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Abstract The processing of vegetables generates by‐products that are abundant in polyphenols and antioxidants. However, they degrade rapidly due to poor management and a short life expectancy. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of in vitro digestion (IVD) on the phenolic compositions, antioxidant properties, and polyphenolic profile of the beetroot pomace (BP), carrot pomace (CP), and tomato pomace (TP) by‐products. The results showed a reduction in phenolic compositions for total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total anthocyanin content (TAC), and total proanthocyanidin content (TPAC), which ranged between 27.55% and 63.34%, 16.38% and 31.43%, 32.58% and 77.41%, and 28.81% and 60.78%, after IVD, respectively. Similarly, antioxidant activity evaluated by 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′‐azino‐bis‐3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid (ABTS•+), Ferric‐reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), metal chelating activity (MCA), and reducing power (RP), also showed a reduction. High‐performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection (HPLC‐DAD) analysis of individual polyphenols varied widely for free and bound phenolic fractions of samples. Among the polyphenolic fractions, catechin (CAT) and protocatechuic acid (PCA) were the highest in BP and CP, respectively in free forms, has shown to be increased after gastrointestinal digestion. Naringenin (NAR) was recorded with the highest both in their free and bound forms in TP and reduced postdigestion. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first report to evaluate the effect of IVD on free and bound individual polyphenolic content in evaluated samples.

The processing of vegetables generates by‐products that are abundant in polyphenols and antioxidants. However, they degrade rapidly due to poor management and a short life expectancy. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of in vitro digestion (IVD) on the phenolic compositions, antioxidant properties, and polyphenolic profile of the beetroot pomace (BP), carrot pomace (CP), and tomato pomace (TP) by‐products. The results showed a reduction in phenolic compositions for total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total anthocyanin content (TAC), and total proanthocyanidin content (TPAC), which ranged between 27.55% and 63.34%, 16.38% and 31.43%, 32.58% and 77.41%, and 28.81% and 60.78%, after IVD, respectively. Similarly, antioxidant activity evaluated by 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′‐azino‐bis‐3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid (ABTS•+), Ferric‐reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), metal chelating activity (MCA), and reducing power (RP), also showed a reduction. High‐performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection (HPLC‐DAD) analysis of individual polyphenols varied widely for free and bound phenolic fractions of samples. Among the polyphenolic fractions, catechin (CAT) and protocatechuic acid (PCA) were the highest in BP and CP, respectively in free forms, has shown to be increased after gastrointestinal digestion. Naringenin (NAR) was recorded with the highest both in their free and bound forms in TP and reduced postdigestion. To the best of our knowledge, the present study is the first report to evaluate the effect of IVD on free and bound individual polyphenolic content in evaluated samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: After abalone muscle hot water extract (AHE) was digested in‐vitro, three components (F1, F2, and F3) were separated using the Sephadex G‐15 column, and the antioxidant activity and absorption across Caco‐2 cells were analysed. The result showed that the half‐maximal inhibitory concentrations of F2 for scavenging hydroxyl and ABTS radicals were 0.763 and 0.028 mg mL−1, respectively, which were lower than those of F1 and F3. Moreover, the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity was increased after the F2 was transported through the Caco‐2 cell‐monolayered Transwell chamber. The mass spectrometry analysis revealed that the transported samples contained oligopeptides (Leu‐Tyr, Gly‐Ala‐Ala, and His‐Gly‐Ser‐Ala), and the Leu‐Tyr displayed the highest antioxidant activity and transport rate. Overall, these results suggest that oligopeptides with high antioxidant capacities can be produced from AHE through a combination of in‐vitro digestion and absorption across Caco‐2 cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phytochemical composition in three different varieties of tamarillo (yellow, red, and purple) cultivated in Northeast India was analysed. The pulp showed good amount of protein, fat, and crude fiber, and the pH and TSS of the tamarillos ranged from 3.70 to 3.94 and 9.6–10.2 °Brix, respectively. Vitamin C was highest in purple tamarillo and all were rich in potassium. Anthocyanins were majorly found in purple tamarillo (0.35 mg C3G/g), while carotenoids were maximum in yellow tamarillo (0.63 mg βCE/100 g). However, both anthocyanins and carotenoids pigments were found in purple and red tamarillo varieties. Through HPLC analyses, six phenolic acids were identified and among them, gallic, chlorogenic, ferulic and rosmarinic acids were the major ones. Pelargonidin-3-O-rutinoside was the major anthocyanin in purple (86.22 µg/g) and red (9.88 µg/g) tamarillo. Three different carotenoids viz. zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene were present in all the varieties of tamarillo. High pressure homogenization and ultrasonication treatments had significant impact on the phytochemical composition. High pressure homogenization at 750 bar and ultrasound for 10 min showed higher phenolics, anthocyanins and carotenoids in the tamarillo varieties and these techniques are recommended for processing of tamarillos. The treated pulp rich in phytochemicals can be used for novel product development.

Purpose: Tamarillo peel is a waste material generated during juice processing. This study was conducted to utilize this waste and develop a carotenoids loaded oil-based food product with improved bioaccessibility. Methods: In this study, tamarillo peel phytochemicals were extracted in extra virgin olive oil using high shear dispersion (HSD) and ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) techniques. A rotatable central composite design was applied for the optimization of the extraction of total carotenoids using HSD and UAE. Results: The optimized conditions for HSD were a time of 5.50 min, temperature of 49 °C, and speed of 15,000 rpm, which gave the maximum carotenoids content of 3.81 mg βCE/100 g with the desirability of 0.96. The optimized conditions for UAE, on the other hand, were an extraction time of 8 min, temperature of 50 °C, and 76% amplitude, which extracted 2.01 mg βCE/100 g of the carotenoids with desirability of 1.00. HSD extract showed an increase of about 15% TPC along with enhanced antioxidant activity. HPLC analysis of HSD-treated carotenoids extracted oil showed the presence of gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and p-coumaric acid, and three carotenoids namely, zeaxanthin (53.65 µg/100 g), β-cryptoxanthin (194.32 µg/100 g), and β-carotene (593.35 µg/100 g). The in-vitro bioaccessibility of total carotenoids in the carotenoids loaded mayonnaise was 25% and 43% in the gastric and intestinal phases, respectively. Mayonnaise enriched with carotenoids was prepared with the addition of HSD extract and was liked for its sensory attributes. Conclusion: This is the first study that reports on the extraction of carotenoids from tamarillo peel and its use in mayonnaise. Tamarillo peel extracted by HSD technique can be helpful for functional food formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: As an efficient strategy to promote human health, diet regulations are gaining increasing attention on the intake of high‐quality oils and proteins. In this study, we developed reconstituted milk using natural soybean diglyceride‐milk fat globule membrane (DAG‐MFGM) and investigated its stability, in‐vitro digestion, and sterilisation safety. Results showed that the smallest droplet size (250 nm) of DAG‐MFGM reconstituted milk was obtained under 0.1% MFGM addition, demonstrating high stability. The in‐vitro digestion revealed that the fatty acid release of DAG‐MFGM reconstituted milk was 85.6% within 120 min, significantly higher than milk‐fat reconstituted milk (67.2%) and soybean triglycerides‐MFGM reconstituted milk (55%). This indicated that the DAG‐MFGM reconstituted milk was digested easily. After sterilisation, the levels of 3‐chloropropanol ester and glycidyl ester were 1.109 μg kg−1 and 4.292 μg kg−1, respectively, well below the European Union (EU)2020/1322. This work provided a promising guide for preparing new reconstituted milk with DAG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Emulsions are commonly used to fortify beverages with oil-soluble nutrients. Such emulsions must be physically stable, prevent the cargo nutrient from chemical degradation, and release the nutrient at the right time during digestion. Wood hemicelluloses, with their proven capability in producing nanoemulsions and preventing oil oxidation, have the potential to facilitate such a fortification method. These hemicelluloses are unique, as the presence of residual lignin was proven essential in their functionality. However, the structural interplay between the residual lignin and the polysaccharide fraction at the oil-water interface is unknown, including their effects on the storage stability and digestibility of a loaded bioactive compound. We studied the performance of emulsions stabilized by two grades of birch glucuronoxylans (GX) as vessels for vitamin D3. Both GXs showed similar protective performance to methylcellulose regardless of the lignin content during storage and the gastric phase of digestion. The unrefined GX, which contained larger lignin moieties, delayed the release of vitamin D3 during intestinal digestion. We concluded that the interface is primarily built of a polysaccharide layer with the lignin moieties facing towards the oil phase. We have thus highlighted the potential of GX-stabilized emulsions as carriers of vitamin D3. Additionally, these results advance the understanding of lignin-polysaccharide interplay towards a rationalized strategy in biorefining of wood hemicelluloses, for which the ratio of lignin-to-polysaccharide can be adjusted during extraction and post-extraction treatments to obtain a tailor-made emulsifier for various emulsion-based products. [Display omitted] • Vitamin D3 was stable in glucuronoxylans-based emulsions over 5 weeks. • Larger lignin moieties affected vitamin D3 release but not its storage stability. • The polysaccharide fraction formed the bulk of the interfacial layer. • The polysaccharide fraction faced the aqueous phase, while lignin faced the oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research delves into the Maillard reaction (MR) in high-solid gelatin-saccharide mixtures consisting of 8% and 72% of allulose, fructose, or fructo-oligosaccharides, which were subjected to varied duration (0–60min) of thermal processing prior to gelation. Physicochemical properties of the gels, including color, chemical composition, protein crosslinking, mechanical strength, in-vitro digestibility and antioxidant activities, were characterized. At pH ∼5.5 and intermediate water activities (0.6–0.7), fast browning was observed through sugar degradation and sugar-amine interactions, which were intensified by prolonged heating. The MR reactivity of saccharides followed: AL > FRU > FOS. Characteristic products (MRPs, e.g., α -dicarbonyls, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, and advanced glycation end products) were identified, with the spectra of MRPs varying significantly between monosaccharides and oligosaccharides. The MR-induced protein glycation and crosslinking exhibited certain negative impacts on the gel strength and in-vitro protein digestibility. Furthermore, all gelatin-saccharide mixtures exhibited augmented antioxidant properties, with the gelatin-AL mixtures displaying the highest free radical scavenging rates. [Display omitted] • Maillard reaction (MR) in high-solid gelatin-saccharide mixed gels were characterized. • Sugar degradation prevailed over sugar-amine interactions during thermal processing. • Harmful products (α -DC, 5-HMF, and AGEs) were quantified in confectionery gels. • MR-induced protein crosslinking led to reduced gelation and protein digestion. • MR enhanced antioxidant activity of confectionery gels, especially with allulose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored the effect of six different cooking methods (steaming, roasting, microwave, combined mode, inductor cooker steaming and inductor cooker) on the retention and absorption of vitamin C and nitrate of broccoli during in-vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion, in search of healthy cooking technology which was easy to digestion and absorption. The results showed that the cooking time of the induction cooker (1~3 min) was the shortest while the one for roasting (6~11 min) was the longest in achieving the same maturity of broccoli. In addition, the samples treated with microwave or steaming had the highest retention and digestion of vitamin C, and the samples of roasted, combined mode or induction cooker steaming displayed the highest retention and absorption rate of nitrate. Therefore, inductor cooker steaming mode (P5 and P9) was considered the most suitable method in cooking broccoli to obtain the most appropriate digestion and absorption of vitamin C and nitrate.

In this study, total polyphenol (TP) content, individual phenolics, antioxidant capacity (AC) and invitro digestion of antioxidants and polyphenols of the extract obtained from chestnut peel with water were investigated. In addition, the potential use of chestnut peel extract in noodle production was investigated. The results showed that gallic and ellagic acids were determined by HPLC; gallic acid content (33.55 mg/g DM) of chestnut peel was found higher than ellagic acid (12.70 mg/g DM). TP and AC of chestnut peel were 172.67 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g dry matter (DM) and 174319.64 mmol ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE)/100 g DM, respectively. The highest bioaccessibility of peel polyphenols was observed after the gastric stage. The lowest AC in the peel extract was detected after the intestinal stage. The addition of the peel extract (1.0%) to the noodle dough increased the TP (89.36%) and AC (102.66%) of the final product compared to the noodle without the peel extract (control). Therefore, this study showed that chestnut peel, as an important source of polyphenols, may be useful for food enrichment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel insight into the nutritional changes of Tilapia fillets due to heat treatments was provided by evaluating the influence of baking and air-frying on the total mass fraction and bioaccessibility of micronutrients Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, P, S and Zn. A static in vitro model was used to simulate the human gastrointestinal digestion and then quantify the analytes using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry with a synchronous vertical dual view system (SVDV ICP OES). Unlike recent studies focusing on the mineral content of cooked foods, we interpreted the results more accurately by considering the weight yield factors. Compared with the raw sample, the baking and air-frying procedures significantly increased the total mass fraction of Fe. Air-frying promoted a slight decrease in Zn content. Bioaccessibility results ranged from 12–31% to 86–88% for Zn and K, respectively. Both heat treatments appear to increase the bioaccessibility of Mg, Fe, and Zn, whereas the other evaluated micronutrients were not remarkably affected by cooking. In addition, the SVDV mode was an efficient instrumental strategy for determination of total, bioaccessible, and non-bioaccessible fractions of essential minerals in Tilapia, improving the sample throughput.

Kakadu plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana) (KP) is an indigenous fruit used as a functional ingredient in powdered form. Three KP doses (1, 2.5 and 5 g) were digested in a dynamic in vitro gut digestion model over 48 h. Faecal water digests from the colonic reactors were assessed for total soluble polyphenols (TSP), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), phenolic metabolites and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Effects of digests on cell viability were tested against Caco-2 intestinal and HepG2 hepatic cells. All doses of KP fermentation produced castalagin, corilagin, chebulagic acid, chebulinic acid, and gallic acid. TSP and FRAP significantly increased in 5 g KP digests at 0 and 48 h of fermentation. SCFA concentrations significantly increased after 48 h. Cytotoxic effects of 2.5 and 5 g KP digests diminished significantly after 12 h. Overall, colonic fermentation increased antioxidant activity and polyphenolic metabolites of 5 g KP powder for 48 h. [Display omitted] • Colon microbiomes transform compounds, offering multiple health benefits. • After 12 h, KP digests of 2.5 and 5 g were significantly less cytotoxic. • KP polyphenols was degraded and utilized by colon microbiome. • A 48-h fermentation of KP (5 g) produced highest TSP and antioxidant power. • Highest pyrogallol concentration was found in 5 g KP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on the impact of alfalfa galactomannan (AAG, 0.1, 0.5 or 1% wt.) on the colloidal changes and digestibility of sodium caseinate (NaCN) and whey protein isolate (WPI) dispersions (10% wt.) under static in-vitro digestion conditions. Static laser light scattering and confocal laser scanning microscopy-assisted assessment of the NaCN-based gastric chymes confirmed the ability of AAG to control the acid-induced protein coagulation phenomena. Contrarily, the presence of AAG in the WPI-based gastric chymes was associated with the formation of larger aggregates due to the occurrence of segregative microphase separation. The kinetic modelling of the SDS-PAGE densitometric data showed that the intragastric peptic cleavage rates were higher for caseins than whey proteins (β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin). However, free amino acid (FAA) release rates did not exceed 12% under intragastric conditions, whilst notably higher release rates were achieved in the intestinal digesta (36–52%). In all cases, the FAA release rates significantly increased in the presence of AAG.

Defatted coconut kernel is the major by-product of the dry method of virgin coconut oil (VCO) processing which includes high fiber content. It is ground into a fine powder, has a high potential to use as a composite matrix for baked food items with wheat flour. The aim of this research is to compare nutritional characteristics of defatted coconut flour incorporated biscuits (CF), desiccated coconut incorporated commercial biscuits (DC) and wheat flour-based commercial biscuits (WF) using white bread (WB) as a reference. Proximate composition (moisture, ash, crude fat, crude protein, crude fiber and carbohydrate), Hydrolysis Index (HI) and Predicted Glycemic Index (PGI) of samples were performed through standard in-vitro analysis methods. Results of the proximate analysis revealed that moisture (36.67±0.16 %) and protein (13.35±1.17 %) content of bread were significantly (p

Phenolic compounds are prone to degradation from external deleterious conditions. Thus, a carrier for its delivery can be useful in protecting them and ensuring their optimal release profile. The objective of this study is to produce starch nanofibers as delivery carriers for carvacrol and to evaluate its in‐vitro digestion simulation and anti‐glioma activity. Nanofibers are produced by electrospinning of a starch solution where carvacrol is incorporated in various concentrations (20, 30, and 40% v/w; dry basis). The nanofibers are evaluated by in‐vitro digestion simulation and anti‐tumoral activity in C6 rat glioma cells and cytotoxicity in astrocytes. By measuring the residual amount of carvacrol after digestion, the starch nanofibers are shown to be a promising vehicle for the delivery of carvacrol by resisting in‐vitro digestion. The carvacrol‐loaded starch nanofibers result in up to 50% reduction in tumoral cells (C6 rat glioma cells). Free carvacrol elicits cytotoxicity in astrocytes after 72 h of treatment; interestingly the carvacrol‐loaded starch nanofibers are not toxic to this cell. In view of the demand for natural drugs in pharmaceutical applications, the nanofibers may be promising for cancer complementary treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] Microplastics (MPs), polymer particles capable of accumulating heavy metals from ambient medias, have been widely found in agriculture and pasture soils. Through the consumption of MPs in soils, heavy metals adsorbed on MPs can be transported into ruminant digestive guts. To explore the behavior of Cd loaded MPs in ruminant digestive system, we initially established a ruminant digestive in-vitro method (RDM) that simulates the rumination cycle between mouth and rumen to evaluate the release rates of Cd on 4 most commonly used undegradable MPs (PE, PP, PVC, and PS) and a biodegradable MP (PLA). After 120 h of adsorption, the Cd adsorption capabilities by 5 MPs ranged from 0.23 μg/g to 2.45 μg/g. Through RDM, all tested Cd loaded MPs released high proportions of Cd with release rates from 21.5% to 41.8%, where PLA showed the highest Cd release rate. Cadmium was mainly released in rumen and abomasum phases, and the rumination cycle between mouth and rumen can affect the Cd release from MPs. The present study provides a new view on the environmental hazard of heavy metal and MP pollution that their co-exposure to ruminants should be taken into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brewers’ Spent Grain (BSG) is the primary waste of the beer brewing process, which comprises a plethora of nutritionally appealing ingredients such as proteins, dietary fibres, essential lipids and micronutrients. In our previous study [1], the acid-induced gelation capacity of BSG protein isolate as influenced by the thermal pre-treatment severity was systematically investigated. In the present work, we aimed at providing a dataset outlining the gastrointestinal fate of the acid gels under simulating pre-absorptive digestion conditions adopting the INFOGEST static in-vitro digestion protocol. Protein hydrogel digestibility was assessed by quantification of the total soluble nitrogen content in the initial acid gels as well as the obtained gastric and small intestine chymes. The extent of proteolysis occurring in the oral, gastric and intestinal phases was investigated by SDS-PAGE and the molecular weight distribution of the proteins in the obtained gastric chymes and intestinal digesta was determined by image analysis. The dataset can be deployed to assist food scientists in the design and development of alternative protein-based food and food supplement products adopting the “waste-to-fork” concept.

Chitin-glucan complex (CGC) is an emerging novel prebiotic with numerous physiological activities in amelioration of clinical manifestations. In the present work, natural deep eutectic solvent (NADES), ultrasonication, and submerged fermentation using probiotic microorganisms were deployed for the extraction of CGC from Shiitake fruiting bodies. CGC obtained through non-ultrasonication assisted fermentation employing Lactiplantibacillus plantarum exhibited maximum polysaccharide yield (27.86 ± 0.82 % w /w). However, based on antioxidant potential, NADES combination of urea: glycerol (1:1 M ratio) was selected for further characterization. The rheological behavior of CGC under optimized conditions showed shear thinning property in both 0.1 M NaCl and salt-free solution. FTIR, 1H-(1D), and 2D 1H 1H Homonuclear NMR spectra displayed distinctive patterns associated with β-glycosidic linkage and β- d -glucopyranose sugar moiety. XRD profiles of CGC exhibited characteristic peaks at 2θ = 23°, 25°, and 28° with corresponding hkl values of (220), (101), and (130) lattice planes , respectively. Enhanced radical scavenging activities were noticed due to the triple helical structure and anionic nature of CGC. CGC exhibited potential prebiotic activity (prebiotic score 118–134 %) and short chain fatty acids liberation (maximum 9.99 ± 0.41 mM by Lactobacillus delbrueckii). Simulated static in-vitro digestion demonstrated that CGC withstands acidic environment of gastric phase, which indicated its suitability for use as a prebiotic in nutraceutical-enriched food products. [Display omitted] • NADES (urea: glycerol) was an effective solvent system for polysaccharide extraction. • Chitin-Glucan-Complex (CGC) polysaccharide showed amorphous and anionic nature. • CGC exhibited prebiotic properties (bile salt tolerance and bifidogenic activity). • L. delbrueckii released acetic acid as principal SCFA followed by butyric acid. • In-vitro digestibility exhibited CGC is partially digestible in small intestinal simulated condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Food matrices significantly eliminated TBBQ during in-vitro digestion. • Proteins facilitated TBBQ elimination, while fats decreased the elimination rate. • Sulfhydryl groups were the crucial reactive group in proteins to eliminate TBBQ. • The TBBQ-eliminated reaction rate under pH 8.0 was greatly faster than pH 1.5. • Fats reduced the protein-triggered TBBQ elimination by the oil–water interface. Food matrices greatly impact TBBQ content during digestion, while lacking sufficient research and understanding. This study investigated the influence and mechanism of fried foods on the TBBQ-eliminated performance during in-vitro digestion. The results indicated that TBBQ content varied significantly among food matrices after in-vitro digestion, with the highest in peanuts (38.3%). The correlation analysis revealed that proteins remarkably facilitated TBBQ-eliminations while fats decreased the TBBQ-eliminated rate. The TBBQ-eliminated performance of proteins, protein digestive mixtures, and amino acids uncovered that sulfhydryl groups were crucial reactive groups to eliminate TBBQ, and TBBQ-eliminated rates under intestinal pH (8.0) were faster than gastric pH (1.5). Additionally, fats significantly reduced the protein-triggered TBBQ-eliminations, originating that the oil–water interface increased the interaction difficulty between lipophilic TBBQ and proteins. Thus, this work provided an in-depth understanding of food matrices (especially proteins and fats) in TBBQ eliminations to enlighten the promising TBBQ-risk-reduced strategies with high-protein and low-fat foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Deconjugation (by e.g., Intestinal flora) of bile salt affects lipolysis. • Lipolysis was characterized into five separate processes. • Conjugated BS promotes lipolysis by emulsification of fat droplets. • Conjugated BS promotes the desorption of lipolytic compounds from O/W interfaces. • Numerical meta -analysis showed BS composition to be the most significant factor. Bile Salts (BS) are responsible for stimulating lipid digestion in our organism. Gut microbiota are responsible for the deconjugation process of primary conjugated to secondary unconjugated BS. We use two structurally distinct BS and characterize the rate of lipolysis as a compound parameter. A static in-vitro digestion model as well as meta -analysis of literature data has been performed to determine the most influential factors affecting the lipid digestion process. The results demonstrate that lipolysis of emulsions using conjugated BS (NaTC, FFA = 60.0 %, CMC in SIF = 5.58 mM, MSR of linoleic acid = 0.21, rate of adsorption = -0.057 mN/m.s) enhances the release of FFA compared to deconjugated BS (NaDC, FFA = 49.5 %, CMC in SIF = 2.49 mM, MSR of linoleic acid = 0.16 rate of adsorption = -0.064 mN/m.s). These results indicate that conjugation plays an important role in controlling the rate of lipolysis in our organism which can be in turn, tuned by the microflora composition of our gut, ultimately controlling the rate of deconjugation of the BS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the in-vitro digestibility of cold-set whey protein (WP) microgels prepared by two gelation methods (external and internal) containing lipids (0%, 10% or 20% w/w). The incorporation of lipids into these matrices achieved higher entrapment of the bioactive vitamin riboflavin, as well as significant reductions in rates of both the digestion of the protein matrix, and the subsequent diffusion of the water-soluble bioactive. A biexponential model accounted for the contribution of digestion- and diffusion-driven mechanisms in describing the release of riboflavin into enzyme containing simulated gastrointestinal fluids. In particular, for external gelation microgels, as the lipid load within the matrices increased, the contribution of a faster diffusion-driven release was almost completely negated by a slower digestion-assisted release. Lipid loads provided a composite matrix capable of alternating from a burst to a sustained release of bioactive.

Muscle carnosine represents an important health advantage of meat. Ground pork samples with intrinsic or added carnosine; fat content; and cooked under low or high intensity as a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial were digested in‐vitro. Changes in free carnosine and in markers of lipid (hexanal, 4‐hydroxynonenal (4‐HNE), malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein (protein‐carbonyls, thiols) oxidation, and of advanced glycation end‐products (AGEs) Nε‐(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML) were determined in the saliva, gastric, and duodenal digests. During digestion, the different markers overall indicated increased oxidation and decreased free carnosine. Increasing pork carnosine level significantly reduced protein carbonyls, loss of thiols, and 4‐HNE during in‐vitro gastric digestion, irrespective of fat and cooking level of the meat. Increased carnosine also significantly reduced hexanal, MDA and CML up to the duodenum phase in moderately cooked lean pork. Besides substantiating the formation of AGEs during digestion, these results show a potentially important role of dietary carnosine occurring in the gastrointestinal tract. Practical applications: The ailments epidemiologically associated with red meat consumption could be counteracted by ingesting carnosine into meat. The health advantages of dietary carnosine, however, have never been demonstrated during digestion, a unique and complex oxidative environment compounded by the composition and cooking of the meat. The results obtained substantiated that AGEs formation occurred in‐vitro in the GIT. They also showed that increased carnosine had an immediate health beneficial role during pork digestion in reducing the formation of different harmful molecules, including AGEs, modulated by the composition and cooking of the meat. However, in exerting this protective role in the GIT, the remaining free level of carnosine, gradually decreased during digestion. Carnosine, as an important meat compositional factor may, depending on the fat content and cooking conditions, change the image of meat from representing a health risk to a health benefit. Carnosine level may also explain discrepancies observed in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zinc is essential for growth and development of all living organisms, especially human being. Deficiency of micronutrients like zinc and iron has been linked to the manifestation of hidden hunger. Therefore, it is imperative that development of some rapid screening method for bioavailable zinc in various crops and food commodities would be an essential addition in battle against zinc deficiency related hidden hunger. One such method could be the usage of fluorescence based zinc ion sensing probe which would be robust and convenient for estimating bioavailable zinc. To address this issue, NBD-TPEA, a highly sensitive zinc ion sensing probe, have been used in this study towards the development of a novel fluorescence based approach for the analysis of zinc bioavailability in Caco-2 cells as an in-vitro cellular model. The use of this probe showed dose dependent sensitivity towards increasing concentrations of zinc ion uptake by Caco-2 cells. It also showed specificity for zinc ion uptake as compared to other metal ions in-vitro. These observations correlated extremely well with zinc uptake analysis by cell imaging and conventional analytical technique like, ICP-MS. The developed assay was then tested in mushroom and some selected biofortified derivatives of wheat for determining the levels of their bioavailable zinc using Caco-2 cells. The data as obtained with these food samples in our developed bioassay correlated well with the other sophisticated analytical techniques thus validating our cell based assay. Hence, the developed assay could serve as a simple but sensitive tool for determining bioavailable zinc in various food samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of gastro intestinal digestion on total phenolic contents (TPC), total flavonoid contents (TFC), radical scavenging activity (RSA) and vitamin C levels of apple (Malus domestica) pomace and a local variety of jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana) pomace was evaluated after drying at 110 °C for 3 h in a hot air oven. The physicochemical properties and functional properties of apple and jujube pomaces were also assessed. Prior to digestion, apple pomace displayed greater levels of TPC, RSA and vitamin C (17.30 ± 0.59 GAE/g DW, 81.16 ± 3.27%, 0.078 ± 0.01 g/L, respectively) in comparison with jujube pomace (16.90 ± 0.66 GAE/g DW, 54.65 ± 2.09%, 0.069 ± 0.01 g/L, respectively), whereas, TFC level was found to be higher in jujube pomace (19.22 ± 0.87 QE/g DW). After digestion, both samples showed an increase in TPC (56.17 ± 2.14 and 52.01 ± 2.18 GAE/g DW for apple and jujube pomaces) and TFC levels (48.45 ± 1.87 and 53.82 ± 2.34 QE/g DW for apple and jujube pomaces) and it was perceived almost 3 to 4 times higher than the TPC and TFC of the samples before digestion. But, RSA of the fruit pomaces were found to be affected by the in vitro digestion which was observed as 54.65 ± 2.09 and 81.16 ± 3.27% respectively for apple and jujube pomaces. It may be suggested that the fruit powders may be incorporated in developing new functional foods rich in bio active compounds and thus can be utilized in different food applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rutin, a flavanol, has been demonstrating excellent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-carcinogenic properties. However, bioavailability is low due to low stability, solubility, digestion, and absorption by the intestine. This study aims to encapsulate rutin with three types of carrier materials using three different techniques and evaluate their antioxidant activity and bioactivity retention under in vitro gastrointestinal and dialysis conditions. Results showed that the rutin encapsulated lipid carrier has the highest radical inhibition activity for all the digestive phases, the highest singlet oxygen scavenging activity after the gastric phase and the highest anti-inflammatory activity for the dialyzable fraction. The rutin content of encapsulated lipid carriers for all the digestive phases was significantly higher (P≤0.05) comparatively. Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, Particle size analysis, and Scanning Electron micrographs showed that rutin encapsulated lipid carrier was 1.7 μm with a polydispersity index of 0.909 indicating micro-encapsulation with heterogeneous dispersion. • Formulation of microencapsulation of rutin • Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic activities of encapsulated rutin • Bioactivity and stability of encapsulated rutin during simulated in vitro digestion and dialysis • Rutin encapsulated lipid carrier has the highest in vitro antioxidant activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Mediterranean diet includes virgin olive oil (VOO) as the main fat and olives as snacks. In addition to providing nutritional and organoleptic properties, VOO and the fruits (olives) contain an extensive number of bioactive compounds, mainly phenolic compounds, which are considered to be powerful antioxidants. Furthermore, olive byproducts, such as olive leaves, olive pomace, and olive mill wastewater, considered also as rich sources of phenolic compounds, are now valorized due to being mainly applied in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries. The digestive system must physically and chemically break down these ingested olive-related products to release their phenolic compounds, which will be further metabolized to be used by the human organism. The first purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the current status of in-vitro static digestion models for olive-related products. In this sense, the in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion methods are widely used with the following aims: (i) to study how phenolic compounds are released from their matrices and to identify structural changes of phenolic compounds after the digestion of olive fruits and oils and (ii) to support the functional value of olive leaves and byproducts generated in the olive industry by assessing their health properties before and after the gastrointestinal process. The second purpose of this review is to survey and discuss all the results available to date.

Complex coacervates of bovine lactoferrin (LF) and sodium alginate (NaAlg) were prepared aiming to protect the structure and associated function of LF in gastric stage of digestion. The parameters affecting the formation of complex coacervates (pH, LF-to-NaAlg ratio) were optimized using electrostatic charge density, turbidity and yield of the complex coacervates. The breaking down of LF structure into smaller peptides, antioxidant capacity and iron release/binding properties of LF and LF-NaAlg were determined in oral, gastric and intestinal stages of in-vitro digestion. The highest yield of LF-NaAlg complex coacervates was achieved at pH 4.5 and the LF-to-NaAlg ratio of 8:1. UP to 30% LF was delivered to the intestinal stage in complex coacervate form while the entire uncomplexed LF was degraded at the gastric stage. The antioxidant capacity of LF in complex coacervate was increased by 12%. The iron binding/release property of LF was not affected in LF-NaAlg complex coacervates.

Empty microcapsules, originally designed as carriers of bioactive peptides, were prepared by the combined method of a double-emulsion complex with coacervation spray drying and were subjected to an in-vitro digestion process, producing peptides from the whey protein contained in the microcapsule walls. The inhibitory effect of the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) and modulation of the insulin receptor of hydrolyzed microcapsules were evaluated. The hydrolysate of the microcapsules was subjected to matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) analysis, showing the presence of low-molecular-weight peptidic compounds, which apparently were responsible for the DPP-4 inhibitory effect. Fluorescence analysis showed that the effect of the hydrolyzed microcapsules on the insulin receptor was 40% that of insulin. The inhibition of DPP-4 was 54.7%. This work demonstrated that empty microcapsules initially designed as carriers of functional peptides also have the capability to inhibit DPP-4 and modulate insulin receptors by themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presently, there is growing interest among researchers on development of innovative and invigorating milk-food products with potential health benefits integrating milk and edible plant polyphenols endowed with beneficial micronutrients by exploring the interactive action of the ingredients through alteration of physicochemical properties of the products. This research was charted to characterize the interactions of some important polyphenols (p-Coumaric acid, Gallic acid, Caffeic acid, (+)-Catechin and Chlorogenic acid) with camel milk casein and whey proteins. Camel milk was included in this study, because it is the only economic alternative to dairy (cow) milk in arid regions and thus important to the inhabitants. Furthermore, knowledge of interactions of phenolics with camel milk proteins is still imprecise unlike other animals' milk. Protein-phenolic compounds included in this study were eluted and fractionated using Sephadex G-25 column chromatography. In this study, the total phenolic content in each fraction along with bioavailability of phenolic compounds before and after in-vitro digestion process was evaluated. The results indicate that all phenolic compounds more strongly bind to camel milk casein than whey-proteins. Further, with increase in the molecular weights of polyphenols, the percentage of protein-bound phenolics increased. The percentage of casein-bound phenolics arranged in ascending order were p-Coumaric acid < Gallic acid < Caffeic acid < (+)-Catechin < Chlorogenic acid with a binding percentage of 20.65 ± 0.1, 31.10 ± 0.2, 34.92 ± 0.7, 42.30 ± 1.0 and 49.05 ± 0.8 percents, respectively. Whey protein-bound phenolics arranged in ascending order were p-Coumaric acid < Gallic acid < Caffeic acid < (+)- Catechin < Chlorogenic acid with a percentage of 13.54 ± 0.4, 22.11 ± 0.7, 24.72 ± 0.9, 29.87 ± 1.0 and 34.81 ± 2.5 percents, respectively. The maximum precipitated capacity for casein or whey proteins by Gallic acid, Caffeic acid, (+)-Catechin and p-Coumaric acid occurred at pH 4, while it occurred at pH 3 in case of Chlorogenic acid. The results confirmed that digestion process enhanced the bioaccessibility of all phenolic compounds studied. After two stages of in-vitro digestion, all phenolic compounds were observed to have less binding affinity to camel milk casein than to whey proteins. Besides, p-Coumaric acid and Gallic acid showed higher (P = 0.05) bioaccessibility index than other phenolic compounds. This study provides positive evidence indicating that camel milk protein-phenolic complexes were more easily digested during in-vitro simulated digestion. In conclusion, our results provide precise information about the interaction of camel milk proteins and some phenolic compounds and suggest the possibility of producing functional camel milk products with the best bioavailability of polyphenols during gastrointestinal digestion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the efficiency of starch nano-particles in comparison with native starch for encapsulation of probiotic bacterial cells (Pediococcus acidolactici). Bacterial cell-death after encapsulation, viability and bioactivity retention under simulated gastro-intestinal conditions (SGID) were studied. Encapsulation in native starch showed higher viable cells (2.65 log CFU/g) ascompared to those encapsulated in starch nano-particles (1.47 log CFU/g) (P < 0.05). The characteristic peak of free cells at 1248 cm−1 indicates the presence of Pediococcus acidolactici in capsules. The micrographs showed more coccus shaped cells at the surface of nano-starch capsules. The cells encapsulated in starch nano-particles showed no or less viability upon their transit through SGID conditions, whereas native starch released cells slowly with 5.03 log CFU/g reaching intestinal phase. Starch nano-particles could not offer thermal protection to cells at high temperature-high time treatment. Further, free cells did not retain their bioactivity under SGID conditions, however enhanced bioactivity was observed upon encapsulation. The results indicate that starch nano-particles may not be suitable for encapsulation of probiotics. • Novel starch based nano-particles were used for encapsulating probiotic bacteria. • Encapsulation in native starch showed better cells viability and thermal protection. • Nano-encapsulated probiotic cells displayed lower viability compared to cells in native starch. • Nano-starch particles could not offer thermal protection to probiotics cells. • Nano-sized molecules may not suitable for encapsulation of probiotics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aimed at investigating relationships among structure, nutritional properties, and sensory acceptability of reduced-fat biscuits in comparison with a full-fat biscuit (STD). Four reduced-fat formulations were tested: OPT (46.3% fat reduction), an optimized formulation containing polydextrose and resistant starch; RAW and EXTR, obtained by substituting resistant starch with raw and extruded bean powders, respectively; WOW, in which a double emulsion was used instead of shortening. Fracture strength resulted comparable in STD and OPT, but increased for the other samples due to the structuring role of bean protein or the very low amount of fat. Scanning Electron Microscopy images revealed a well-developed protein structure in all samples, except for WOW that presented a more continuous and closed network. EXTR showed the lowest level of rapidly digestible starch and lipid digestibility. RAW showed the highest protein digestibility, significantly different from STD (12.1 ± 2.7 vs 3.7 ± 1.6 g/100 g proteins). Thanks to the holistic approach used, the influence of fat content on dough and biscuit structure as well as on colour was assessed, demonstrating also an effect on nutritional properties and consumers' acceptance. • Use of raw and extruded bean flours or double emulsion affect biscuit properties. • Bean powders have a structuring role in reduced-fat biscuits. • Double emulsion gives biscuits with closed structure and high fracture strength. • Extruded bean powder gives biscuits with low level of rapidly digestible starch. • The role of fat on dough rheology and biscuit liking was assessed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Phenolics occurrence in cooked legumes and in their soaking and boiling water. • Free and bound phenolic compounds distribution in seed coats and cotyledons. • Free and bound phenolics bioaccessibility assessed in vitro. • Only a fraction of legume phenolics is bio-accessible after cooking and digestion. Abstract Legumes represent staple foods rich in phenolic compounds, which are often consumed after soaking and boiling. This study determines the fate of phenolic compounds from six legumes varieties belonging to the species Lens culinaris Medik., Phaseolus vulgaris L. and Cicer arietinum L. after soaking, boiling and digestion. To this purpose, a new HPLC-DAD method was developed and validated. Results show that the cooking process strongly reduces the content in free and bound phenolic compounds and that the processing water is a valuable source of phenolics. Bioaccessibility of phenolics from the legume matrix was investigated separately in the coat and the cotyledons of three chosen varieties (black beans, black lentils and pinto beans) by means of a standardized in vitro digestion protocol. Results showed that only a fraction of the phenolic compounds is bioaccessible, which may have implications for human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Combination of hop-sourdough and rice bran (RB) addition influenced the bread properties. • Optimized conditions of hop-sourdough and RB improved bioactive and sensory properties of bread. • Hop-sourdough RB-enriched breads released more phenolics compared to the control. • Antioxidants from enriched bread presented low bioaccessibility compared to the control. • Ferulic and sinapic acids were little bioaccessible in vitro conditions. Abstract The effect of hop sourdough fermentation combined with rice bran (RB) addition was investigated for improving technological, bioactive and sensory properties of wheat bread by optimizing the quantities of RB, yeast, sourdough and hop extract contents based on response surface methodology. The bread produced according to the optimized formula was compared with control bread, sourdough or RB-enhanced bread with regard to quality attributes, bioaccessible phenolics and antioxidant activity. Sourdough fermentation combined with RB flour increased volume of loaves and consumer acceptance with no significant variations in crumb moisture content and crumb firmness during storage. RB darkened crumb while no effects on colour were observed for sourdough bread. Sourdough technology allowed increasing phenolic content of RB bread with no significant differences in its antioxidant activity. The bioaccessible ferulic and sinapic acids, the main phenolics released in vitro digestion of optimized bread were lower compared to those of control bread. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to determine the changes in, and bioaccessibility of, polyphenols and organosulfur compounds (OSCs) during the simulated gastrointestinal digestion of black onion, a novel product derived from fresh onion by a combination of heat and humidity treatment, and to compare it with its fresh counterpart. Fresh and black onions were subjected to in-vitro gastrointestinal digestion, and their polyphenol and OSC profiles were determined by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS). Although to a lesser extent than in the fresh onion, the phenolic compounds in the black variety remained stable during the digestion process, presenting a higher bioaccessibility index (BI) with recovery corresponding to 41.1%, compared with that of fresh onion (23.5%). As for OSCs, apart from being more stable after the digestion process, with a BI of 83%, significantly higher quantities (21 times higher) were found in black onion than in fresh onion, suggesting that the black onion production process has a positive effect on the OSC content. Gallic acid, quercetin, isorhamnetin, and ɣ-glutamyl-S-(1-propenyl)-L-cysteine sulfoxide were the most bioaccessible compounds in fresh onion, while isorhamnetin, quercetin-diglucoside, ɣ-glutamyl-S-methyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide and methionine sulfoxide were found in black onion. These results indicate that OSCs and polyphenols are more bioaccessible in black onion than in fresh onion, indicating a positive effect of the processing treatment.

This study investigated the potential of complex coacervates produced using Spirulina protein concentrate (SPC) conjugated with maltodextrin (MD) and carrageenan (CG) for encapsulating and delivering sensitive oils. A wet-heating Maillard reaction was employed to conjugate SPC with MD, followed by coacervation with CG to form the conjugate-based coacervates. Additionally, a mixture of unconjugated SPC and MD was coacervated with CG to produce mixture-based coacervates. Both types of coacervates were utilised as wall materials for encapsulating canola oil. The in-vitro digestion of the resulting microcapsules was assessed in oral, gastric, and intestinal phases, focusing on physicochemical parameters such as droplet size, zeta-potential, microstructure, proteolysis, oil release and lipolysis. The findings revealed that microcapsules prepared using both (SPC-MD mixture)-CG and (SPC-MD conjugate)-CG coacervates were remarkably stable against gastric digestion, as evidenced by the minimal production of free amino acids (15 mM). Most of the encapsulated oil (62–67%) was released during the intestinal phase due to the breakdown of the coacervates. Notably, the microcapsules produced with (SPC-MD conjugate)-CG coacervates demonstrated a lower degree of lipolysis (41.77% free fatty acid content) compared to those prepared with (SPC-MD mixture)-CG coacervates (53.35% free fatty acid content). These results highlight the potential of complex coacervates produced using conjugated SPC as promising materials for the encapsulation and delivery of sensitive oils. • Canola oil was encapsulated by complex coacervates of conjugated Spirulina protein. • The microcapsule remained stable against the oral and gastric digestion. • Most of the encapsulated oil was released during intestinal digestion. • Conjugate-based microcapsules showed lower lipolysis degree during intestinal phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A stable nano-emulsion was successfully prepared using Tween 80 (T-80) as an emulsifier, so as to overcome the defects of the Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim essential oil (ZMEO) and improve its bioavailability. This study investigated the physical properties and biological activities of the ZMEO-NE, including rheological characteristics, particle size, in-vitro digestion, antioxidant, anti-hyperlipidemia, and antibacterial activity. The ZMEO-NE was a non-Newtonian fluid with an average particle size less than 150 nm, and remained stable in the oral environment, but was successively digested and decomposed in the gastrointestinal environment. In addition, the ZMEO-NE had significant antioxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic, and antibacterial activities, and the antibacterial mechanism was that the disrupted cell membranes of bacteria led to bacterial death. Therefore, the ZMEO-NE can be applied as a natural antioxidant or preservative for food preservation, and also have potential value in treating hyperlipidemia. [Display omitted] • ZMEO-NE was prepared by mechanical method and characterized by rheometer, SEM and TEM. • In vitro digestion experiments revealed that ZMEO-NE remained stable in the oral environment but was digested successively in the gastrointestinal tract. • The antioxidant, anti-hyperlipidemic and antibacterial abilities of ZMEO-NE were significantly enhanced. • ZMEO-NE caused the loss of intracellular material by disrupting the cell membrane of bacteria, which eventually led to their death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Novel starch based nano-particles were used for encapsulating catechin. • Horse chestnut starch (HSC) had highest encapsulation efficiency and produced lower particle size. • Water chestnut starch (WSC) had highest stability and displayed slower release of catechin. • Nano-encapsulation helped in retaining bioactive properties of catechin during digestion process. Abstract Novel starch-based nanoparticles from three sources: horse chestnut (HSC), water chestnut (WSC) and lotus stem (LSC) were prepared for nano-encapsulation of catechin. Average particle size of HSC, WSC and LSC based nano-particles were 322.7, 559.2 and 615.6 nm with encapsulation efficiency of 59.09, 48.30, and 55.00% and negative zeta potential of −18.05, −21.5 and −18.05 mv, respectively. Structural, physical and thermal properties were characterized by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). SEM revealed capsule formation with entrapped catechin, while broad characteristic peaks at 3475, 1650, 1383, 1148, 1083 and 790 cm−1 depicts encapsulation of catechin in starch nanoparticles without any evident interaction. XRD showed loss of crystallinity after encapsulation. Higher content of catechin in intestinal juice ensured controlled release in intestine. Bioactive properties were retained at higher level in encapsulated catechin compared to free catechin upon in-vitro digestion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The digestion fates of different edible oils are different. The objective of this study was to understand the influences of lipid composition on their digestion fates, and investigate the roles of bile salts (BS) played in emulsified lipid system (whey protein isolate as emulsifier) in the in-vitro small intestine digestion stage. Three typical oils (palm oil (PO), rapeseed oil (RO) and linseed oil (LINO)) were chosen. Results showed that with the BS addition increased from 0.0 to 2.0 mg/mL, the increasing magnitude of the different fatty acid (FA) apparent release rate constants were: PO > RO ≈ LINO. Although the maximum FA release extent changed with BS addition, the order were: PO > RO > LINO. These may probably be attributed to palmitic acids, the most abundant FA in PO, was mostly located on the Sn-1, 3 positions of triacylglycerol (TAG) molecules, which contributed to the pancreatic lipase hydrolysis action. The relatively short chain length and the lower hydrophobicity also favored this process. However, Sn-1, 3 positions of TAGs in RO and LINO were mainly long chain mono- or poly-unsaturated FAs, which restricted the continuous lipid hydrolysis. Furthermore, the lipid composition may also affect the BS behavior on the O/W emulsion droplet surface, thus modulating lipase hydrolysis reaction. These findings can provide some basic understandings of the digestion differences of different oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]