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Atmospheric blocking is a key dynamical phenomenon in the mid‐ and high latitudes, able to drive day‐to‐day weather changes and meteorological extremes such as heatwaves, droughts and cold waves. Current global circulation models struggle to fully capture observed blocking frequencies, likely because of their coarse horizontal resolution. Here we use convection permitting, nested idealized model simulations for quantifying changes in blocking frequency and Rossby wave breaking compared to a coarser resolution reference. We find an increase in blocking frequency poleward and downstream of the area with increased resolution, while the exact regions depend on the blocking index. These changes are probably due to a more accurate representation of small‐scale processes such as diabatic heating, which affect Rossby wave breaking and blocking formation downstream. Our results thus suggest an improved representation of blocking in the next generation of high‐resolution global climate models. Plain Language Summary: Atmospheric blocking is a persistent weather pattern associated with high‐pressure anomalies that is able to drive meteorological extremes such as heatwaves and drought in summer, and cold waves in winter. Having blocking well represented in state‐of‐the‐art climate models is of paramount importance, however these models fail in simulating the frequency of blocking events, likely because their grid resolution is not high enough for resolving small scale physical processes important for the development of blocking episodes. Here we use very‐high resolution model simulations for quantifying blocking frequencies and the mechanisms driving these episodes. Our simulations are idealized, in the sense that they do not fully represent the Earth's system but allow us to focus on key physical mechanisms driving the blocking events. Our results show that using a very‐high resolution enhances blocking frequencies when compared to a lower resolution grid. The findings point toward the importance that unresolved physical processes play in generating blocking events that can only be simulated at very‐high resolution and can be of importance for the next generation of climate models. Key Points: Blocking frequency increases downstream and poleward of sea‐surface temperature front with convection permitting atmospheric resolutionThe specific region of increased blocking depends on the blocking indexChanges in diabatic heating and Rossby wave breaking play a fundamental role for the blocking enhancement [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Idealized simulations with a cloud-resolving model are conducted to examine the impact of a simplified city on the structure of a supercell thunderstorm. The simplified city is created by enhancing the surface roughness length and/or surface temperature relative to the surroundings. When the simplified city is both warmer and has larger surface roughness relative to its surroundings, the supercell that passes over it has a larger updraft helicity (at both midlevels and the surface) and enhanced precipitation and hail downwind of the city, all relative to the control simulation. The storm environment within the city has larger convective available potential energy which helps stimulate stronger low-level updrafts. Storm relative helicity (SRH) is actually reduced over the city, but enhanced in a narrow band on the northern edge of the city. This band of larger SRH is ingested by the primary updraft just prior to passing over the city, corresponding with enhancement to the near-surface mesocyclone. Additional simulations in which the simplified city is altered by removing either the heat island or surface roughness length gradient reveal that the presence of a heat island is most closely associated with enhancements in updraft helicity and low-level updrafts relative to the control simulation.

Idealized simulations with a cloud-resolving model are conducted to examine the impact of a simplified city on the structure of a supercell thunderstorm. The simplified city is created by enhancing the surface roughness length and/or surface temperature relative to the surroundings. When the simplified city is both warmer and has larger surface roughness relative to its surroundings, the supercell that passes over it has a larger updraft helicity (at both midlevels and the surface) and enhanced precipitation and hail downwind of the city, all relative to the control simulation. The storm environment within the city has larger convective available potential energy which helps stimulate stronger low-level updrafts. Storm relative helicity (SRH) is actually reduced over the city, but enhanced in a narrow band on the northern edge of the city. This band of larger SRH is ingested by the primary updraft just prior to passing over the city, corresponding with enhancement to the near-surface mesocyclone. Additional simulations in which the simplified city is altered by removing either the heat island or surface roughness length gradient reveal that the presence of a heat island is most closely associated with enhancements in updraft helicity and low-level updrafts relative to the control simulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of extrathoracic airway replicas in optimization of drug delivery to the lungs with nebulizers, dry powder inhalers (DPIs) and pressurized metered-dose inhalers (pMDIs) is discussed. Such airway replicas have been useful in evaluating new pulmonary drug delivery platforms mainly based on the comparison of the total lung dose (TLD) and the aerodynamic particle size distribution (APSD) of the aerosol distal to the physical models. The ability of these in vitro methods to replicate in vivo results has allowed advancements in respiratory drug delivery and in the accuracy and utility of in vitro-in vivo correlations (IVIVCs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The Single Column Atmosphere Model (SCAM) is a single column model version of the Community Atmosphere Model (CAM). Here we describe the functionality and features of SCAM6, available as part of CAM6 in the Community Earth System Model, version 2 (CESM2). SCAM6 features a wide selection of standard cases, as well as the ability to easily configure a case specified by the user based on a particular point in a CAM 3‐D simulation. This work illustrates how SCAM6 reproduces CAM6 results for physical parameterizations, mostly of moisture and clouds. We demonstrate how SCAM6 can be used for model development through different physics selections, as well as with parameter sweep experiments to highlight the sensitivity of cloud properties to the specification of the vapor deposition process in the cloud microphysics. Furthermore, we use SCAM6 to illustrate the sensitivity of CAM6 cloud radiative properties and precipitation to variable drop number (cloud microphysics properties). Finally, we illustrate how SCAM6 can be used to explore critical emergent processes such as cloud feedbacks and show that CAM6 cloud responses to surface warming in stratus and stratocumulus regimes are similar to those in CAM5. CAM6 has a larger response in the shallow cumulus regime than CAM5. CAM6 cloud feedbacks in the shallow cumulus regime are sensitive to turbulence parameters. SCAM6 is thus a valuable tool for model development, evaluation, and scientific analy sis and an important part of the model hierarchy in Community Earth System Model, version 2.

Human walking is a socially embedded and shaped biological adaptation: it frees our hands, makes our minds mobile, and is deeply health promoting. Yet, today, physical inactivity is an unsolved, major public health problem. However, globally, tens of millions of people annually undertake ancient, significant and enduring traditions of physiologically and psychologically arduous walks (pilgrimages) of days-to-weeks extent. Pilgrim walking is a significant human activity requiring weighty commitments of time, action and belief, as well as community support. Paradoxically, human walking is most studied on treadmills, not ‘in the wild’, while mechanistically vital, treadmill studies of walking cannot, in principle, address why humans walk extraordinary distances together to demonstrate their adherence to a behaviourally demanding belief system.Pilgrim walkers provide a rich ‘living laboratory’ bridging humanistic inquiries, to progressive theoretical and empirical investigations of human walking arising from a behaviourally demanding belief system. Pilgrims vary demographically and undertake arduous journeys on precisely mapped routes of tracked, titrated doses and durations on terrain of varying difficulty, allowing investigations from molecular to cultural levels of analysis. Using the reciprocal perspectives of ‘inside→out’ (where processes within brain and body initiate, support and entrain movement) and ‘outside→in’ (where processes in the world beyond brain and body drive activity within brain and body), we examine how pilgrim walking might shape personal, social and transcendental processes, revealing potential mechanisms supporting the body and brain in motion, to how pilgrim walking might offer policy solutions for physical inactivity.

Human walking is a socially embedded and shaped biological adaptation: it frees our hands, makes our minds mobile, and is deeply health promoting. Yet, today, physical inactivity is an unsolved, major public health problem. However, globally, tens of millions of people annually undertake ancient, significant and enduring traditions of physiologically and psychologically arduous walks (pilgrimages) of days-to-weeks extent. Pilgrim walking is a significant human activity requiring weighty commitments of time, action and belief, as well as community support. Paradoxically, human walking is most studied on treadmills, not ' in the wild' , while mechanistically vital, treadmill studies of walking cannot, in principle, address why humans walk extraordinary distances together to demonstrate their adherence to a behaviourally demanding belief system. Pilgrim walkers provide a rich 'living laboratory' bridging humanistic inquiries, to progressive theoretical and empirical investigations of human walking arising from a behaviourally demanding belief system. Pilgrims vary demographically and undertake arduous journeys on precisely mapped routes of tracked, titrated doses and durations on terrain of varying difficulty, allowing investigations from molecular to cultural levels of analysis. Using the reciprocal perspectives of ' inside→out ' (where processes within brain and body initiate, support and entrain movement) and ' outside→in ' (where processes in the world beyond brain and body drive activity within brain and body), we examine how pilgrim walking might shape personal, social and transcendental processes, revealing potential mechanisms supporting the body and brain in motion, to how pilgrim walking might offer policy solutions for physical inactivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current article offers a comparative account of the address system of two dialects of Arabic, Najdi and Tunisian Arabic. Capitalizing on the theory of Idealized Cognitive Model, the article defends the view that the two systems display Idealized models, which are central to the system, and non-Idealized models, which are peripheral to it. Najdi Arabic includes Idealized terms such as first names, teknonyms, and kinship terms while non-Idealized models include a battery of terms of address. Tunisian Arabic Idealized models hinge on Si/Lalla + first names, first names, and kinship terms while non-Idealized models make use of endeared first names, kinship terms, and diminished kinship terms. The two systems are shown to differ at the level of types of encounter (including formality, closeness, and deference), availability of address options, social horizontality-verticality, and use of metaphor and metonymy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The publication of funeral sermons became increasingly common in seventeenth-century England, and the commemoration of women, especially those with some status, was not unusual; but Anthony Walker’s tribute to Mary Rich, Countess of Warwick, is noteworthy. Unlike the lives of so many other women commemorated at funerals, considerable autobiographical information about the countess exists in her memoir, extensive diary, and many meditations that have survived in manuscripts. Seen in this context as well as in relation to a number of other sermons on seventeenth-century women, this essay provides an unusual opportunity to appreciate the distinctiveness of his celebration and the extent to which it is determined by convention. While faithful to the memory of the countess, Walker’s published sermon gives significant dimension to her life and the idea of the virtuous woman. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Research in both cognitive and educational psychology has explored the effect of different types of external knowledge representations (e.g., manipulatives, graphical/pictorial representations, texts) on a variety of important outcome measures. We place this large and multifaceted research literature into an organizing framework, classifying three categories of external knowledge representations along a dimension of groundedness: (1) idealized, (2) grounded and including only relevant features, and (3) grounded and including irrelevant features. This organizing framework allows us to focus on the implications of these characteristics of external knowledge representations on three important educational outcomes: learning and immediate performance using the target knowledge, the degree to which that knowledge can transfer flexibly, and the interest engendered by the learning materials. We illustrate the framework by mapping a wide body of research from educational and cognitive psychology onto its dimensions. This framework can aid educators by clearly stating what the research literature says about these characteristics of external knowledge representations and how they activate and support the construction of internal knowledge representations. In particular, it will speak to how to best structure instruction using external knowledge representations with different characteristics, depending on the learning objective. Researchers will benefit from the analysis of the current state of knowledge and by the description of what open questions still remain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This work describes the development of an idealized geometry that mimics average regional deposition of nasal sprays within realistic adult nasal geometries. Previous simulation results in seven realistic nasal airways (Kiaee et al. Int. J. Num. Methods Biomed. Eng. 34: e2968, 2018) were used to establish target values of regional deposition. Characteristic geometric features observed to be common to all the realistic nasal airway geometries studied were extracted and included in the idealized geometry. Additional geometric features and size scaling were explored, in order to enhance deposition in specific regions based on the results of simulations done in preliminary versions of the idealized geometry. In total, more than one hundred thousand simulation cases were conducted across a range of particle parameters and geometric shapes in order to reach the final idealized geometry presented herein. For droplet velocities of 0-20 m/s, droplet sizes of 5-40 μm and at an inhalation flow rate of 15 l/min, regional deposition in the final idealized geometry compares favourably with average deposition in each of the vestibule, valve, olfactory, turbinate, nasopharynx, and outlet regions in the realistic geometries. The proposed idealized nasal geometry has potential for use in the development and testing of nasal drug delivery systems, allowing researchers to estimate in vivo regional nasal deposition patterns using a simple benchtop test apparatus., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)