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In Western societies, the rapid population ageing has led to a drastically increasing demand for long-term care (LTC). In the Netherlands, LTC is not used equally by those with a lower socioeconomic status (SES) and certain socieconomic groups might be disadvantaged. Therefore, the first aim of the present dissertation was to investigate how SES-differences in LTC use have changed over the past decades in the Netherlands, and how these changes can be explained by both individual factors and characteristics of the LTC system. In addition, potential inequalities in LTC use raise the question to what extent they affect the wellbeing of older adults. LTC plays an important role in maintaining the wellbeing of individuals with health impairments, but also leads to an undesirable dependency on caregivers. Therefore, the second aim of this dissertation was to investigate the relationship between LTC use, the subjective evaluation of LTC and psychological wellbeing. The first study investigates how and why SES-inequalities in the use of LTC have changed over time. The findings indicate that they remained similar. However, the SES-gradient in informal care widened over time: Informal care use decreased steeply among higher, but not lower SES-groups. This exacerbation of SES-inequalities persisted even when we accounted for individual factors such as health and partner status. The second study investigates to what extent defamilization as a system-characteristic can explain SES-differences in LTC use in addition to individual factors. The findings indicate that de-familization had a limited direct impact on LTC use: It is associated with less use of privately-paid care, but does not impact informal care use beyond individual characteristics. Formal care, however, was used more by lower compared to higher SES-groups in a de-familized context, but was used less by them when de-familization is limited. Thus, lower levels of de-familization threaten the equitable access to formal care by lower SES-groups. The third study investigates how long-term care trajectories look like in a time of rapid retrenchment of the LTC system for different SES-groups in the Netherlands. Five distinct types of LTC trajectories are identified: No LTC use, privately paid care use, formal care use, informal care use and residential care use. Thus, individuals generally used one main source of LTC throughout their trajectory, yet sometimes mixed with other types of care. Higher SES-groups were more likely to be members of the “privately paid care” group, but otherwise, no SES-differences could be observed. The fourth study investigates how the relationship between LTC use, perceived care sufficiency and psychological wellbeing looks like in 1998, 2008 and 2018. The findings indicate that after taking health and partner status into account, no SES-differences in psychological wellbeing can be observed. There was no negative trend in the association between LTC and wellbeing over the three years of observation. However, perceiving LTC provision as insufficient was consistently associated with worse psychological wellbeing in all time periods. This effect was stronger than that of objective LTC use and highlights the importance of the subjective evaluation of care provision. Conclusion Given the drastic effects of population ageing and increasing LTC demands, the present dissertation highlights that lower SES-groups are less disadvantaged than expected as a high proportion still receives informal or formal care. Furthermore, no SES-group was substantially disadvantaged in their psychological wellbeing, which underlines that they are generally able to adjust to a more limited welfare state. To maintain the wellbeing of older adults from all SES-groups, practitioners and policymakers should take individuals’ subjective evaluation of LTC into account to realize LTC arrangements that are in line with their needs, so that no group of older adults becomes disadvantaged.

In Western societies, the rapid population ageing has led to a drastically increasing demand for long-term care (LTC). In the Netherlands, LTC is not used equally by those with a lower socioeconomic status (SES) and certain socieconomic groups might be disadvantaged. Therefore, the first aim of the present dissertation was to investigate how SES-differences in LTC use have changed over the past decades in the Netherlands, and how these changes can be explained by both individual factors and characteristics of the LTC system. In addition, potential inequalities in LTC use raise the question to what extent they affect the wellbeing of older adults. LTC plays an important role in maintaining the wellbeing of individuals with health impairments, but also leads to an undesirable dependency on caregivers. Therefore, the second aim of this dissertation was to investigate the relationship between LTC use, the subjective evaluation of LTC and psychological wellbeing. The first study investigates how and why SES-inequalities in the use of LTC have changed over time. The findings indicate that they remained similar. However, the SES-gradient in informal care widened over time: Informal care use decreased steeply among higher, but not lower SES-groups. This exacerbation of SES-inequalities persisted even when we accounted for individual factors such as health and partner status. The second study investigates to what extent defamilization as a system-characteristic can explain SES-differences in LTC use in addition to individual factors. The findings indicate that de-familization had a limited direct impact on LTC use: It is associated with less use of privately-paid care, but does not impact informal care use beyond individual characteristics. Formal care, however, was used more by lower compared to higher SES-groups in a de-familized context, but was used less by them when de-familization is limited. Thus, lower levels of de-familization threaten the equitable access to formal care by lower SES-groups. The third study investigates how long-term care trajectories look like in a time of rapid retrenchment of the LTC system for different SES-groups in the Netherlands. Five distinct types of LTC trajectories are identified: No LTC use, privately paid care use, formal care use, informal care use and residential care use. Thus, individuals generally used one main source of LTC throughout their trajectory, yet sometimes mixed with other types of care. Higher SES-groups were more likely to be members of the “privately paid care” group, but otherwise, no SES-differences could be observed. The fourth study investigates how the relationship between LTC use, perceived care sufficiency and psychological wellbeing looks like in 1998, 2008 and 2018. The findings indicate that after taking health and partner status into account, no SES-differences in psychological wellbeing can be observed. There was no negative trend in the association between LTC and wellbeing over the three years of observation. However, perceiving LTC provision as insufficient was consistently associated with worse psychological wellbeing in all time periods. This effect was stronger than that of objective LTC use and highlights the importance of the subjective evaluation of care provision. Conclusion Given the drastic effects of population ageing and increasing LTC demands, the present dissertation highlights that lower SES-groups are less disadvantaged than expected as a high proportion still receives informal or formal care. Furthermore, no SES-group was substantially disadvantaged in their psychological wellbeing, which underlines that they are generally able to adjust to a more limited welfare state. To maintain the wellbeing of older adults from all SES-groups, practitioners and policymakers should take individuals’ subjective evaluation of LTC into account to realize LTC arrangements that are in line with their needs, so that no group of older adults becomes disadvantaged.

Inkomensbeleid en armoedebestrijding staan momenteel hoog op de politieke agenda, onder andere vanwege de hoge inflatie. Het kabinet heeft mede in dat kader op 1 januari 2023 het wettelijk minimumloon en de daaraan gekoppelde uitkeringen met 10 procent verhoogd. Het Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau (SCP) onderzocht of deze verhogingen op korte termijn ook effect zullen hebben op gezondheid en welzijn. Kwaliteit van leven gaat immers over meer dan alleen het inkomen van mensen. Hoewel de financiële maatregel van het kabinet essentieel is om ervoor te zorgen dat niet meer mensen in armoede raken, blijkt uit dit SCP-onderzoek, dat het binnen vier jaar geen verbetering in gezondheid of welzijn oplevert. Hiervoor is beleid kansrijker als het breder is dan alleen financieel of als het gericht is op risicogroepen. Uit eerder SCP-onderzoek bleek dat mensen in lagere inkomensgroepen gemiddeld een slechtere gezondheid en een lager welzijn hebben. Dit uit zich onder andere in verschillen in levensverwachting, gezondheid, medicijn- en zorggebruik en tevredenheid over het eigen leven. Het SCP onderzocht in dit rapport of de verhoging van het minimumloon naast een effect op het inkomen, ook positief bijdraagt aan de gezondheid en het welzijn van mensen.

This dissertation examined the long-term outcomes after CSA on domains related to the transition to adulthood: relationships, parenthood, criminal careers, and income and employment. First, a systematic review was conducted of the literature on the effect of CSA on education, employment, offending, relationships, and parenting. From the literature it appears that, in general, CSA victims differ from non-victims not so much in that they less often fulfill adult roles, but that they experience lower quality of some of these roles. Findings also showed that CSA victims on average end up at lower educational levels than non-victims. Additionally, CSA victims appear more likely to be arrested in adulthood. CSA was also consistently found to be related to more partner violence, increased risk of divorce or separation, and teenage parenthood. Furthermore, CSA victims tend to have less positive experiences as a parent. In a first empirical study, the effect of CSA characteristics on family outcomes was studied. For that, a prospective study design was employed, with data on CSA gathered from court files. The outcomes were measured from register data, 30 years after the abuse. Overall, it was found that the relationship to the offender and the age at which the abuse happened, impacted outcomes more than the specific nature of the abuse. More specifically, it was found firstly that the younger victims were at the time of abuse, the less likely they were to marry. Abuse by a nuclear family member increased the odds of early marriage. Secondly, CSA victims abused by a nuclear family member were more than twice as likely to divorce compared to victims of abuse by a stranger. Thirdly, victims of CSA perpetrated by a nuclear family member were more likely to become a teenage parent than victims of other perpetrators. In a second empirical study, the effect of CSA victimization on recorded offending was studied. A number of pre-existing child, family, and environmental factors was controlled for by including not only a control group comprised of people from the general population of similar age and gender as the victims, but also a control group of same-sex siblings. Offending rates among victims were found to be the highest, followed by siblings, while rates of offending were lowest among random controls. Male victims did not differ in their offending behavior from their brothers, while female victims were only slightly more likely to offend than their sisters. CSA victims who offended committed all sorts of offenses, instead of ‘specializing’ in one type of crime such as sex offenses. In a third empirical study, the effect of CSA victimization on income, employment and social benefits was studied. CSA victims were found to have been less often employed than random controls, but not less than their siblings. Victims had lower quality employment than controls, but again not significantly lower than their siblings. Victims had lower incomes than random controls, as well as lower incomes than their siblings. Victims were more often recipients of incapacity benefits than both random controls and siblings. Regarding unemployment benefits none of the groups differed. Victims depended more often on subsistence benefits than random controls, as previous research found, but not more so than their siblings. This dissertation is scientifically relevant as it overcame some important shortcomings in previous research on CSA and the adaptation of adult roles. First, by employing a sibling design, which enabled us to partly control for shared pre-existing characteristics. Second, by using prospective data, with, third, an independent assessment of CSA victimization. Fourth, prospectively gathered officially registered objective data on adult role outcomes, with, fifth, no loss to follow-up.

This dissertation examined the long-term outcomes after CSA on domains related to the transition to adulthood: relationships, parenthood, criminal careers, and income and employment. First, a systematic review was conducted of the literature on the effect of CSA on education, employment, offending, relationships, and parenting. From the literature it appears that, in general, CSA victims differ from non-victims not so much in that they less often fulfill adult roles, but that they experience lower quality of some of these roles. Findings also showed that CSA victims on average end up at lower educational levels than non-victims. Additionally, CSA victims appear more likely to be arrested in adulthood. CSA was also consistently found to be related to more partner violence, increased risk of divorce or separation, and teenage parenthood. Furthermore, CSA victims tend to have less positive experiences as a parent. In a first empirical study, the effect of CSA characteristics on family outcomes was studied. For that, a prospective study design was employed, with data on CSA gathered from court files. The outcomes were measured from register data, 30 years after the abuse. Overall, it was found that the relationship to the offender and the age at which the abuse happened, impacted outcomes more than the specific nature of the abuse. More specifically, it was found firstly that the younger victims were at the time of abuse, the less likely they were to marry. Abuse by a nuclear family member increased the odds of early marriage. Secondly, CSA victims abused by a nuclear family member were more than twice as likely to divorce compared to victims of abuse by a stranger. Thirdly, victims of CSA perpetrated by a nuclear family member were more likely to become a teenage parent than victims of other perpetrators. In a second empirical study, the effect of CSA victimization on recorded offending was studied. A number of pre-existing child, family, and environmental factors was controlled for by including not only a control group comprised of people from the general population of similar age and gender as the victims, but also a control group of same-sex siblings. Offending rates among victims were found to be the highest, followed by siblings, while rates of offending were lowest among random controls. Male victims did not differ in their offending behavior from their brothers, while female victims were only slightly more likely to offend than their sisters. CSA victims who offended committed all sorts of offenses, instead of ‘specializing’ in one type of crime such as sex offenses. In a third empirical study, the effect of CSA victimization on income, employment and social benefits was studied. CSA victims were found to have been less often employed than random controls, but not less than their siblings. Victims had lower quality employment than controls, but again not significantly lower than their siblings. Victims had lower incomes than random controls, as well as lower incomes than their siblings. Victims were more often recipients of incapacity benefits than both random controls and siblings. Regarding unemployment benefits none of the groups differed. Victims depended more often on subsistence benefits than random controls, as previous research found, but not more so than their siblings. This dissertation is scientifically relevant as it overcame some important shortcomings in previous research on CSA and the adaptation of adult roles. First, by employing a sibling design, which enabled us to partly control for shared pre-existing characteristics. Second, by using prospective data, with, third, an independent assessment of CSA victimization. Fourth, prospectively gathered officially registered objective data on adult role outcomes, with, fifth, no loss to follow-up.

This dissertation examined the long-term outcomes after CSA on domains related to the transition to adulthood: relationships, parenthood, criminal careers, and income and employment. First, a systematic review was conducted of the literature on the effect of CSA on education, employment, offending, relationships, and parenting. From the literature it appears that, in general, CSA victims differ from non-victims not so much in that they less often fulfill adult roles, but that they experience lower quality of some of these roles. Findings also showed that CSA victims on average end up at lower educational levels than non-victims. Additionally, CSA victims appear more likely to be arrested in adulthood. CSA was also consistently found to be related to more partner violence, increased risk of divorce or separation, and teenage parenthood. Furthermore, CSA victims tend to have less positive experiences as a parent. In a first empirical study, the effect of CSA characteristics on family outcomes was studied. For that, a prospective study design was employed, with data on CSA gathered from court files. The outcomes were measured from register data, 30 years after the abuse. Overall, it was found that the relationship to the offender and the age at which the abuse happened, impacted outcomes more than the specific nature of the abuse. More specifically, it was found firstly that the younger victims were at the time of abuse, the less likely they were to marry. Abuse by a nuclear family member increased the odds of early marriage. Secondly, CSA victims abused by a nuclear family member were more than twice as likely to divorce compared to victims of abuse by a stranger. Thirdly, victims of CSA perpetrated by a nuclear family member were more likely to become a teenage parent than victims of other perpetrators. In a second empirical study, the effect of CSA victimization on recorded offending was studied. A number of pre-existing child, family, and environmental factors was controlled for by including not only a control group comprised of people from the general population of similar age and gender as the victims, but also a control group of same-sex siblings. Offending rates among victims were found to be the highest, followed by siblings, while rates of offending were lowest among random controls. Male victims did not differ in their offending behavior from their brothers, while female victims were only slightly more likely to offend than their sisters. CSA victims who offended committed all sorts of offenses, instead of ‘specializing’ in one type of crime such as sex offenses. In a third empirical study, the effect of CSA victimization on income, employment and social benefits was studied. CSA victims were found to have been less often employed than random controls, but not less than their siblings. Victims had lower quality employment than controls, but again not significantly lower than their siblings. Victims had lower incomes than random controls, as well as lower incomes than their siblings. Victims were more often recipients of incapacity benefits than both random controls and siblings. Regarding unemployment benefits none of the groups differed. Victims depended more often on subsistence benefits than random controls, as previous research found, but not more so than their siblings. This dissertation is scientifically relevant as it overcame some important shortcomings in previous research on CSA and the adaptation of adult roles. First, by employing a sibling design, which enabled us to partly control for shared pre-existing characteristics. Second, by using prospective data, with, third, an independent assessment of CSA victimization. Fourth, prospectively gathered officially registered objective data on adult role outcomes, with, fifth, no loss to follow-up.

Artikel 'Nederlanders vinden dat ze redelijk verdienen' gepubliceerd via online platform 'Sociale vraagstukken' categorie 'Ongelijkheid' d.d. 5 november 2020.

The dutch dairy sector has shown a strong development in the last decades, resulting in fewer but larger and more specialised farms. Larger farms and more intensive ways of production have raised concerns about environmental impacts. This paper shows that there is a clear economic incentive to increase the scale of production. Larger farms tend to show better economic results in terms of lower cost prices and higher incomes. The environmental results are more diverse and depend on the chosen indicators. Larger farms are able to include environmental objectives in their farm management when there are clear incentives to do so. These incentives can be provided by policies, but also by private sector initiatives. Several sustainability initiatives have been developed to monitor and improve the sustainability performance of farms. Our current way of agricultural production is faced with several sustainability challenges. Circular food systems are expected to contribute to the solution of these challenges. In the Netherlands, policy measures and sector initiatives are developed to increase sustainability and to implement and experiment with the concept of Circular Agriculture. This concept is deliberately broadly defined. However, to guide development towards more sustainable production systems, it requires objective parameters and goals at different levels of scale. This would allow all stakeholders to develop solutions in their own circumstances and objectively evaluate progress. One of the bottlenecks of the transition towards more circular food systems is the search for new business models for farmers. Some frontrunners are currently developing new circular farming businesses. These innovative (social) entrepreneurs are experimenting with new business models that contribute to the realisation of circular agriculture. This paper describes methods that have been developed to assist farmers but also regional governments in the transition to a more sustainable agriculture and the development of new business models. Developing new business models together with frontrunners is just a first step. Questions like ’How to broaden these initiatives to sector level?’, ‘How to provide effective incentives?’, ‘How to incorporate external effects in prices?’ and ‘What are the costs of farm investments or practices to improve sustainability?’ and ‘Who should pay for a more circular agriculture?’ are still very much unanswered.

The dutch dairy sector has shown a strong development in the last decades, resulting in fewer but larger and more specialised farms. Larger farms and more intensive ways of production have raised concerns about environmental impacts. This paper shows that there is a clear economic incentive to increase the scale of production. Larger farms tend to show better economic results in terms of lower cost prices and higher incomes. The environmental results are more diverse and depend on the chosen indicators. Larger farms are able to include environmental objectives in their farm management when there are clear incentives to do so. These incentives can be provided by policies, but also by private sector initiatives. Several sustainability initiatives have been developed to monitor and improve the sustainability performance of farms. Our current way of agricultural production is faced with several sustainability challenges. Circular food systems are expected to contribute to the solution of these challenges. In the Netherlands, policy measures and sector initiatives are developed to increase sustainability and to implement and experiment with the concept of Circular Agriculture. This concept is deliberately broadly defined. However, to guide development towards more sustainable production systems, it requires objective parameters and goals at different levels of scale. This would allow all stakeholders to develop solutions in their own circumstances and objectively evaluate progress. One of the bottlenecks of the transition towards more circular food systems is the search for new business models for farmers. Some frontrunners are currently developing new circular farming businesses. These innovative (social) entrepreneurs are experimenting with new business models that contribute to the realisation of circular agriculture. This paper describes methods that have been developed to assist farmers but also regional governments in the transition to a more sustainable agriculture and the development of new business models. Developing new business models together with frontrunners is just a first step. Questions like ’How to broaden these initiatives to sector level?’, ‘How to provide effective incentives?’, ‘How to incorporate external effects in prices?’ and ‘What are the costs of farm investments or practices to improve sustainability?’ and ‘Who should pay for a more circular agriculture?’ are still very much unanswered.

Hoewel betaalde arbeid in het beleid vaak als remedie tegen armoede wordt gezien, blijkt keer op keer dat een aanzienlijk deel van de armen werk heeft. Deze studie verkent de achtergronden van het hardnekkige probleem van de working poor. Er zijn drie paden waarlangs zelfstandigen en mensen in loondienst arm kunnen worden: te weinig gewerkte uren, te lage verdiensten per uur en hoge lasten. Die paden worden theoretisch gestuurd door de maatschappelijke omstandigheden en door de formele en informele spelregels die in de samenleving gelden (wetten en regelingen, onderlinge gedragsverwachtingen). Vanuit dit perspectief brengt het empirische deel van de studie ‘werkende armoede’ op drie niveaus in kaart: nationaal, gemeentelijk en landenvergelijkend. Dit mondt uit in enkele overwegingen bij het landelijke en lokale beleid.

Veenkoloniale boeren moeten het gat vullen dat ontstaat door het wegvallen van inkomenssteun uit Brussel. Innovatieprogramma Landbouw Veenkoloniën draagt eraan bij met elf innovatieprojecten.

The economic history of Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by geographically and temporally dispersed booms and busts. The export-led ‘cash-crop revolution’ in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa during the colonial era is a key example of an economic boom. This thesis examines how external influences and local realities shaped the nature, extent and impact of the ‘cash-crop revolution’ in colonial Uganda, a landlocked country in central east Africa, where cotton and coffee production for global markets took off following completion of a railway to the coast. The thesis consists of five targeted ‘interventions’ into contemporary debates of comparative African development. Each of these five interventions is grounded in the understanding that the ability of rural Africans to respond to and benefit from trade integration during the colonial era was mediated by colonial policies, resource endowments and local institutions. The first chapter reconstructs welfare development of Ugandan cash-crop farmers. Recent scholarship on historical welfare development in Sub-Saharan Africa has uncovered long-term trends in standards of living. How the majority of rural dwellers fared, however, remains largely elusive. This chapter presents a new approach to reconstructing rural living standards in a historical context, building upon the well-established real wage literature, but moving beyond it to capture rural realities, employing sub-national rural survey, census, and price data. The approach is applied to colonial and early post-colonial Uganda (1915–70), and yields a number of findings. While an expanding smallholder-based cash-crop sector established itself as the backbone of Uganda’s colonial economy, farm characteristics remained largely stagnant after the initial adoption of cash crops. Smallholders maintained living standards well above subsistence level, and while the profitability of cash crops was low, their cultivation provided a reliable source of cash income. At the same time, there were pronounced limits to rural welfare expansion. Around the time of decolonization, unskilled wages rose rapidly while farm incomes lagged behind. As a result, an urban–rural income reversal took place. The study also reveals considerable differences within Uganda, which were mediated to an important extent by differential resource endowments. Smallholders in Uganda’s banana regions required fewer labour inputs to maintain a farm income than their grain-farming counterparts, creating opportunities for additional income generation and livelihood diversification. The second chapter zooms in on labour migration which connected Belgian-controlled Ruanda-Urundi to British-controlled Buganda, the central province of Uganda on the shores of Lake Victoria. The emergence of new labour mobility patterns was a key aspect of economic change in colonial Africa. Under conditions of land abundance and labour scarcity, the supply of wage labour required either the ‘pull’ forces of attractive working conditions and high wages, or the ‘push’ forces of taxation and other deliberate colonial interventions. Building upon primary sources, I show that this case diverges from the ‘conventional’ narrative of labour scarcity in colonial Africa. I argue that Ruanda-Urundi should be regarded as labour abundant and that migrants were not primarily ‘pushed’ by colonial labour policies, but rather by poverty and limited access to agricultural resources. This explains why they were willing to work for low wages in Buganda. I show that African rural employers were the primary beneficiaries of migrant labour, while colonial governments on both sides of the border were unable to control the course of the flow. As in the first chapter, this chapter highlights that the effects of trade integration on African rural development were uneven, and mediated by differences in resource endowments, local institutions and colonial policies. The third chapter zooms out of the rural economy, evaluating the broader opportunity structures faced by African men and women in Uganda, and discussing the interaction of local institutions and colonial policies as drivers of uneven educational and occupational opportunities. The chapter engages with a recent article by Meier zu Selhausen and Weisdorf (2016) to show how selection biases in, and Eurocentric interpretations of, parish registers have provoked an overly optimistic account of European influences on the educational and occupational opportunities of African men and women. We confront their dataset, drawn from the marriage registers of the Anglican Cathedral in Kampala, with Uganda’s 1991 census, and show that trends in literacy and numeracy of men and women born in Kampala lagged half a century behind those who wedded in Namirembe Cathedral. We run a regression analysis showing that access to schooling during the colonial era was unequal along lines of gender and ethnicity. We foreground the role of Africans in the spread of education, argue that European influences were not just diffusive but also divisive, and that gender inequality was reconfigured rather than eliminated under colonial rule. This chapter also makes a methodological contribution. The renaissance of African economic history in the past decade has opened up new research avenues to study the long-term social and economic development of Africa. We show that a sensitive treatment of African realities in the evaluation of European colonial legacies, and a critical stance towards the use of new sources and approaches, is crucial. The fourth chapter singles out the role of resource endowments in explaining Uganda’s ‘cotton revolution’ in a comparative African perspective. Why did some African smallholders adopt cash crops on a considerable scale, while most others were hesitant to do so? The chapter sets out to explore the importance of factor endowments in shaping the degrees to which cash crops were adopted in colonial tropical Africa. We conduct an in-depth case study of the ‘cotton revolution’ in colonial Uganda to put the factor endowments perspective to the test. Our empirical findings, based on an annual panel data analysis at the district-level from 1925 until 1960, underscore the importance of Uganda’s equatorial bimodal rainfall distribution as an enabling factor for its ‘cotton revolution’. Evidence is provided at a unique spatial micro-level, capitalizing on detailed household surveys from the same period. We demonstrate that previous explanations associating the variegated responses of African farmers to cash crops with, either the role of colonial coercion, or the distinction between ‘forest/banana’ and ‘savannah/grain’ zones, cannot explain the widespread adoption of cotton in Uganda. We argue, instead, that the key to the cotton revolution were Uganda’s two rainy seasons, which enabled farmers to grow cotton while simultaneously pursuing food security. Our study highlights the importance of food security and labour seasonality as important determinants of uneven agricultural commercialization in colonial tropical Africa. The fifth and final chapter further investigates the experience of African smallholders with cotton cultivation, providing a comparative explanatory analysis of variegated cotton outcomes, focusing in particular on the role of colonial and post-colonial policies. The chapter challenges the widely accepted view that (i) African colonial cotton projects consistently failed, that (ii) this failure should be attributed to conditions particular to Africa, which made export cotton inherently unviable and unprofitable to farmers, and that (iii) the repression and resistance often associated with cotton, all resulted from the stubborn and overbearing insistence of colonial governments on the crop per se. I argue along three lines. Firstly, to show that cotton outcomes were diverse, I compare cases of cotton production in Sub-Saharan Africa across time and space. Secondly, to refute the idea that cotton was a priori unattractive, I argue that the crop had substantial potential to connect farmers to markets and contribute to poverty alleviation, particularly in vulnerable, marginal and landlocked areas. Thirdly, to illustrate how an interaction between local conditions and government policies created conducive conditions for cotton adoption, I zoom in on the few yet significant ‘cotton success stories’ in twentieth century Africa. Smallholders in colonial Uganda adopted cotton because of favourable ecological and marketing conditions, and policies had an auxiliary positive effect. Smallholders in post-colonial Francophone West Africa faced much more challenging local conditions, but benefitted from effective external intervention and coordinated policy. On a more general level, this chapter demonstrates that, from a perspective of rural development, colonial policies should not only be seen as overbearing and interventionist, but also as inadequate, failing to aid rural Africans to benefit from new opportunities created by trade integration.

Er valt nog een wereld te winnen in de samenwerking tussen wetenschap en praktijk binnen het werkveld van werk en inkomen. Waar wetenschappelijke en praktijkkennis samenvallen, zou er geen beletsel mogen zijn om deze kennis toe te passen. Dat beletsel zit hem nu nog te vaak in het zich verschuilen op comfortabele verstopplekken; achter de organisatie en achter de professional bijvoorbeeld. Dat geldt voor de uitvoerende, de manager, de bestuurder, maar ook voor de wetenschapper. Dit artikel is met toestemming van de redactie overgenomen uit Sociaal Bestek, 2017,nr.4.

Er valt nog een wereld te winnen in de samenwerking tussen wetenschap en praktijk binnen het werkveld van werk en inkomen. Waar wetenschappelijke en praktijkkennis samenvallen, zou er geen beletsel mogen zijn om deze kennis toe te passen. Dat beletsel zit hem nu nog te vaak in het zich verschuilen op comfortabele verstopplekken; achter de organisatie en achter de professional bijvoorbeeld. Dat geldt voor de uitvoerende, de manager, de bestuurder, maar ook voor de wetenschapper. Dit artikel is met toestemming van de redactie overgenomen uit Sociaal Bestek, 2017,nr.4.

To shed more light on the position of women in tourism, in this thesis I examined the ways women in Zanzibar have incorporated working in tourism in their daily lives by comparing those who work in tourism as entrepreneurs with employees, working in hotels and restaurants. Conceptually my thesis is framed within Weick’s theory of enactment, with special focus on the concept of sensemaking. I used this particular framework to understand how women either reinforce or resist gendered identities by constantly ‘enacting’ their environments. My research showed that the position of women in Zanzibar is highly influenced by religion, marital status and level of education. However, since women make sense of the environment in different ways, perceive different opportunities and constraints, and on the basis of these make different choices, I recommended that programmes customised according to the differences among women should be developed. Second, I argued that these tailor-made programmes should focus on four interventions: education and training, working conditions, self-organisation and microcredit.

Summary Tourism can have a broad range of impacts, including impact on the economy, on the natural and built environment, on the local population, and on visitors themselves. This PhD thesis discussed the measurement of regional economic impacts of tourism, including impacts on output, value added, and employment caused by visitor expenditure. The focus was on the choice between models that can be used to calculate these regional economic impacts and the data requirements, usage, and further development of one specific model; the Input-Output (I-O) model. The starting point of an I-O model is final demand, which is the value of goods and services bought by final users for the direct fulfilment of their needs and wants. In tourism this refers to the value of the goods and services bought by visitors. Final demand brings about a chain of production. First, goods and services that are part of final demand need to be produced. This requires production factors (i.e., capital and labour) as well as intermediate inputs. These intermediate inputs also need to be produced, again requiring production factors and a subsequent ‘level’ of intermediate inputs. Combining final demand and all ‘levels’ of intermediate inputs, an I-O model enables calculation of the total output required to satisfy final demand. An I-O model can be an appropriate choice for an economic impact analysis (EIA) in the following context: Relevant data exist on (the change of) final demand, i.e. visitors expenditure per industry; There is an I-O table on the appropriate spatial scale; Impacts are analysed of (a change in) final demand; The assumption ‘no scarcity of production factors’ is acceptable (which implies there are no relative prices changes, input substitution and redistribution of production factors among industries); The assumption ‘no productivity changes’ is acceptable (final demand changes do not lead to productivity changes, e.g. employees working longer, harder or more efficiently); There is interest in indirect impacts on output, value added, income and/or employment per industry, while there is little interest in induced impacts, spatial considerations, temporal consideration, social impacts, environmental impacts, and economic externalities. Indirect impacts are impact generated by the production of intermediary inputs. Not all EIAs in tourism will be carried out within such a context. In some EIAs one or more of these conditions are not met. The overall goal of this research was to improve the measurement of the regional economic impacts of tourism by Establishing criteria based on which an appropriate economic impact model can be selected for an EIA in tourism and; Providing solutions for those situations where an Input Output table on the appropriate spatial scale is not available; and/or analysis is required of different ‘shocks’ than final demand changes; and/or the assumption ‘no scarcity of production factors’ cannot be accepted (which implies there can be relative prices changes, input substitution and/or redistribution of production factors among industries); and/or the assumption ‘no productivity changes’ cannot be accepted without introducing prohibitive complexity and data demands to an I-O model. This overall objective was subdivided into the following specific objectives: Provide an overview and evaluation of the criteria for the selection of economic impact models. Provide an explanation for the sign of the difference between regional I-O coefficients calculated between two alternative location quotient (LQ) methods, for all combinations of demanding and supplying industries. To analyze medical tourism’s state-level economic impacts in Malaysia. Address the limitations of I-O models and ‘upgrade’ the I-O model, without introducing the complexity and data collection costs associated with a full Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. To include labour productivity changes, caused by a change in final demand in the tourism industries, into a non-linear I-O (NLIO) model. Each of these specific objectives was discussed in a separate chapter. Chapter 2 discussed criteria to choose between economic impact models, when carrying out an EIA in tourism. Based on the literature review 52 potential criteria were identified. After consulting experts in tourism and/or EIAs 24 of these 52 criteria were identified as essential. These essential criteria were used to compare the five economic impact models that are most used in EIAs in tourism; Export Base, Keynesian, Ad hoc, I-O, and CGE models. The results show that CGE models are the preferred choice for many of the criteria. Their detail and flexibility potentially lead to more realistic outcomes. However, CGE models do not ‘score’ high on criteria related to transparency, efficiency, and comparability. Multiplier models (Keynesian, Export Base and Ad Hoc) score high on these criteria, but the realism of their results is limited. I-O models are an “in-between” option for many criteria, which explains their extensive usage in EIAs in tourism. Nonetheless, I-O models have some important disadvantages, most notably their strong assumptions (‘no scarcity of production factors’ and ‘no productivity changes’), which limit the realism of their results. Although the choice of a model should always depend on the specific context of each EIA, the general conclusion is that an ‘ideal model’ for many applications could be found somewhere in between I-O and CGE. The challenge, however, is to extend the I-O model, while keeping the complexity and data demands to a minimum. This conclusion provided the motivation for the application and further development of an NLIO model, in chapters 5 and 6. Both I-O and NLIO models require the existence of an I-O table on the appropriate spatial scale. For a regional I-O analysis an I-O table needs to be available for the specific region. When such a table is not available, it can be created using LQ methods. The four most used LQ methods are Simple Location Quotient, Cross Industry Location Quotient, Round’s Location Quotient, and Flegg’s Location Quotient (FLQ). The size of the regional I-O coefficients (RIOCs), which are derived from a regional I-O table, directly influences the results of an EIA. An over- or underestimation of RIOCs can lead to over- or underestimation of economic impacts. It is therefore very important to understand the differences between LQ methods and the consequences for the RIOCs. Chapter 3 showed that the ranking in size of the RIOCs, generated by the four LQ methods, depends on the J-value of demanding industries (output of industry j on regional level divided by output of industry j on national level). The conditions were calculated under which FLQ, the LQ method which was developed to avoid overestimation, leads to the lowest RIOCs47. Although this chapter does not provide a complete answer to question which LQ method to use in an EIA it does show that a choice for the FLQ method could be motivated by the wish to arrive at a careful estimate of regional economic impacts and to avoid or limit overestimation. In chapter 4 the FLQ method was used to create RIOCs for nine Malaysian states. These RIOCs were used to calculate state-level economic impacts of medical tourism based on regional I-O models. It was shown that impacts related to non-medical expenditure of medical tourists (USD 273.7 million) are larger than impacts related to medical expenditure (USD 104.9 million) and that indirect impacts (USD 95.4 million) make up a substantial part of total impacts (USD 372.3 million). Data limitations implied that strong assumptions were required to estimate final demand by medical tourists, specifically regarding their non-medical expenditure and allocation of this expenditure to industries of the I-O model. In chapter 5 the I-O model was “upgraded” to a NLIO model, by replacing the Leontief production function, underlying the I-O model with a Constant Elasticity of Substitution (CES) production function. Thereby the main drawback of the I-O model, the need to accept the assumption of ‘no scarcity of production factors’ was thus eliminated. The analysis performed showed that, for large changes of final demand, an NLIO model is more useful than an I-O model because relative prices changes are likely, leading to substitution and redistribution of production factors between industries. The NLIO takes this into account. Impacts can be higher or lower than in the I-O model, depending on assumptions about capacity constraints, production factor mobility and substitution elasticities. Relative price changes, substitution, and redistribution are less likely for a small change of final demand. In that case most realistic results are achieved by accepting assuming ‘no scarcity of production factors’, as in case of the I-O model. To analyze impacts of other types of ‘shock’ than final demand changes, such as a change of subsidies, an I-O model is not an option. A more flexible model is required, such as a NLIO model. A NLIO model requires additional assumptions and/or data. First, researchers need to choose the appropriate assumption regarding the functioning of factor markets and production factor mobility between industries. Second, the NLIO model forces the researcher to specify the substitution elasticities, instead of implicitly assuming an elasticity of zero (as in the I-O model). Compared to a CGE model, the NLIO model offers the advantage that it is not dependent on the existence of a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) on the appropriate spatial scale, while the production structure is identical. Furthermore, using a CGE model introduces additional complexity as it requires the specification of the relationships between income and final demand, including issues such as income transfers and income taxation. In chapter 6 labour productivity changes, that result from final demand changes were included into the NLIO model, thereby integrating productivity changes. A differentiation was made between real and quasi productivity changes and productivity changes for core and peripheral labour. Real productivity changes (changes that enable the production of more output per unit of labour) were integrated by introducing Factor Augmenting Technical Change (FATC) based on an endogenous specification. Quasi productivity changes (substitution of labour by other inputs which automatically leads to higher labour productivity) were already integrated into the NLIO based on the CES production function. The differentiation between core and peripheral labour was integrated by a smaller potential change of FATC for peripheral labour, implying less room for productivity changes. The NLIO model with and without FATC was applied to calculate impacts of a 10% increase of expenditure in tourism in the province of Zeeland in the Netherlands. Accounting for FATC leads to less usage of labour in the tourism industries as productivity increases allow output to be produced using fewer inputs. This implies lower marginal costs, which leads to lower output prices. These relative input and output price changes stimulate substitution and quasi productivity changes. To what degree the NLIO with FATC leads to more realistic results than the NLIO without FATC depends vitally on the specification of FATC, the differentiation between core and peripheral labour, and the labour supply function. All these elements require additional assumptions and/or data. For some EIAs the NLIO is an improvement compared to the I-O model because it does not require the assumption ‘no scarcity of production factors’ to be accepted. In the NLIO with FATC neither the assumption of ‘no scarcity of production factors’ nor the assumption of ‘no productivity changes’ is required. In chapter 7 are discussed considerations related to the acceptance or rejection of these two assumptions. Rejection of ‘no scarcity of production factors’ can be appropriate in EIAs in large regions, of large changes of final demand, in regions with limited or no unused labour and capital, in long term analyses, in regions with low factor mobility from and to other regions, and for impact analyses (instead of significance analyses). Acceptance or rejection of the assumption ‘no productivity changes’ depends on the degree to which labour productivity changes can be expected as a result of a final demand change, a consideration which requires expert judgment. This research makes several contributions to the measurement of the regional economic impacts of tourism: 24 essential criteria that can be used to select a model for application in an economic impact analysis. Although the decision which criteria to consider, and how to weigh these criteria, should always be made on a case specific basis the essential criteria provide a good starting point This thesis provides additional insights into the differences between the regional I-O coefficients and total output multipliers generated by the four LQ methods. Furthermore, it was shown that a choice for FLQ could be motivated by the wish to avoid or limit overestimation of regional economic impacts. The NLIO model with endogenous factor augmenting technical change enables a calculation of economic impacts of tourism in contexts where the I-O model is not the most appropriate choice. The NLIO model namely allows for measurement of different ‘shocks’ than final demand changes and can be applied in context where the assumptions ‘no scarcity of production factors’ and/or ‘no productivity change’ are untenable. When applying an NLIO model, the added realism compared to the I-O model needs to be weighed against the need to make additional assumptions, collect additional data, and deal with the more complex nature of this model. In this perspective the NLIO model does compare favourably to the CGE Model, often presented as a more realistic alternative to the I-O model, because it does not depend on data on the relationships between income and final demand (i.e. the need for a SAM).

Summary Tourism can have a broad range of impacts, including impact on the economy, on the natural and built environment, on the local population, and on visitors themselves. This PhD thesis discussed the measurement of regional economic impacts of tourism, including impacts on output, value added, and employment caused by visitor expenditure. The focus was on the choice between models that can be used to calculate these regional economic impacts and the data requirements, usage, and further development of one specific model; the Input-Output (I-O) model. The starting point of an I-O model is final demand, which is the value of goods and services bought by final users for the direct fulfilment of their needs and wants. In tourism this refers to the value of the goods and services bought by visitors. Final demand brings about a chain of production. First, goods and services that are part of final demand need to be produced. This requires production factors (i.e., capital and labour) as well as intermediate inputs. These intermediate inputs also need to be produced, again requiring production factors and a subsequent ‘level’ of intermediate inputs. Combining final demand and all ‘levels’ of intermediate inputs, an I-O model enables calculation of the total output required to satisfy final demand. An I-O model can be an appropriate choice for an economic impact analysis (EIA) in the following context: Relevant data exist on (the change of) final demand, i.e. visitors expenditure per industry; There is an I-O table on the appropriate spatial scale; Impacts are analysed of (a change in) final demand; The assumption ‘no scarcity of production factors’ is acceptable (which implies there are no relative prices changes, input substitution and redistribution of production factors among industries); The assumption ‘no productivity changes’ is acceptable (final demand changes do not lead to productivity changes, e.g. employees working longer, harder or more efficiently); There is interest in indirect impacts on output, value added, income and/or employment per industry, while there is little interest in induced impacts, spatial considerations, temporal consideration, social impacts, environmental impacts, and economic externalities. Indirect impacts are impact generated by the production of intermediary inputs. Not all EIAs in tourism will be carried out within such a context. In some EIAs one or more of these conditions are not met. The overall goal of this research was to improve the measurement of the regional economic impacts of tourism by Establishing criteria based on which an appropriate economic impact model can be selected for an EIA in tourism and; Providing solutions for those situations where an Input Output table on the appropriate spatial scale is not available; and/or analysis is required of different ‘shocks’ than final demand changes; and/or the assumption ‘no scarcity of production factors’ cannot be accepted (which implies there can be relative prices changes, input substitution and/or redistribution of production factors among industries); and/or the assumption ‘no productivity changes’ cannot be accepted without introducing prohibitive complexity and data demands to an I-O model. This overall objective was subdivided into the following specific objectives: Provide an overview and evaluation of the criteria for the selection of economic impact models. Provide an explanation for the sign of the difference between regional I-O coefficients calculated between two alternative location quotient (LQ) methods, for all combinations of demanding and supplying industries. To analyze medical tourism’s state-level economic impacts in Malaysia. Address the limitations of I-O models and ‘upgrade’ the I-O model, without introducing the complexity and data collection costs associated with a full Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. To include labour productivity changes, caused by a change in final demand in the tourism industries, into a non-linear I-O (NLIO) model. Each of these specific objectives was discussed in a separate chapter. Chapter 2 discussed criteria to choose between economic impact models, when carrying out an EIA in tourism. Based on the literature review 52 potential criteria were identified. After consulting experts in tourism and/or EIAs 24 of these 52 criteria were identified as essential. These essential criteria were used to compare the five economic impact models that are most used in EIAs in tourism; Export Base, Keynesian, Ad hoc, I-O, and CGE models. The results show that CGE models are the preferred choice for many of the criteria. Their detail and flexibility potentially lead to more realistic outcomes. However, CGE models do not ‘score’ high on criteria related to transparency, efficiency, and comparability. Multiplier models (Keynesian, Export Base and Ad Hoc) score high on these criteria, but the realism of their results is limited. I-O models are an “in-between” option for many criteria, which explains their extensive usage in EIAs in tourism. Nonetheless, I-O models have some important disadvantages, most notably their strong assumptions (‘no scarcity of production factors’ and ‘no productivity changes’), which limit the realism of their results. Although the choice of a model should always depend on the specific context of each EIA, the general conclusion is that an ‘ideal model’ for many applications could be found somewhere in between I-O and CGE. The challenge, however, is to extend the I-O model, while keeping the complexity and data demands to a minimum. This conclusion provided the motivation for the application and further development of an NLIO model, in chapters 5 and 6. Both I-O and NLIO models require the existence of an I-O table on the appropriate spatial scale. For a regional I-O analysis an I-O table needs to be available for the specific region. When such a table is not available, it can be created using LQ methods. The four most used LQ methods are Simple Location Quotient, Cross Industry Location Quotient, Round’s Location Quotient, and Flegg’s Location Quotient (FLQ). The size of the regional I-O coefficients (RIOCs), which are derived from a regional I-O table, directly influences the results of an EIA. An over- or underestimation of RIOCs can lead to over- or underestimation of economic impacts. It is therefore very important to understand the differences between LQ methods and the consequences for the RIOCs. Chapter 3 showed that the ranking in size of the RIOCs, generated by the four LQ methods, depends on the J-value of demanding industries (output of industry j on regional level divided by output of industry j on national level). The conditions were calculated under which FLQ, the LQ method which was developed to avoid overestimation, leads to the lowest RIOCs47. Although this chapter does not provide a complete answer to question which LQ method to use in an EIA it does show that a choice for the FLQ method could be motivated by the wish to arrive at a careful estimate of regional economic impacts and to avoid or limit overestimation. In chapter 4 the FLQ method was used to create RIOCs for nine Malaysian states. These RIOCs were used to calculate state-level economic impacts of medical tourism based on regional I-O models. It was shown that impacts related to non-medical expenditure of medical tourists (USD 273.7 million) are larger than impacts related to medical expenditure (USD 104.9 million) and that indirect impacts (USD 95.4 million) make up a substantial part of total impacts (USD 372.3 million). Data limitations implied that strong assumptions were required to estimate final demand by medical tourists, specifically regarding their non-medical expenditure and allocation of this expenditure to industries of the I-O model. In chapter 5 the I-O model was “upgraded” to a NLIO model, by replacing the Leontief production function, underlying the I-O model with a Constant Elasticity of Substitution (CES) production function. Thereby the main drawback of the I-O model, the need to accept the assumption of ‘no scarcity of production factors’ was thus eliminated. The analysis performed showed that, for large changes of final demand, an NLIO model is more useful than an I-O model because relative prices changes are likely, leading to substitution and redistribution of production factors between industries. The NLIO takes this into account. Impacts can be higher or lower than in the I-O model, depending on assumptions about capacity constraints, production factor mobility and substitution elasticities. Relative price changes, substitution, and redistribution are less likely for a small change of final demand. In that case most realistic results are achieved by accepting assuming ‘no scarcity of production factors’, as in case of the I-O model. To analyze impacts of other types of ‘shock’ than final demand changes, such as a change of subsidies, an I-O model is not an option. A more flexible model is required, such as a NLIO model. A NLIO model requires additional assumptions and/or data. First, researchers need to choose the appropriate assumption regarding the functioning of factor markets and production factor mobility between industries. Second, the NLIO model forces the researcher to specify the substitution elasticities, instead of implicitly assuming an elasticity of zero (as in the I-O model). Compared to a CGE model, the NLIO model offers the advantage that it is not dependent on the existence of a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) on the appropriate spatial scale, while the production structure is identical. Furthermore, using a CGE model introduces additional complexity as it requires the specification of the relationships between income and final demand, including issues such as income transfers and income taxation. In chapter 6 labour productivity changes, that result from final demand changes were included into the NLIO model, thereby integrating productivity changes. A differentiation was made between real and quasi productivity changes and productivity changes for core and peripheral labour. Real productivity changes (changes that enable the production of more output per unit of labour) were integrated by introducing Factor Augmenting Technical Change (FATC) based on an endogenous specification. Quasi productivity changes (substitution of labour by other inputs which automatically leads to higher labour productivity) were already integrated into the NLIO based on the CES production function. The differentiation between core and peripheral labour was integrated by a smaller potential change of FATC for peripheral labour, implying less room for productivity changes. The NLIO model with and without FATC was applied to calculate impacts of a 10% increase of expenditure in tourism in the province of Zeeland in the Netherlands. Accounting for FATC leads to less usage of labour in the tourism industries as productivity increases allow output to be produced using fewer inputs. This implies lower marginal costs, which leads to lower output prices. These relative input and output price changes stimulate substitution and quasi productivity changes. To what degree the NLIO with FATC leads to more realistic results than the NLIO without FATC depends vitally on the specification of FATC, the differentiation between core and peripheral labour, and the labour supply function. All these elements require additional assumptions and/or data. For some EIAs the NLIO is an improvement compared to the I-O model because it does not require the assumption ‘no scarcity of production factors’ to be accepted. In the NLIO with FATC neither the assumption of ‘no scarcity of production factors’ nor the assumption of ‘no productivity changes’ is required. In chapter 7 are discussed considerations related to the acceptance or rejection of these two assumptions. Rejection of ‘no scarcity of production factors’ can be appropriate in EIAs in large regions, of large changes of final demand, in regions with limited or no unused labour and capital, in long term analyses, in regions with low factor mobility from and to other regions, and for impact analyses (instead of significance analyses). Acceptance or rejection of the assumption ‘no productivity changes’ depends on the degree to which labour productivity changes can be expected as a result of a final demand change, a consideration which requires expert judgment. This research makes several contributions to the measurement of the regional economic impacts of tourism: 24 essential criteria that can be used to select a model for application in an economic impact analysis. Although the decision which criteria to consider, and how to weigh these criteria, should always be made on a case specific basis the essential criteria provide a good starting point This thesis provides additional insights into the differences between the regional I-O coefficients and total output multipliers generated by the four LQ methods. Furthermore, it was shown that a choice for FLQ could be motivated by the wish to avoid or limit overestimation of regional economic impacts. The NLIO model with endogenous factor augmenting technical change enables a calculation of economic impacts of tourism in contexts where the I-O model is not the most appropriate choice. The NLIO model namely allows for measurement of different ‘shocks’ than final demand changes and can be applied in context where the assumptions ‘no scarcity of production factors’ and/or ‘no productivity change’ are untenable. When applying an NLIO model, the added realism compared to the I-O model needs to be weighed against the need to make additional assumptions, collect additional data, and deal with the more complex nature of this model. In this perspective the NLIO model does compare favourably to the CGE Model, often presented as a more realistic alternative to the I-O model, because it does not depend on data on the relationships between income and final demand (i.e. the need for a SAM).

Key words: longitudinal study, farm typology, food self-sufficiency, income, legumes, ex-ante analysis, participatory research, scenario. Smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa provides basis of rural livelihoods and food security, yet farmers have to cope with land constraints, variable rainfall and unstable institutional support. This study integrates a diversity of approaches (household typology and understanding of farm trajectories, on-farm trials, participatory ex-ante trade-off analysis) to design innovative farming systems to confront these challenges. We explored farm trajectories during two decades (1994 to 2010) in the Koutiala district in southern Mali, an area experiencing the land constraints that exert pressure in many other parts of sub-Saharan Africa. We classified farms into four types differing in land and labour productivity and food self-sufficiency status. During the past two decades, 17% of the farms stepped up to a farm type with greater productivity, while 70% of the farms remained in the same type, and only 13% of the farms experienced deteriorating farming conditions. Crop yields did not change significantly over time for any farm type and labour productivity decreased. Together with 132 farmers in the Koutiala district, we tested a range of options for sustainable intensification, including intensification of cereal (maize and sorghum) and legume (groundnut, soyabean and cowpea) sole crops and cereal-legume intercropping over three years and cropping seasons (2012-2014) through on-farm trials. Experiments were located across three soil types that farmers identified – namely black, sandy and gravelly soils. Enhanced agronomic performance was achieved when targeting legumes to a given soil type and/or place in the rotation: the biomass production of the cowpea fodder variety was doubled on black soils compared with gravelly soils and the additive maize/cowpea intercropping option after cotton or maize resulted in no maize grain penalty, and 1.38 t ha−1 more cowpea fodder production compared with sole maize. Farm systems were re-designed together with the farmers involved in the trials. A cyclical learning model combining the on-farm testing and participatory ex-ante analysis was used during four years (2012-2015). In the first cycle of 2012-2014, farmers were disappointed by the results of the ex-ante trade-off analysis, i.e marginal improvement in gross margin when replacing sorghum with soybean and food self-sufficiency trade-offs when intercropping maize with cowpea. In a second cycle in 2014-2015 the farm systems were re-designed using the niche-specific (soil type/previous crop combinations) information on yield and gross margin, which solved the concerns voiced by farmers during the first cycle. Farmers highlighted the saliency of the niches and the re-designed farm systems that increased farm gross margin by 9 to 29% (depending on farm type and options considered) without compromising food self-sufficiency. The involvement of farmers in the co-learning cycles allowed establishment of legitimate, credible and salient farm reconfiguration guidelines that could be scaled-out to other communities within the “old cotton basin”. Five medium-term contrasting socio-economic scenarios were built towards the year 2027, including hypothetical trends in policy interventions and change towards agricultural intensification. A simulation framework was built to account for household demographic dynamics and crop/livestock production variability. In the current situation, 45% of the 99 households of the study village were food self-sufficient and above the 1.25 US$ day-1 poverty line. Without change in farmer practices and additional policy intervention, only 16% of the farms would be both food self-sufficient and above the poverty line in 2027. In the case of diversification with legumes combined with intensification of livestock production and support to the milk sector, 27% of farms would be food self-sufficient and above the poverty line. Additional broader policy interventions to favour out-migration would be needed to lift 69% of the farms out of poverty. Other additional subsidies to favour yield gap narrowing of the main crops would lift 92% of the farm population out of poverty. Whilst sustainable intensification of farming clearly has a key role to play in ensuring food self-sufficiency, and is of great interest to local farmers, in the face of increasing population pressure other approaches are required to address rural poverty. These require strategic and multi-sectoral approaches that address employment within and beyond agriculture, in both rural and urban areas.

Waar doen ze het toch van? Deze vraag stellen veel mensen zich als de buren (weer) een nieuwe auto kopen. Hoewel de vraag mogelijk een negatieve klank heeft, is het antwoord vaak verrassend positief. Hoe komen mensen aan geld en hoe gaan ze ermee om? Welke bronnen boren ze aan om aan geld te komen? Gaat het om werk, een eigen onderneming, een uitkering? Of zijn mensen creatiever door deze mogelijkheden te combineren? Of door op een meer informele manier inkomen te verwerven? Zien we iets over het hoofd? Laten cijfers waarover we beschikken de gehele werkelijkheid van de stad en de samenleving zien? De cijfers van bijvoorbeeld het CBS of de gemeente Den Haag geven een beeld, maar hoe betrouwbaar zijn deze cijfers? De werkelijkheid is mogelijk grilliger dan we denken te weten. Het kan zijn dat mensen in het dagelijks leven meer en andere inkomstenbronnen hebben dan die in de statistieken voorkomen. Beleid en dienstverlening zijn echter wel op deze cijfers gestoeld. Flexibilisering van de arbeidsmarkt leidt – vooral voor degenen die aangewezen zijn op de tijdelijke banen – tot een grillig en dynamisch inkomenspatroon. Inkomen uit loondienst, ondernemen en uitkeringen lopen steeds meer door elkaar. Er wordt steeds meer gecombineerd en nieuwe, hybride vormen van ondernemen zien we om ons heen. Vraag is of we die nieuwe werkelijkheid in beeld kunnen brengen. Om te weten of mensen inderdaad werk en ondernemen combineren of op andere manieren aanvullend inkomen proberen te verwerven, is besloten ze dat te vragen. Hiervoor vond onderzoek plaats in de buurt Laak Noord in de gemeente Den Haag in 2014/2015.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal healthcare is likely to prevent adverse outcomes, but an adequate review of utilization and its determinants is lacking. OBJECTIVE: To review systematically the evidence for the determinants of prenatal healthcare utilization in high-income countries. METHOD: Search of publications in EMBASE, CINAHL and PubMed (1992-2010). Studies that attempted to study determinants of prenatal healthcare utilization in high-income countries were included. Two reviewers independently assessed the eligibility and methodological quality of the studies. Only high-quality studies were included. Data on inadequate use (i.e. late initiation, low-use, inadequate use or non-use) were categorized as individual, contextual and health behaviour-related determinants. Due to the heterogeneity of the studies, a quantitative meta-analysis was not possible. RESULTS: Ultimately eight high-quality studies were included. Low maternal age, low educational level, non-marital status, ethnic minority, planned pattern of prenatal care, hospital type, unplanned place of delivery, uninsured status, high parity, no previous premature birth and late recognition of pregnancy were identified as individual determinants of inadequate use. Contextual determinants included living in distressed neighbourhoods. Living in neighbourhoods with higher rates of unemployment, single parent families, medium-average family incomes, low-educated residents, and women reporting Canadian Aboriginal status were associated with inadequate use or entering care after 6 months. Regarding health behaviour, inadequate use was more likely among women who smoked during pregnancy. CONCLUSION: Evidence for determinants of prenatal care utilization is limited. More studies are needed to ensure adequate prenatal care for pregnant women at risk.

An analysis was made of the inputs, costs and profit of vegetable production in three areas in the Arusha region of Tanzania. The major aim of the study was to establish whether vegetable producers would have the means to invest in modern production methods, such as hybrid seeds and drip irrigation, to improve and intensify their production.

Veenkoloniale boeren moeten het gat vullen dat ontstaat door het wegvallen van inkomenssteun uit Brussel. Innovatieprogramma Landbouw Veenkoloniën draagt eraan bij met elf innovatieprojecten.

This report contains the 65 individual crop data sets to the related report A.P. Everaarts, H. de Putter and A.P. Maerere, 2015. Profitability, labour input, fertilizer application and crop protection in vegetable production in the Arusha region, Tanzania.PPO Report 653.

This report contains the 65 individual crop data sets to the related report A.P. Everaarts, H. de Putter and A.P. Maerere, 2015. Profitability, labour input, fertilizer application and crop protection in vegetable production in the Arusha region, Tanzania.PPO Report 653.

Stadslandbouw is op de stad gerichte landbouw, soms in de stad, soms in de buurt van de stad. Het biedt stedelingen vers voedsel en activiteiten in combinatie met een aantrekkelijke leefomgeving en ondernemers een afzetmarktmarkt voor vers voedsel en gerelateerde diensten in interactie met de stedeling. Daarbij zijn meerdere strategieën mogelijk.

An analysis was made of the inputs, costs and profit of vegetable production in three areas in the Arusha region of Tanzania. The major aim of the study was to establish whether vegetable producers would have the means to invest in modern production methods, such as hybrid seeds and drip irrigation, to improve and intensify their production.