regard to the exploration and use of outer space and celestial bodies undergoes significant changes. Therefore, it is of sufficient importance to seek new possible areas and improve existing means of resolving current legal issues to ensure the progress of international and national space law. Every year problems related to unregulated actions of private companies in the sector increasingly occur. This topic requires analysis to provide ways to address those gaps in international space law.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the legal mechanisms of managing the orbital interactions of spacecraft that are pivotal for the development of space (orbital) systems. Scientific-theoretical research methods: abstraction, idealization, construction of hypotheses and models, documentary analysis and synthesis, objective truth, cognitive-analytical, etc. Results: the origin and contemporary genesis of constituent elements of the legal mechanisms of the management of orbital interactions of spacecraft and the problems of adapting these mechanisms to the trends of the "new space," are analyzed. The scientific aim is to contribute to the development of an adequate and integrated legal regime of the management of space systems and to improve the effectiveness of its institutional framework. Discussion: the evolution of the legal framework of international orbital interactions is analyzed on the background of the contemporary international space activities. The management of space systems needs comprehensive legal regulation and its harmonization with the respective regime of the leading space-faring nations. The inconsistency of international law with the practice of on-orbit interactions of spacecraft under the jurisdiction of different states, creates a risk of international conflict. The article formulates recommendations for improving the legal regime of orbital interactions arising from servicing spacecraft and de-orbiting them, in particular the licensing of such activities, their supervision, and the formation of institutional mechanisms for space systems management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the article is to evaluate the role of the regulation of international space law for the realization of international economic and social development. Aiming for that, a logical-deductive methodology was used, through bibliographic research to map relevant issues about the spatial infrastructure and the current understanding of social economic development. In this sense, the study was carried out through its development in three parts: first the mapping of international space law to demonstrate the progress of investments and activities that are carried out around the space infrastructure; in a second step, the interaction between economic and social development and brief economic discussions about the market and state action are analyzed; finally, it deals with the importance of regulation on space exploration as a promotion mechanism for international economic and social development. It was concluded that there are private and public actors in this exploratory market and their actions must occur together, as they often occur within countries, aiming to promote economic development as freedom, and that the State's action must be guided by the regulation of space infrastructure; this regulation must aim at economic and social development in a way that is compatible with Amartya Sen's theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the state of legal regulation of the process of organization and implementation of space tourism, defines the features of its application and its place in modern international space law. The legal norms in the field of space travel and the legal bases of their organization were analyzed. An attempt to analyze the legal status of persons taking part in space missions was made. The issue of the international legal personality of the participants of the space tourist service contract was investigated. Particular attention was paid to the legal status of space tourists. The content of the definition of “cosmonauts as messengers of humanity into space” was analyzed. The issues of the risks inherent in space tourism activities and the international legal liability of the parties to the space tourist services contract were considered. It has been stated that a space traveler has a certain amount of rights and obligations throughout the period, from the beginning of preparation to the journey and ending with the period after returning to Earth. An indicative list of space tourists’ rights has been restated, and examples of their obligations and limitations in time and space have been provided. It was noted that the legal status of persons who have the status of space tourists, does not coincide with the status of professional astronauts, despite the fact that the first and second performing space travel. It is proved that the concept of “space tourist” is an integral part of the concept of “participant of space flight”. The study found that space tourists have the opportunity to undertake space travel on the basis of a contract for space tourist services and solely on a commercial basis. It was stated that the activities to be conducted while the tourist is in space should be well planned and approved by a particular state body — the national space agency of the launching country. A specific condition for the participation of a space tourist in space flight is the process of its preparation and the passage of special selection, which includes checking personal, biographical, medical information about the person, physical and mental health status, command of the language of communication and so on.

On 1 April 2013, the Law of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea on Space Exploration was enacted and promulgated by the Supreme People's Assembly. The law is the first national legislation governing national space activities and it forms the basic law in the field of national space exploration. The enactment of this law provides a domestic legal guarantee for national space activities to the advantage of the country's national economy and people's livelihoods in conformity with the requirements of international space-related treaties. The paper provides a summary description and analysis of the national space legislation of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea with an eye to the UN resolutions concerning national space legislation and other countries' national space laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the early 1980s, the United Nations General Assembly and its affiliated forum, the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva, has had the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space issue on its agenda. In the intervening years, the threat of weapons being introduced into the outer space realm has waxed and waned, but, in the main, a benign environment free from man-made threats has prevailed, allowing for great strides in the exploration and use of space. Recently, a renewal of great power rivalry including the development of offensive "counter-space" capabilities has resurrected the spectre of armed conflict in space. With widespread political support for the non-weaponization of outer space, has the time come to give legal expression to this goal by means of an optional protocol to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reveals the issues of space exploration by private entities who have intensified their efforts in space activities. The US and Luxembourg legal regulations, which both govern the private sector involvement in State space activities and allow citizens to freely engage in the development of planets and asteroids, to own and dispose of resources, including water and minerals, are under analysis. Therefore, due to the occurrence of legal collisions, the International Law Association and the Space Law Committee, established on its basis, should influence regulating space issues. These institutions are known for their open policies and extensive external relations. Their key mission is to study, clarify and develop international public and private law and prepare comparative law research. The author concludes that being an important human resource, space objects and natural resources should belong to all humanity, not to individual States or private enterprises. The adoption of the US and Luxembourg legislation on legalizing, extracting, using and appropriating space resources by private enterprises seems to be in full compliance with international obligations, however, in fact they violate the principles governing the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, which are not subject to national appropriation, neither by proclaiming sovereignty, nor by uses or occupation, nor by any other means

The newest doctrine of space law of Ukraine is formulated in the article. The authors reveal that it consists of public and private international space law applicable in Ukraine and domestic space laws, which are classified into public and private. It is emphasized that making amendments and additions to the relevant national Law “On Space Activities”, which has allowed private entities to be engaged in these activities, offers great opportunities to the Ukrainian space industry. However, the transformation into a powerful spacefaring nation still requires Ukraine to overcome bureaucratic and corruption factors in a legal and organizational manner.

In this article, the theoretical and practical legal aspects of deregulation of national space activities are analyzed. It is established that the norms of international space law do not provide for a specific authorization mechanism for space activities in outer space. It is proved that its implementation should be carried out by States at the level of national space legislation. The main stages of development of the legislation of Ukraine on licensing of space activity are shown. The purpose of this paper is to justify the cancellation of licensing of space activities in Ukraine, as well as non-compliance with the basic principles of expediency and adequacy of the state regulatory policy of legislative initiatives on the resumption of the licensing procedure for space activities.

On April 14, 2018, the Department of International Law, Law Institute, RUDN University held the annual XVI Annual Blischenko Congress. The main work of the Blischenko Congress traditionally took place in sections focused on the main branches of international law. Co-organizers of the International Congress were international organizations, representative offices and departments. This research event was organized with grant support from: Russian Foundation for Basic Research; the grant of the President of the Russian Federation for the state support of young researches; grant of the Russian Science Foundation.

To enhance their strategic position, some spacefaring States are engaged in exploiting legal lacunae of international space treaties. Consequently, there is an increase of militarization of outer space. As an instance of such activities, an anti-satellite (ASAT) test by India represents a strategic move to enhance its deterrence capability rather than earnestly adhering to international space law. Such actions can potentially increase the element of uncertainty in international law, particularly the international space law. The pursuit of military strategic interests in space has increased the possibility of an arms race in space. This article argues that ASAT tests not only violate certain principles of international law but also undermine the efforts for arms control and disarmament in the outer space. In this regard, an effective role of the international community is required to curb the arms race imperative for a safe and sustainable outer space environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the study of the concept of «space objects» and their legal nature. The situation arising in international space law in connection with the adoption by the United States and Luxembourg of legislative acts aimed at the legalization, extraction, use and appropriation of space resources by private companies is analyzed. The legal acts, basic scientific opinions and legal positions of lawyers concerning the activity of different states in the space industry, the activities of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Legal Subcommittee have been analyzed. It is concluded that today the basic acts of international space law are lagging behind the development of scientific and technological progress, and the relevant UN structures are not able to solve all the pressing problems of space activity. It is proposed to adopt a number of agreed normative legal acts of international space law and to create a new organization on issues of space activities.

INTRODUCTION. More than fifty years ago, on October 10th, 1967, the entry into force of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (“the Outer Space Treaty”) demonstrated the emergence of a new branch of international law: international outer space law (“ISL”). This article considers the contribution of the Russian Federation / U.S.S.R. and the United States and their leading lawyers and diplomats who were able to reach treaty cooperation even during the Cold War, and highlights the main historical legal steps on the way to signing of the Outer Space Treaty. The paper further focuses on the content of the Outer Space Treaty and other sources of ISL, and depicts approaches to interpretation of the treaty provisions with respect to actual legal challenges of space activities’ development, in the context of diverse economic, political and technological factors; as well as on the role of the Outer Space Treaty in the progressive development of ISL. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The theoretical background of this research consists of works of distinguished scholars and specialists in ISL as well as materials of diverse colloquiums, workshops and conferences on ISL. The analytical framework includes the Outer Space Treaty, other relevant international treaties; relevant UN GA resolutions; the 2001 Cape Town Convention and the 2012 Space Protocol; UN, COPUOS (including its subcommittees), ITU and UNIDROIT documents; national space legislation; documents and proceedings of the UNISPACE-III. The research is based on methods such as historical research, formal logic, including analysis, synthesis, analogy and modeling, as well as systematic, comparative and interpretation. RESEARCH RESULTS. Within the context of applicable principles and norms of the Outer Space Treaty, this article specifically provides an analysis of the related provisions of other sources of ISL, as well as unsettled legal issues such as 1) the international legal regime of natural resources of the Moon and other celestial bodies; 2) the use of the outer space solely for peaceful purposes; 3) the legal status of space tourists; 4) the legal regulation of commercial space activities involving a “foreign element” within the framework of the private international law and specifically private international space law (“PISL”); 5) the role of the 2001 Cape Town Convention and the 2012 Space Protocol in the context of international legal regulation of space activities, as well as, provided the entry into force of the Space Protocol, its role as the first specific international legal source of PISL; 6) International system of registration of interests in space assets as the third international system of registration related to space activities; 7) interpretation of Art. VIII of the Outer Space Treaty for the purposes of definition of law applicable to property rights over space objects located in the outer space; 8) “space object” and “space asset” as legal terms; 9) issues of international responsibility and liability, as well as extension of the scope of the concept of the “launching State”, including a proposal on addition of a potential fifth category; 10) registration and control; 11) International Space Station in the relevant legal framework; 12) ways of reaching of due relevance of international legal consequences for states resulted from the change of private law relations to the factual “participation” of the involved states in the corresponding space activities. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. After discussing the issues noted above, this paper concludes that: 1) it is in the interest of the Russian Federation, the United States of America and other space powers to consider the role of the Outer Space Treaty as the basis for further progressive development of ISL and inter alia for orderly development of commercial space activities; 2) some burning issues of ISL, as well as other related legal challenges, can be resolved by an authentic interpretation of Outer Space Treaty provisions (e.g. by adding other specific protocols to it, or by means of a universal comprehensive convention on international space law); 3) it is important to take into account both the distinction of subject matter, as well as the relationship and interaction between diverse applicable sources and branches of international law and also relevant national legislation regarding the search for solutions of space related legal issues noted above. In sum, one needs to follow a comprehensive inclusive and coherent approach, involving science diplomacy.

The article shows the necessity of the newest vector of environmental law development, connected with the expansion of its spatial base to the near-Earth outer space. The historical context of the problem is being investigated, beginning with the first UN treaties on outer space. The gradual penetration of certain principles, provisions and requirements for the environmental safety of space activities into the national space and environmental legislation of space faring countries is analyzed. Taking into account foreign experience, the ways of the Ukrainian environmental law development with regard to involve outer space in the sphere of its protection are outlined.

Introduction. On 10 October 2017 the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty) celebrated fifty years from the day of its entry into force. In this same year, the world celebrates another memorable event – 60 years of the space era, which began with the successful launch of the first artificial Earth satellite. These dates once again reminded the global community that technological progress is inseparable from international law, as well as of the importance of the rule of law in such a unique sphere of human activity as outer space.Materials and methods. The materials for the article were the works of Russian and foreign researchers in the field of international space law as well as the main international treaties governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space, Resolutions of the UN General Assembly, reports of the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. As for the methodology, the author opted to employ popular scientific research methods (including dialectics, analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction, comparative legal and historical analysis).Research results. Over the past decades, the international space law (ISL) has changed, but the Outer Space Treaty, which established the basic principles of the exploration and use of outer space, remains a reliable foundation for the global space activities. With the development of private space activities specific separate states attempt to govern aspects of such activities at the national level bypassing the imperative requirements of the Outer Space Treaty. In this respect a problem of due and authentic interpretation of universal norms of the ISL is of particular relevance, which would correspond to the interests of all participants of space activities.Discussion and conclusions. In recent years the Legal Subcommittee of the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN COPUOS) has heard statements that the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty are “obsolete” and “do not correspond to reality”. It seems possible to disagree with this characteristic. For half a century none of the basic principles established in the Treaty have been challenged, both States members to the Treaty (as of 10 October 2017, 106 states ratified the Treaty and another 24 signed it) and other countries that still have not joined it respect these basics and adhere to them. The Outer Space Treaty has fulfilled its aim: to preserve outer space peaceful, weapons-free and accessible for exploration and use by all states on the basis of equality and non-discrimination.

Copyright of Zagreb Law Review is the property of University of Zagreb Law School / Pravni fakultet Sveucilista u Zagrebu and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article studies the issues of international space law and analyses the reasons for its occurrence. At the moment, space law actively develops, and space exploration has become increasingly popular and demanded. Nevertheless, this field’s legal regulations were drawn up in the mid-20th century and are now partly obsolete. Moreover, the set of space-related legal relations in regard to the exploration and use of outer space and celestial bodies undergoes significant changes. Therefore, it is of sufficient importance to seek new possible areas and improve existing means of resolving current legal issues to ensure the progress of international and national space law. Every year problems related to unregulated actions of private companies in the sector increasingly occur. This topic requires analysis to provide ways to address those gaps in international space law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the state of legal regulation of the process of organization and implementation of space tourism, defines the features of its application and its place in modern international space law. The legal norms in the field of space travel and the legal bases of their organization were analyzed. An attempt to analyze the legal status of persons taking part in space missions was made. The issue of the international legal personality of the participants of the space tourist service contract was investigated. Particular attention was paid to the legal status of space tourists. The content of the definition of "cosmonauts as messengers of humanity into space" was analyzed. The issues of the risks inherent in space tourism activities and the international legal liability of the parties to the space tourist services contract were considered. It has been stated that a space traveler has a certain amount of rights and obligations throughout the period, from the beginning of preparation to the journey and ending with the period after returning to Earth. An indicative list of space tourists' rights has been restated, and examples of their obligations and limitations in time and space have been provided. It was noted that the legal status of persons who have the status of space tourists, does not coincide with the status of professional astronauts, despite the fact that the first and second performing space travel. It is proved that the concept of "space tourist" is an integral part of the concept of "participant of space flight". The study found that space tourists have the opportunity to undertake space travel on the basis of a contract for space tourist services and solely on a commercial basis. It was stated that the activities to be conducted while the tourist is in space should be well planned and approved by a particular state body -- the national space agency of the launching country. A specific condition for the participation of a space tourist in space flight is the process of its preparation and the passage of special selection, which includes checking personal, biographical, medical information about the person, physical and mental health status, command of the language of communication and so on. The study develops the idea that to determine the concept of space tourist does not matter the period during which the specified person has already made or is just planning his space trip. The study concluded about the need for further improvement and development of the theory of space law, while taking into account modern space practices and results and experience, obtained during the implementation of contemporary space programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Throughout the history of the astronautic development, one of the key principles of international space law has always been the principle of international cooperation between States. The States jointly, although sometimes in conditions of competition or in a tense geopolitical situation, systematically moved towards the development of space science and technology, and the exploration of outer space for the benefit of all mankind. To succeed in this difficult task, the principle of information sharing has always served as an assistance to the principle of international cooperation. A striking example of how the two outlined principles are applied is the protection of the International Space Station against a possible collision with space debris. As a number of States consider exploring more celestial bodies and deep space, the importance of the principles of international cooperation and information sharing is increasing. This article focuses on these principles and their complementary roles. The first part of the article provides a retrospective analysis of the principle of international cooperation and the manner in which it is enshrined in international law, including international space law. The second part explores the principle of information sharing as a particular example of the principle of international cooperation. The conclusion of the article is that in current conditions, there is an increasing need for strict adherence to the designated principles for the realization of space activities in general as well as ensuring its safety and efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that the modern day technologies that drive our global society are highly dependent on the use of outer space. For example, daily activities such as sending emails, making phone calls and carrying out bank transactions cannot be done unless satellite technologies are involved. When you catch a plane, the air traffic control is dependent on GPS. Even natural disaster management is dependent on satellite imaging. Taking into account the importance of this, it becomes increasingly necessary to be knowledgeable in the field of international law as it is the only sphere of law that reaches beyond the physical boundaries of the Earth, goes deep into space and provides protection for today’s society. With new steps being taken to exploit further the potentials of outer space, and with increasing talk of new space missions and new discoveries, current international space law is being placed under scrutiny, for it should be remembered that the major international legal documents in this field were adopted in the middle of the 20th century, and thus there are fears that the law may have become obsolete, irrelevant in the face of new challenges in the use of outer space. This paper delivers an analysis of existing international space law and attempts to raise several crucial issues pertinent in the area.

[full article, abstract in English; abstract in Lithuanian] This article analyses the regulation of space activities, especially small satellites activities. Its purpose is to analyse the relevant international legal framework and discuss the possible future national space legislation in Lithuania. It has been divided into two chapters. Chapter 1 summarises the relevant international space law and addresses essential aspects related to the authorisation of space activities, registration of objects launched into outer space, liability issues, insurance requirements and debris mitigation issues. Chapter 2 deals with reasons to adopt the national space legislation in Lithuania and discusses what legal aspects should be covered by the national law in order to guarantee balance between the regulation and promotion of small satellite activities. Finally, it includes the Model Law on the Promotion of National Space Activities and the Establishment of a National Space Registry of the Republic of Lithuania.