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Volunteer corn is competitive with cultivated corn and the degree of interference varies according to their density and origin. This study aimed to determine the grain yield losses of GR® F1 hybrid corn as a function of the interferences with GR® F2 volunteer corn densities from individual plants and clumps, and determine the of economic threshold (ET). Two experiments were carried out in the field in a randomized block design with four replications and eight volunteer corn densities between 0 and 12 individual plants or clumps m-2. Each clump consisted of seven corn plants adhered to a piece of the rachis in the same point. The rectangular hyperbola model fitted to the percentage of grain yield losses of corn, generating the parameters for determining ET, which was calculated as a function of cost (US$ ha-1) and efficiency (%) of corn control, the price paid for corn (US$ kg-1), and corn grain yield (kg ha-1). Grain yield losses ranged from 2.7% to 34% for densities of 0.5 and 12 individual plants m-2 and 6.1% to 42% for 0.5 and 12 clumps m-2, respectively. The joint analysis of the results of experiments showed that from density of 2 m2 clumps are more competitive than individual plants and causes higher yield losses on cultivated corn. The average ET was 0.44 individual plants m-2 and 0.19 clumps m-2. However, from these densities, the control should be performed. Increases in corn grain yield and price paid, higher corn control efficiency, and a decrease in control costs promote a reduction in ET of volunteer corn in corn. RESUMO: Milho voluntário é competitivo com o milho cultivado, e o grau de interferência varia com a população e origem das plantas voluntárias. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram quantificar as perdas no rendimento de grãos do milho híbrido simples RR® F1 em função das interferências com densidades de milho voluntário RR® F2 originado de plantas individuais e touceiras, e determinar o nível de dano econômico (NDE). Foram realizados dois experimentos em campo, no delineamento de blocos casualizados com quatro repetições; cada um testou oito densidades de milho voluntário entre 0 e 12 plantas individuais ou touceiras m-2. Cada touceira constituiu-se de sete plantas de milho aderidas a pedaço da ráquis no mesmo ponto. O modelo da hipérbole retangular ajustou-se aos resultados de perdas percentuais no rendimento de grãos do milho e foram gerados os parâmetros para a determinação do NDE, que foi calculado em função do custo (US$ ha-1) e eficiência de controle do milho (%), do preço pago pelo milho (US$ kg-1) e do rendimento de grãos (kg ha-1). As perdas no rendimento de grãos do milho variaram de 2,7 a 33,4% para densidades de 0,5 e 12 plantas individuais m-2, e de 6,1 a 42% para 0,5 e 12 touceiras m-2, respectivamente. A análise conjunta dos experimentos demonstrou que, a partir da densidade média de 2 m-2, touceiras são mais competitivas que plantas individuais e causam as maiores perdas no rendimento de grãos da cultura do milho. O NDE médio foi de 0,44 planta individual m-2 e 0,19 touceira m-2. Dessa forma, a partir dessas densidades , justifica-se a adoção de medidas de controle. Aumentos no rendimento de grãos e preço pago pelo milho, maior eficiência de controle do milho e diminuição do custo de controle promovem redução no NDE de milho voluntário em milho.

Volunteer corn occurrence with soybean is favored by the glyphosate-resistant (GR) corn cultivation preceding soybean and no-tillage systems. Volunteer corn interference causes significant losses in soybean grain yield. The levels of crop losses change with the corn density, origin, and time of emergence. High levels of weed interference in crops can result in the production of reactive oxygen species and lead to the occurrence of oxidative stress. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of interference of (1) different origins (individual plants and clumps) and times of emergence of volunteer corn on soybean growth, yield components, and grain yield loss; and (2) if the volunteer corn interference causes oxidative stress in soybean. Field experiment and laboratory analyses were performed. The evaluated variables were soybean yield components, grain yield, hydrogen peroxide - H2O2 content, and antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase - SOD, catalase - CAT, and ascorbate peroxidase - APX activities. Volunteer corn interference reduced the yield components and soybean yield. The highest yield losses were observed with volunteer corn clumps regarding individual plants. The interference of volunteer corn emerged 10 days before or on the same day as soybean caused the greater yield losses than those emerged 10 days after, independently of its origin. The content of H2O2 and enzyme SOD, CAT and APX activities changed in soybean leaves in response to the interference of volunteer corn plants and clumps. However, the results indicate that the volunteer corn interferences does not cause oxidative stress in soybean. RESUMO: A ocorrência de milho voluntário em soja é favorecida pelo cultivo de milho tolerante ao glyphosate antecedendo a soja e pelo sistema de semeadura direta. A interferência de milho voluntário causa significativas perdas no rendimento de grãos de soja. Os níveis de perdas no rendimento da cultura variam com a densidade do milho voluntário, origem e época de emergência. Altos níveis de interferência de plantas daninhas nas culturas podem resultar na produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio e levar à ocorrência de estresse oxidativo. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar os efeitos da interferência de (1) diferentes origens (plantas individuais e touceiras) e épocas de emergência de milho voluntário no crescimento, nos componentes do rendimento e no rendimento de grãos de soja; e (2) se a interferência de milho voluntário causa estresse oxidativo na soja. Foram realizados experimento em campo e análises em laboratório. As variáveis avaliadas foram os componentes do rendimento e rendimento de grãos de soja, conteúdo de peróxido de hidrogênio - H2O2, bem como as atividades das enzimas antioxidantes superóxido dismutase - SOD, catalase - CAT e ascorbato peroxidase - APX. As interferências causadas pelo milho voluntário resultaram na redução dos componentes do rendimento e do rendimento de grãos de soja. As mais altas perdas no rendimento de grãos de soja foram observadas para a interferência de touceiras em relação a plantas individuais. Independentemente da origem do milho, as perdas foram maiores quando a emergência ocorreu aos 10 dias antes e no mesmo dia que a soja, em relação aos emergidos 10 dias após. O conteúdo de H2O2 e a atividade das enzimas SOD, CAT e APX variaram em resposta às interferências causadas por plantas e touceiras de milho voluntário. No entanto, os resultados indicam que a interferência do milho voluntário não resultou em estresse oxidativo na soja.

The cultivation of GR® maize prior to soybean, mainly in the no-tillage system favors the higher occurrence of GR® volunteer corn interfering in soybean crops. Volunteer corn originate from seeds that were lost during harvest or from non-harvested seeds from the field; these are individual seeds, originating individual plants, or several seeds adhered to segments of the rachis, which originate clumps. Volunteer corn in the form of clumps predominates in soybean crops, but little information about its effect on soybean is available in the literature. During two years, three experiments were carried out with the objective of evaluate the impact of the interference of GR® F2 generation volunteer corn populations coming from individual and clump seeds (seven corn plants emerged at the same point) over soybean yield components and grain yield. The results show that losses in soybean yield components and grain yield are influenced by the population and origin of volunteer corn. Clumps cause losses over 90% for populations above four clumps m-2, while the mean maximum loss observed for individual plants was 83% in the largest studied populations. Soybean yield decreased significantly when competing with populations below one plant or clump m-2, being 16% and 46% in the population of 0.5 individual plant and clump m-2, respectively. RESUMO: O cultivo de milho RR® precedendo a soja, principalmente no sistema de semeadura direta, favorece a maior ocorrência de plantas voluntárias de milho RR®, interferindo em lavouras de soja. Plantas voluntárias de milho são originadas a partir de sementes perdidas na colheita ou não colhidas do campo, sendo estas, sementes individuais, que originam plantas individuais, ou várias sementes aderidas a segmentos da ráquis, que dão origem às touceiras. Milho voluntário na forma de touceiras predomina em lavouras de soja, porém poucas informações sobre seu efeito sobre a soja estão disponíveis na literatura. Durante dois anos foram realizados três experimentos em campo com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito das interferências de populações de milho voluntário RR® F2 oriundas de sementes individuais e de touceiras (sete plantas de milho emergidas no mesmo ponto) sobre os componentes do rendimento e o rendimento de grãos da soja. Os resultados demonstram que as perdas nos componentes do rendimento e no rendimento de grãos da soja são influenciadas pela população e origem do milho voluntário. Touceiras de milho causaram perdas superiores a 90% para populações acima de quatro touceiras m-2, enquanto a perda máxima média observada para plantas individuais foi de 83% nas maiores populações estudadas. O rendimento de grãos da soja reduziu de forma expressiva quando em competição com populações inferiores a uma planta ou touceira m-2, sendo de 16% e 46% na população de 0,5 planta individual e touceira m-2, respectivamente.

Volunteer corn is extremely competitive with soybean and the degree of interference varies with the corn density, time of emergence and origin. The objectives of this work were to determine the economic threshold (ET) of volunteer corn GR® F2 in soybean as a function of the time of emergence (same day and nine days after soybean) and origin (individual plants or clumps). Each clump was manually adjusted to have seven corn plants. Four field experiments were conducted in randomized blocks design with four replicates in Passo Fundo, RS, Brazil. The soybean yield losses (%) were calculated and adjusted to the model of the rectangular hyperbola and generated the parameters for the determination of the ET, that was calculated based on the volunteer corn control costs (US$ ha-1), efficiency of control (%), price paid for soybean (US$ kg-1) and soybean yield (kg ha-1). The ET mean was 0.3 and 0.48 for individual corn plants m-2 emerged together and nine days after soybean, and 0.08 and 0.03 m-2 for individual plants and clumps, respectively. Increases in grain yield and price paid for soybean, greater control efficiency of corn and lower control cost promote reduction in the ET of volunteer corn in soybean. The control of volunteer corn is justified in a density less than 0.5 individual plant m-2 and is close to zero when corn originates from clumps. Volunteer corn is one of the most competitive weed in soybean crops. RESUMO: Milho voluntário é extremamente competitivo com a soja, e o grau de interferência varia com a população, época de emergência e origem. O objetivo deste trabalho foi determinar o nível de dano econômico (NDE) de milho voluntário RR® F2 em soja em função da época de emergência (mesmo dia e nove dias após a soja) e origem (plantas individuais ou touceiras). Cada touceira foi ajustada manualmente para conter sete plantas de milho. Foram realizados quatro experimentos a campo no delineamento de blocos casualisados com quatro repetições, em Passo Fundo, RS, Brasil. As perdas percentuais no rendimento de grãos da soja foram calculadas e ajustadas ao modelo da hipérbole retangular, sendo gerados os parâmetros para determinar o NDE, que foi calculado em função do custo de controle do milho voluntário (US$ ha-1), eficiência de controle do milho (%), do preço pago pela soja (US$ kg-1) e do rendimento de grãos da soja (kg ha-1). O NDE médio foi de 0,3 e 0,48 plantas individuais de milho m-2 emergidas junto e nove dias após a soja, e de 0,08 e 0,03 m-2 para plantas individuais e touceiras, respectivamente. Aumentos no rendimento de grãos e preço pago pela soja, maior eficiência de controle do milho e diminuição do custo de controle promovem redução no NDE de milho voluntário em soja. Dessa forma, o controle de milho voluntário justifica-se em população inferior a 0,5 planta individual m-2 e aproxima-se de zero quando o milho for originado de touceiras. O milho voluntário é uma das mais competitivas plantas daninhas em soja.

Summary Canopy photosynthesis models combined with optimization theory have been an important tool to understand environmental responses and interspecific variations in vegetation structure and functioning, but their predictions are often quantitatively incorrect. Although evolutionary game theory and the dynamic modelling of leaf turnover have been suggested useful to solve this problem, there is no model that combines these features. Here, we present such a model of leaf area dynamics that incorporates game theory. Leaf area index (LAI; leaf area per unit ground area) was predicted to increase with an increasing degree of interaction between genetically distinct neighbour plants in light interception. This implies that stands of clonal plants that consist of genetically identical daughter ramets have different LAI from other plants. LAI was also sensitive to the assumed vertical pattern of leaf shedding: LAI was predicted to increase with the degree to which leaves were assumed to be shed from higher positions in the canopy. Our model provides more realistic predictions of LAI than previous static optimization, dynamic optimization or static game theoretical models. We suggest that both leaf dynamics and game theoretical considerations of plant competition are indispensable to scale from individual leaf traits to the structure and functioning of vegetation stands, especially in herbaceous species.

We examined to what extent temporal dynamics of Jacobaea vulgaris cover in old-fields were related to plant–soil feedback, soil nutrients, seed availability and performance, and seedling establishment. Long-term measurements at an experimental field and in ten old-fields representing a chronosequence following land abandonment revealed a remarkably similar hump-shaped temporal pattern of J. vulgaris cover, which peaked at about five years after abandonment. In a plant–soil feedback study, J. vulgaris biomass of plants grown in soil from all chronosequence fields was lower than in sterilized control soil. However, biomass of J. vulgaris in the feedback study was lower when grown in soil collected from fields with a high density of J. vulgaris plants than in soil from fields with a low density of J. vulgaris. When plants were grown again in the conditioned soil, a strong negative plant–soil feedback response was observed for soils from all fields. These results indicate that soils from all stages of the chronosequence can develop a strong negative soil feedback to J. vulgaris, and that there is a positive relationship between J. vulgaris density and the subsequent level of control by the soil community. In a common-garden experiment with turfs collected from the chronosequence fields in which J. vulgaris was seeded, seedling establishment was significantly lower in turfs from older than from young fields. In a seed bank study the number of emerging seedlings declined with time since abandonment of the field. In conclusion, negative plant–soil feedback is an important factor explaining the hump-shaped population development of J. vulgaris. However, it is not operating alone, as propagule availability and characteristics, and competition may also be important. Thus, in order to explain its contribution to plant population dynamics, the role of biotic plant–soil interactions, soil nutrients and life history characteristics along successional gradients should be considered from a community perspective.

In the years of 2009 and 2010, an observation of chosen quantitative and qualitative measures of several hybrids of corn took place at PS Humpolec and ZD Hosín. Quantitative measures were evaluated based on dissection of individual plants, qualitative measures then through common laboratory methods. In the field experiments at PS Humpolec, an observation of the seeding quantity and nitrogen load took place. The seeding quantity influenced with very high size of effect all agronomical and seed figures, except for the number of rows in the cob, where only high size of effect was observed. The quantity of 85 thousand seeds per hectare seems to be optimal. The nitrogen load influenced with very high size of effect the weight of the cob, with high size of effect the number of cobs and the weight of grains in the cob. Other measures were not affected. The year influenced with very high size of effect the length of the plant, the number of leaves, the weight of the cob; with high size of effect the height of the first cob on the plant and with considerable size of effect the number of cobs on the plant and the length of the cobs. Other observed measures were not affected by the year. Optimal nitrogen load that can be recommended is 110 kilograms per hectare. The best digestibility was noted with 100 thousand seeds per hectare and 110 Kg of nitrogen per hectare, or with 70 thousand seeds per hectare with no nitrogen. In the operational and half-operational experiments at ZD Hosín, differences between chosen hybrids were observed. Based on the results, the best one that can be recommended for these environmental conditions is Karacho, with FAO 260. Hybrid Karacho achieved the highest yield of matter in both years and in the year of 2010 it also achieved the best digestibility.

The aim of this study was to compare the average values of quantitative traits of wheat varieties in individual plants and in plants within crop (550 plants / m2). Field experiments were set up in Banja Luka during the season 2007/08, with eight wheat varieties: Oganj, Kristina, Nonijus, Stojanka, Mihelka, NS 565, Tina, and Grand. The follow traits were analyzed: plants height, spike length, spike mass, grain mass/spike, grain number/spike and grain yield. The highest grain yield had variety NS 565 (6.920 kg/ha), while the lowest grain yield had variety Tina (5.411 kg/ha). It was surprising that the lowest values for traits grain mass/spike and grain number/spike were found in individual plants of variety NS 565, which formed the highest grain yield. From the other side, high value for number of grains per spike was observed in individual plants of variety Tina, which formed the lowest grain yield. For wheat breeders, these results indicate that individual plants with the low values of grain mass/spike and grain number/spike could give high grain yield in later generations, and oppositely, i.e. key factor for high yield is the number of spikes per hectar. Cilj ovih istraživanja bio je da se uporede prosečne vrednosti kvantitativnih osobina sorti pšenice kod individualnih biljaka i kod biljaka u usevu (550 biljaka/m2). Postavljeni su poljski ogledi u Banja Luci tokom 2007/08 godine sa osam sorti pšenice: Oganj, Kristina, Nonijus, Stojanka, Mihelka, NS 565, Tina i Grand. Analizirane su sledeće osobine: visina biljaka, dužina klasa, masa klasa, masa zrna po klasu, broj zrna po klasu i prinos zrna. Najveći prinos zrna u usevu imala je sorta NS 565 (6.920 kg/ha), a najmanji Tina (5.411 kg/ha). Iznenađujuće je da su najmanje vrednosti za osobine masa zrna po klasu i broj zrna po klasu imale individualne biljke sorte NS 565, koja je imala najveći prinos zrna. S druge strane, sorta Tina je imala visoke vrednosti za broj zrna po klasu kod individualnih biljaka, iako je obrazovala najmanji prinos zrna. Ovi rezultati ukazuju selekcionarima pšenice da individualne biljke sa malom masom zrna po klasu i malim brojem zrna po klasu mogu imati visok prinos zrna u usevu i obrnuto, odnosno da je ključni parametar za visok prinos broj klasova po hektaru.

22 páginas, 8 figuras, 4 tablas., The spatial distribution of some chemical and physical soil properties was determined in the microenvironment of individual plants of three matorral species (Rosmarinus officinalis L., Sipa tenncissima L., Anthyllis cytisoides L.) in an area of patchy vegetation in south-east Spain. The influence of isolated plants on the chemical and physical status of the topsoil decreased significantly from the plant axis to the bare inter-plant area, giving rise to "islands" of improved topsoil properties beneath each plant (i.e., increased organic matter content and aggregate stability, and decreased bulk density, penetration resistance, shear strength and rock fragment content and cover). The degree and lateral extent of topsoil modification was significantly more pronounced under Rosmarinus and Stipa plants than under Anthyllis shrubs, mainly because of the differential influences of species morphology (i.e., above ground structure) and components (i.e., canopy and litter covers) on soil properties and erosion/sedimentation processes., This study was financially supported by the Commission of the European Communi-ties (DG XII), through research grants from the "Epoch" and "Environment and Climatology" programmes. We thank Javier Cardona and Ramón Cerni for assistance inthe field, and Ely Barrachina, Vicenta García, Lola Rius and Isabel Vargas-Machuca for help with laboratory analyses.