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Equine-assisted services (EAS) is a relatively new area of study within higher education requiring the development of a curriculum that best prepares the undergraduate student for the demands of the industry. Further, coursework targeting the specific management challenges for ensuring the welfare of horses utilized within EAS is limited. Therefore, the objective of this study was to apply an industry-based survey assessment utilizing EAS professionals within the United States to document management practices associated with healthcare and pain management challenges in the EAS horse. Suggested curriculum for undergraduate students targeting a career in EAS is given, utilizing data collected from the survey. Participant responses (n = 30) indicated that all of the surveyed facilities cared for more than three geriatric horses within their program, with the majority (60% responding "definitely yes") utilizing regularly functionally lame horses, although the prevalence of lameness was not correlated with number of geriatric horses within a program (0.20, p = 0.22). While lameness is a common healthcare challenge within EAS, gastrointestinal conditions (73%) were one of the other leading health concerns for these facilities. The most common equine pain detection method for EAS facilities was behavior assessment (93%), in which this method was positively correlated with years of horse experience (0.51, p = 0.01). Horse pain was primarily managed through annual alternative therapeutic interventions (76%), daily prescriptions (73%), and nutritional supplements (73%). As such, the curriculum for undergraduate EAS degree programs should cover healthcare practices targeting geriatric horse management and associated health issues such as gastrointestinal conditions and lameness, including early detection and pharmaceutical, nutritional, and alternative therapeutic treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Quality of life (QoL) provides a comprehensive concept underpinning veterinary decision-making that encompasses factors beyond physical health. It becomes particularly pertinent when seeking responsible choices for chronically ill or old horses that emphasise their well-being and a good QoL over the extension of life. How different stakeholders use the concept of QoL is highly relevant when considering the complexity of these decisions in real-life situations. Methods: Seven focus group discussions (N = 39) were conducted to gain insights into how stakeholders assess and use equine QoL in veterinary care decisions for chronically ill and/or old horses. The discussions included horse owners (n = 17), equine veterinarians (n = 7), veterinary officers (n = 6), farriers (n = 4), and horse caregivers (n = 5). The combination of deductive and inductive qualitative content analysis of the group discussions focused on identifying both similarities and differences in the views of these groups regarding QoL for old and/or chronically ill horses. Results: Findings show agreement about two issues: the importance of the individuality of the horse for assessing QoL and the relevance of QoL in making decisions about veterinary interventions. We identified differences between the groups with respect to three issues: the time required to assess QoL, stakeholders’ contributions to QoL assessments, and challenges resulting from those contributions. While owners and caregivers of horses emphasised their knowledge of a horse and the relevance of the time they spend with their horse, the veterinarians in the study focused on the differences between their own QoL assessments and those of horse owners. In response to challenges regarding QoL assessments and decision-making, stakeholders described different strategies such as drawing comparisons to human experiences. Conclusions: Differences between stakeholders regarding equine QoL assessments contribute to challenges when making decisions about the care of chronically ill or old horses. The results of this study suggest that individual and collaborative reflection about a horse’s QoL should be encouraged, for example by developing practicable QoL assessment tools that support relevant stakeholders in this process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine-assisted services (EAS) is a relatively new area of study within higher education requiring the development of a curriculum that best prepares the undergraduate student for the demands of the industry. Further, coursework targeting the specific management challenges for ensuring the welfare of horses utilized within EAS is limited. Therefore, the objective of this study was to apply an industry-based survey assessment utilizing EAS professionals within the United States to document management practices associated with healthcare and pain management challenges in the EAS horse. Suggested curriculum for undergraduate students targeting a career in EAS is given, utilizing data collected from the survey. Participant responses (n = 30) indicated that all of the surveyed facilities cared for more than three geriatric horses within their program, with the majority (60% responding “definitely yes”) utilizing regularly functionally lame horses, although the prevalence of lameness was not correlated with number of geriatric horses within a program (0.20, p = 0.22). While lameness is a common healthcare challenge within EAS, gastrointestinal conditions (73%) were one of the other leading health concerns for these facilities. The most common equine pain detection method for EAS facilities was behavior assessment (93%), in which this method was positively correlated with years of horse experience (0.51, p = 0.01). Horse pain was primarily managed through annual alternative therapeutic interventions (76%), daily prescriptions (73%), and nutritional supplements (73%). As such, the curriculum for undergraduate EAS degree programs should cover healthcare practices targeting geriatric horse management and associated health issues such as gastrointestinal conditions and lameness, including early detection and pharmaceutical, nutritional, and alternative therapeutic treatments.

Abstract Background Quality of life (QoL) provides a comprehensive concept underpinning veterinary decision-making that encompasses factors beyond physical health. It becomes particularly pertinent when seeking responsible choices for chronically ill or old horses that emphasise their well-being and a good QoL over the extension of life. How different stakeholders use the concept of QoL is highly relevant when considering the complexity of these decisions in real-life situations. Methods Seven focus group discussions (N = 39) were conducted to gain insights into how stakeholders assess and use equine QoL in veterinary care decisions for chronically ill and/or old horses. The discussions included horse owners (n = 17), equine veterinarians (n = 7), veterinary officers (n = 6), farriers (n = 4), and horse caregivers (n = 5). The combination of deductive and inductive qualitative content analysis of the group discussions focused on identifying both similarities and differences in the views of these groups regarding QoL for old and/or chronically ill horses. Results Findings show agreement about two issues: the importance of the individuality of the horse for assessing QoL and the relevance of QoL in making decisions about veterinary interventions. We identified differences between the groups with respect to three issues: the time required to assess QoL, stakeholders’ contributions to QoL assessments, and challenges resulting from those contributions. While owners and caregivers of horses emphasised their knowledge of a horse and the relevance of the time they spend with their horse, the veterinarians in the study focused on the differences between their own QoL assessments and those of horse owners. In response to challenges regarding QoL assessments and decision-making, stakeholders described different strategies such as drawing comparisons to human experiences. Conclusions Differences between stakeholders regarding equine QoL assessments contribute to challenges when making decisions about the care of chronically ill or old horses. The results of this study suggest that individual and collaborative reflection about a horse’s QoL should be encouraged, for example by developing practicable QoL assessment tools that support relevant stakeholders in this process.

Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) involve health services and adaptive recreation that include equine interactions to promote human wellbeing. While research around the human health outcomes of EAS has grown considerably, there has been limited exploration into the impact of such services on a key service provider, the horse. This study evaluated whether there is variation in how EAS horses experience different types of unmounted interactions with humans. To answer this question, we utilized a mixed method, repeated measures experiment in which 56 human participants and 14 horses, working at a 1:1 ratio, completed a series of three interactions common to EAS: a grooming, a leading, and a maze condition. To measure equine affect, we recorded heart rate variability (HRV) continuously, took eye temperature (ET) immediately after each interaction, and recorded horse behavior. A mixed effects model indicated that horses displayed greater sympathetic activation in the grooming condition than the leading via Low Frequency/High Frequency Ratio (LF:HF: p < 0.001; ET: p = 0.003) and maze conditions (LF:HF: p = 0.005; ET: p < 0.001). Horses also showed significantly more stress-associated behaviors, such as elevated head carriage and pawing, in the grooming condition. These results indicate that there is potential for equine stress during a grooming activity; therefore, more research is needed to determine optimal approaches for addressing horse welfare in unmounted EAS activities involving human interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many traditional horse keeping and training practices can result in poor horse welfare. To assist reform and identify novel opportunities to facilitate improvements in horse welfare, this study sought to gauge the motivations underlying equestrians' horse-keeping and training practices. Nineteen amateur equestrians were interviewed using semi-structured interviews. Systems thinking and self-determination theory, which proposes humans are intrinsically motivated by three psychological needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness), provided the theoretical framework for the study. Using reflexive thematic analysis, four themes were identified: (1) achieving equestrian goals is the primary motivator; (2) equestrians work hard to develop their equestrian knowledge and skills; (3) equestrians are highly motivated to compete and/or participate in club activities; and (4) achieving a financial return on investment is important to many equestrians. Findings suggest that equestrians do not prioritize the three psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory equally. Competence (goal achievement) was the highest priority for equestrians, followed by the need for autonomy (control), and then relatedness (horse–human partnership). The spectrum of equestrians' motivational priorities suggests that there is an imbalance between horse needs and human needs when selecting horse-keeping and training practices. These insights can be leveraged to develop initiatives that engage all stakeholders, so that meeting human needs and horse needs is more equitably balanced. We also found that equestrians' practices were highly influenced by their desire to participate in competitive equestrian sport, emphasizing the important role equestrian organizations can play in improving horse welfare through the rules of their sports. These findings contribute to the multifaceted reform needed to solve the complex challenge of improving horse welfare, the outcome of which will determine the long-term future of equestrian sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of domestication of the horse introduced changes limiting accessibility to graze land and roughage while increasing highly digestible carbohydrates content of meal-fed rations. We have tested whether the effect of a higher degree of human contact impacts horses' welfare by assessing the development of sharp enamel points (SEP) and buccal ulcerations (BU) in ridden and unridden horses. We were able to fit logistic regression models significantly differentiating the impact of these two conditions in both groups of horses (p < 0.001 for SEP and p < 0.01 for BU). The impact is higher in ridden horses for both conditions. These two conditions were found to correlate positively (ρ = 0.63, p < 0.001). We argued that human contact may impact on horses' welfare. Further studies may help to clarify this impact with more detail. Dentistry may be helpful to provide improved welfare conditions; however, without regular access to grazed land, the stabled horses' welfare may be at stake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: To improve horse welfare and ensure a sustainable equestrian future, we need to understand human behavior in relation to the challenges of the sector. This article maps and analyzes how individuals within the equine sector in Sweden and Norway define environmental challenges. An analysis based on a model for behavior change (the COM-B model) shows that there is a capacity for change, and that skills and knowledge exist, but that some individuals desire more information and a deeper understanding of the issues at hand. Physical constraints such as location, resources, and time seem challenging for individual actors to influence. Economic factors are also identified as impediments to transformation. Cultural norms related to orderliness within stables, although not directly addressing ecological challenges, might serve as a foundation for promoting environmental initiatives that will also improve horse welfare. To improve horse welfare and ensure a sustainable equestrian future, we need to understand human behavior in relation to the challenges of the sector. The purpose of this paper is to map and analyze how individuals within the equine sector in Sweden and Norway define the environmental challenges they are faced with and how these are related to questions about horse welfare. A mixed-methods parallel design was used. The data consist of survey answers and semi-structured interviews. The survey, responded to by 697 Swedish and Norwegian participants, ensured statistical validity and power through a sample size calculation yielding approximately 385 participants. To deepen the understanding, 36 semi structured interviews with Swedish and Norwegian interviewees were conducted. An analysis of convergencies and divergencies between the data sets provided robust insights into the perceptions and behaviors within the equine sector in Sweden and Norway. The findings show that the equine sector has cultivated a stronger environmental commitment over the last 15 years (Svala, 2008). However, many participants express a perceived lack of influence on this transformation. The COM-B model (Michie, Van Stralen & West, 2011; Michie, Atkins & West, 2014) and previous research on 'thinking structures on climate delay' (Wormbs & Wolrath, 2023) are used to interpret the data. The analysis indicates that there is an overall capacity for change, and that skills and knowledge exist, but some individuals desire more information and a deeper understanding of the issues at hand. Higher barriers to change were found in the opportunity component, where physical constraints such as location, resources, and time seem challenging for individual actors to influence. Economic factors are also identified as impediments to transformation. Cultural norms related to orderliness within stables, although not directly addressing ecological nor ethical challenges, might serve as a foundation for promoting environmental initiatives that will also improve horse welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our aims were to describe the specific features of animal welfare offenses against companion animals in Finland, to study whether evidence provided by veterinarians was associated with the outcome of these cases, and to explore the sanctions and other legal consequences following these crimes in Finnish courts. Our data comprised 948 judgments in animal welfare offenses in Finland between January 2011 and May 2021. We used chi-square and Mann-Whitney U tests and binary logistic regression analysis to examine them. Most offenses included neglect of animals, extending to complete abandonment. We identified two distinguishable offense types that differed by offender's age, gender, and offense location: large-scale and violent offenses. Large-scale offenses, defined as recurrent or long-lasting and involving at least 15 animals, were often located in small municipalities and led frequently to the animals' death. They were typically committed by middle-aged or elderly women and their family members who rarely confessed to the charges even partially, which may refer to animal hoarding. In contrast, violent offenses were often committed by young men also charged with other crimes and targeted against other people's animals, which is in line with previous research on intentional animal cruelty. The official veterinarians' contribution to the criminal procedure varied according to the offense type. The assessment of the severity of the animal welfare offenses, imposition of a ban on the keeping of animals, and the forfeiture of the animals appeared to pose a challenge to the prosecutors and judges. We argue that to prevent and expose crimes against companion animals, we need to recognize the diverse nature of animal welfare offenses, strengthen the education of and cooperation between authorities, and efficiently utilize the ban on the keeping of animals as a precautionary measure to prevent further offenses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Securing the horse industry's long-term future is becoming increasingly urgent due to community concerns for horse welfare; human behavior change may offer novel solutions to this challenging problem. Self-determination theory (SDT), a well-established theory in human behavior change, assumes humans are intrinsically motivated by three universal psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. These align well with horse–human interaction. To explore the potential for human behavior change to improve horse welfare, this study investigated the relationship between horse welfare, rider safety, and rider satisfaction. An online survey asked equestrians about their horse-keeping and training practices, their riding accidents and injuries, and their level of satisfaction with their horse. Relative horse welfare and rider satisfaction were significantly related (r = 0.34, p < 0.001). Hyperreactive horse behavior (defined in this study as bucking, bolting, rearing, and spooking) and rider accidents and injuries were negatively related to rider satisfaction (r = −0.23, p < 0.001 and r = −0.16, p = 0.001, respectively). Further, goal achievement (r = 0.57, p < 0.001), rider control (r = 0.49, p < 0.001), and horse–human partnership (r = 0.62, p < 0.001) were all significantly related to rider satisfaction. A regression analysis testing the proposed SDT-based rider satisfaction model was significant (p < 0.001), with goal achievement, rider control, and horse–human partnership accounting for 63% of the variance of rider satisfaction scores. We found that horse welfare, rider safety, and rider satisfaction were related, with equestrian goal achievement (competence), horse control (autonomy), and horse-rider partnership (relatedness) all significantly contributing to rider satisfaction, suggesting that SDT may offer a useful framework for developing behavior change strategies. While more work is needed to develop and evaluate such strategies, a better understanding of intrinsic rider motivation represents an important first step. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training and riding directly effects horse welfare, highlighting the potential for training methods to improve both horse welfare and human safety. Learning theory is considered the most appropriate scientific foundation for horse training methods, yet equestrians' knowledge of learning theory is reportedly low. The relationship between equestrians' knowledge of learning theory terminology (LT) and horse welfare and rider safety was investigated to determine if rider knowledge of LT contributes to improved horse welfare and human safety. A sample of 394 Australian recreational and sport horse riders completed an online survey. Ridden horse welfare was assessed using validated husbandry and behavioral indicators. Rider safety was assessed by asking participants about ridden accidents and injuries. Rider knowledge of LT was assessed by asking participants to correctly identify scenarios that depicted three key operant conditioning terms: negative and positive reinforcement, and punishment. Only 24.6% of the sample correctly identified all three terms (the criteria for having a basic knowledge of LT), suggesting knowledge of LT has increased among equestrians but remains low. However, rider knowledge of LT was not significantly related to improved horse welfare or rider safety. It is uncertain why knowledge of LT remains so low among equestrians and why rider knowledge of LT did not translate to welfare and safety benefits as predicted. In facilitating the development of workable solutions to address the dual issues of poor horse welfare and human safety, we explore several possibilities, including a proposed new horse training framework that may enable learning theory to be leveraged more fully and deliver expected benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To improve horse welfare and ensure a sustainable equestrian future, we need to understand human behavior in relation to the challenges of the sector. The purpose of this paper is to map and analyze how individuals within the equine sector in Sweden and Norway define the environmental challenges they are faced with and how these are related to questions about horse welfare. A mixed-methods parallel design was used. The data consist of survey answers and semi-structured interviews. The survey, responded to by 697 Swedish and Norwegian participants, ensured statistical validity and power through a sample size calculation yielding approximately 385 participants. To deepen the understanding, 36 semi structured interviews with Swedish and Norwegian interviewees were conducted. An analysis of convergencies and divergencies between the data sets provided robust insights into the perceptions and behaviors within the equine sector in Sweden and Norway. The findings show that the equine sector has cultivated a stronger environmental commitment over the last 15 years (Svala, 2008). However, many participants express a perceived lack of influence on this transformation. The COM-B model (Michie, Van Stralen & West, 2011; Michie, Atkins & West, 2014) and previous research on ‘thinking structures on climate delay’ (Wormbs & Wolrath, 2023) are used to interpret the data. The analysis indicates that there is an overall capacity for change, and that skills and knowledge exist, but some individuals desire more information and a deeper understanding of the issues at hand. Higher barriers to change were found in the opportunity component, where physical constraints such as location, resources, and time seem challenging for individual actors to influence. Economic factors are also identified as impediments to transformation. Cultural norms related to orderliness within stables, although not directly addressing ecological nor ethical challenges, might serve as a foundation for promoting environmental initiatives that will also improve horse welfare.

About 112 million working equids are the source of income for 600 million people globally. Many equids are used for pulling loads (up to 15,000 kg per day) to transport goods. Most of them are associated with brick kilns, mining, and agriculture industries in developing countries. They may suffer from welfare issues such as overloading, being beaten, and being forced to work for long periods. These issues may occur due to a poor understanding of load-pulling equids. Understanding their capabilities and the elements that influence them is critical for efficient performance and welfare. The measurement of stride characteristics and gait kinematics can reveal loading adaptations and help identify loading limitations. It is known that both loading and fatigue change the locomotor patterns of load-pulling horses. Heart rate is a stress quantifying metric and an important representative of the speed of work and draught force. Heart rate variability is a regularly used statistic to quantify a physiological response to stresses, but it has never been used for load-pulling equids. Changes in blood lactate, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide contents are reliable biochemical indicators of the effects of load pulling. Changes in plasma cortisol levels reflect the intensity of exercise and stress levels in horses while pulling a load. However, eye blink rate is a cheap, simple, and immediate indicator of acute equine stress, and we suggest it may be used to aid in load-pulling equine welfare assessment. However, further research is needed for a standardized and evidence-based draught load pulling capacity of working horses, mules, and donkeys.

Simple Summary: Equestrian sport incorporates a number of different disciplines. To optimize equine welfare, a consistent method of ethical decision making is needed. The research presented in this paper was undertaken to test the practical applicability of a previously published theoretical ethical framework for the use of horses in sport. Stakeholders from a range of equestrian disciplines were invited to test the framework through using it both as individuals and in small groups to consider various relevant ethical dilemmas. Stakeholders fed back to the researchers their experiences of using the framework and suggestions for improving it, and the feedback was used to refine the framework across three rounds of engagement. Stakeholders found that the useability of the framework increased with each round, so that the finalised refined framework is a practical decision-making tool which can be used to optimize equine welfare through facilitating consistent, transparent decision making by a wide variety of stakeholders in equestrian sport. In 2021, in response to an acknowledged need for universal, consistent ethics to guide decision making in the horse sport sector, Campbell published a theoretical ethical framework for the use of horses in competitive sport. The research reported here tested the applied usefulness of that theoretical ethical framework through stakeholder engagement in a three-round modified Delphi study and refined it to develop a practical decision-making tool which can be applied consistently across multiple equestrian disciplines. Stakeholders from a broad range of equestrian competitive disciplines participated in the research. Participants were required to apply the ethical framework to a pre-determined ethical dilemma, individually (Rounds 1 and 2) and within a group (Round 3), and at the end of each round to complete a questionnaire designed to gauge opinion and user experience. At the completion of each round of testing, the theoretical framework was refined based on stakeholder feedback. Results showed that participants perceived useability and application of the framework to generally increase with each round. Qualitative content analysis identified key concepts, including cognition (e.g., broadens/deepens thinking) and application (e.g., considers multiple angles from a variety of information sources, needs to be a short/simple process). Results suggested that the refined framework is beneficial for group decision making across a wide variety of ethical issues and equestrian competitive disciplines. The framework thus has the potential to improve equine welfare through facilitating consistent ethical decision making in which the interests of the horse are prioritized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Stomach ulcers (known as equine gastric ulcer syndrome [EGUS]) are a common finding in horses However, the amount of pain horses with EGUS might experience is currently unknown and this knowledge could allow for better clinical decision making and improved horse welfare. The study aim was to assess the use of a pain scale score system, the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS), in horses suffering from EGUS. Facial photographs for HGS evaluation were taken of all horses. Gastroscopy is the gold standard procedure for diagnosis of EGUS, and involves examining the stomach with a video-endoscope. Horses (n = 61) were divided into groups based on the presence and severity of EGUS as determined via gastroscopy. Horses with concurrent lameness or other signs of illness were excluded. Comparisons were made of the HGS between horses, with and without gastric lesions. This is the first study investigating the use of the HGS in horses with and without EGUS. The HGS scores were not influenced by the presence or severity of EGUS and no significant differences were noted between groups. Further studies investigating the use of different pain scales in horses with EGUS are needed. Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is a highly prevalent and presumptively painful condition, although the amount of pain horses might experience is currently unknown. The aims of this study were to determine if the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) could identify pain behaviours in horses with and without EGUS and if severity would be positively associated with the HGS score. Horse grimace scale scores were assessed blindly using facial photographs by seven observers and involved evaluation of 6 facial action units as 0 (not present), 1 (moderately present) and 2 (obviously present). Lameness examination, serum amyloid A (SAA) measurement and gastroscopy evaluation were performed on all horses. Horses (n = 61) were divided into two and three groups based on the presence (yes, no) and severity (none, mild, moderate-severe) of EGUS, respectively. Presence of lameness and elevated SAA (≥50 µg/mL) were used as exclusion criteria. Inter-observer reliability was analyzed by intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC). HGS scores between groups were compared using Welch's and Brown Forsythe tests (p < 0.05). Overall, HGS ICC was "excellent" (0.75). No significant differences (p = 0.566) were observed in HGS scores between horses with and without gastric lesions (mean, 95% CI; 3.36, 2.76–3.95 and 3, 1.79–4.20, respectively). HGS was not influenced by the presence or severity of EGUS in this current study. Further studies investigating the use of different pain scales in horses with EGUS are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The inappropriate body condition of horses is a growing problem that is associated with difficulty both in recognizing and treating horses that are either over-conditioned or under-conditioned. This study is based on visual evaluation by equine professionals and para-professionals (veterinarians, farriers, trainers, Danish Equestrian Federation officials). Participants were trained to assign a body condition score (range 1–9) based on the Henneke Body Condition Score (BCS) system. After watching an instructional video and the satisfactory completion of a questionnaire, they became data collectors. The results indicated that out of 1118 horses evaluated, 78.6% were within, 4.9% were below, and 16.5% were above the ideal range of BCS. Being above the ideal range was influenced by type, age, and training, but none of the patterns influenced the horses below ideal BCS. The highest scores were awarded by veterinarians and farriers and the lowest scores by DEF officials. This was thought to reflect the equine populations they were exposed to, with DEF officials examining actively competing horses whereas veterinarians and farriers see horses with diseases, such as laminitis, that tend to be associated with high BCS. Cold-blooded horses and traditional ponies were more frequently above ideal BCS compared to other types. Body condition in horses is a growing concern that has different patterns of development in horses that are above and below the ideal range. This study used professional and para-professional evaluators (veterinarians, farriers, trainers, Danish Equestrian Federation (DEF) officials) who were trained and certified in the use of a modified Henneke scoring system to assign a body condition score (BCS) on a scale of 1–9. Scores of 5–6 are regarded as ideal, and 78.6% of the evaluated horses were in these groups. Only 4.8% of horses were below ideal BCS but 16.5% were above ideal BCS, and this was influenced by type, age, and training. A significant protective effect towards above ideal BCS was shown for horses trained at higher intensities. Cold-blooded horses and traditional ponies had increased risk for being above ideal BCS. Although BCS increased with age, a large proportion of geriatric horses were both above and below ideal BCS. Discipline was not related to BCS. Patterns of BCS distribution for horses attended by different professionals were investigated. Veterinarians attended more horses with BCS above and below ideal values, farriers mostly saw horses that were above ideal BCS, and officials at competitions mainly saw horses with ideal BCS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Regardless of age, breed, physiological condition, or gender, all horses are social animals, requiring the company of their own kind. Due to their natural instincts to fight each other, adult stallions are often kept in isolation. Several studies have shown the possibility of free group housing and recommended methods to reduce the detrimental effects of limited social contact on their physical and/or mental wellbeing. Nevertheless, the beneficial effect of transitioning from tie-stalls to free housing on adult stallions' overall welfare has not been researched before. According to our results, in only two weeks after the management change, the studied stallions had significantly better welfare, improving further over time. Additionally, their human-related responses improved, and their docility did not decrease, despite minimal human–animal contact during the study. Although positive emotional states were identified within the study, these did not correlate consistently with the other parameters assessed. Given the findings in this paper and accounting for all precautions required while making such a management change, we conclude that adult stallions can and should be kept in free group housing to provide them with the best possible conditions to support their optimal welfare. Despite an increase in awareness of their essential needs, many stallions continue to be kept in conditions limiting their social interactions and movement. To supplement the studies which highlight the effects of these practices on selected aspects of equine mental and physical wellbeing, we aimed to monitor a group of 32 adult intact stallions during their transition from tethered housing with limited outdoor access to free group housing through the lens of their overall welfare, perceived emotional status, and docility toward humans. Over three visits (before the management change, two weeks, and three months after, respectively), their welfare, qualitative behavior, and docility were assessed. Analysis of the data collected showed an improvement in the stallions' overall welfare and no decrease in their docility after their group-release, with a constant correlation between these two aspects. The evaluation of their emotional states was less relevant, lacking consistency between the assessments for most of the descriptors used, warranting further research in similar conditions. Although our study covered a relatively short period of time, our results provide encouraging support for stallion owners in deciding on a similar management change for the welfare of their animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The welfare assessment of horses includes the evaluation of their ability to cope with the challenges of their environment and of work given to them. The aim of this study was to evaluate the welfare of 12 clinically healthy horses from a riding school, using physiological indicators. Double determinations were made (in winter and in spring of 2011) by a set of two tests each time, before and after physical effort. The clinical parameters (heart and respiratory rate) were in the normal range at 20 minutes after effort, decreasing towards the resting values. Slightly higher values were recorded in the spring comparing with the winter, but the differences were not statistically significant (P>0.05). Even if were in the normal range, the results of the haematology tests and the blood sugar values showed clearly the response of the horses’ organisms to exercise. The serum cortisol concentrations presented an effort dependent elevation and higher values of the basic level were observed in the spring than in winter. The other stress-response indicator recorded, the neutrophyle-lymphocyte ratio, showed dynamics correlated with that of the cortisol level. The physiological indicators tested in this study proved their real value in the riding horses’ welfare assessment.

More than ever the welfare of horses in equestrian sport is in the spotlight. In response to this scrutiny, one peak body, the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) has created an Equine Ethics and Wellbeing Commission to protect their sport’s longevity. However, for welfare-based strategies to be successful, the conceptualisation of horse welfare must align across various stakeholders, including the general public. The value-laden nature of welfare makes agreement on its definition, even among scientists, difficult. Given little is known about how equestrians conceptualise horse welfare, we interviewed 19 Australian amateur equestrians using a semi-structured format. Systems thinking and the Five Domains Model provided the theoretical framework and informed our methods. Using reflexive thematic analysis, three themes were identified: (1) good horse welfare is tangible; (2) owners misinterpret unwanted horse behaviour; and (3) equestrians publicly minimise horse welfare issues but are privately concerned. Our results highlight participants’ conceptualisations of horse welfare do not align with the Five Domains Model; participants’ ideal of prioritising horse welfare does not align with their practice; and there is inconsistency between what participants share publicly and what they think privately about horse welfare. These findings can inform the development of programmes to improve ridden horse welfare throughout the horse industry. As a starting point, programmes that provide a safe space for equestrians to explore their private horse welfare concerns, and programmes that build a partnership mindset to facilitate knowledge exchange between all stakeholders are needed.

An emotion is defined as the affective response to a stimulus that leads to specific bodily changes, enabling individuals to react to positive or negative environmental conditions. In the absence of speech, emotions in animals are primarily studied by observing expressive components, such as facial expressions. This review aims to analyze the available literature on the influence of environmental stimuli on measurable behaviors in horses, describing the anatomical components involved in perception at the central nervous system level and the efferent pathways that trigger facial muscle contraction or relaxation, thus altering facial expressions. Additionally, articles addressing the function of facial expressions in communication are discussed, emphasizing their role in social interactions in this species. While there is limited research on equine neurophysiology, considering the common structure of the limbic system in most mammals, studies conducted on canines and primates were taken into account. In conclusion, the article underscores the importance of understanding equine facial expressions to assess their emotional states and, by extension, their welfare., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In 2021, in response to an acknowledged need for universal, consistent ethics to guide decision making in the horse sport sector, Campbell published a theoretical ethical framework for the use of horses in competitive sport. The research reported here tested the applied usefulness of that theoretical ethical framework through stakeholder engagement in a three-round modified Delphi study and refined it to develop a practical decision-making tool which can be applied consistently across multiple equestrian disciplines. Stakeholders from a broad range of equestrian competitive disciplines participated in the research. Participants were required to apply the ethical framework to a pre-determined ethical dilemma, individually (Rounds 1 and 2) and within a group (Round 3), and at the end of each round to complete a questionnaire designed to gauge opinion and user experience. At the completion of each round of testing, the theoretical framework was refined based on stakeholder feedback. Results showed that participants perceived useability and application of the framework to generally increase with each round. Qualitative content analysis identified key concepts, including cognition (e.g., broadens/deepens thinking) and application (e.g., considers multiple angles from a variety of information sources, needs to be a short/simple process). Results suggested that the refined framework is beneficial for group decision making across a wide variety of ethical issues and equestrian competitive disciplines. The framework thus has the potential to improve equine welfare through facilitating consistent ethical decision making in which the interests of the horse are prioritized.

Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is a highly prevalent and presumptively painful condition, although the amount of pain horses might experience is currently unknown. The aims of this study were to determine if the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) could identify pain behaviours in horses with and without EGUS and if severity would be positively associated with the HGS score. Horse grimace scale scores were assessed blindly using facial photographs by seven observers and involved evaluation of 6 facial action units as 0 (not present), 1 (moderately present) and 2 (obviously present). Lameness examination, serum amyloid A (SAA) measurement and gastroscopy evaluation were performed on all horses. Horses (n = 61) were divided into two and three groups based on the presence (yes, no) and severity (none, mild, moderate-severe) of EGUS, respectively. Presence of lameness and elevated SAA (≥50 µg/mL) were used as exclusion criteria. Inter-observer reliability was analyzed by intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC). HGS scores between groups were compared using Welch’s and Brown Forsythe tests (p < 0.05). Overall, HGS ICC was “excellent” (0.75). No significant differences (p = 0.566) were observed in HGS scores between horses with and without gastric lesions (mean, 95% CI; 3.36, 2.76–3.95 and 3, 1.79–4.20, respectively). HGS was not influenced by the presence or severity of EGUS in this current study. Further studies investigating the use of different pain scales in horses with EGUS are needed.

Simple Summary: Being a prey species, horses evolved to rapidly react to potential danger and loud noises may be perceived as such. Therefore, they can exhibit several anxiety behaviors during noisy events, including sweating, trembling and escape attempts, which may cause severe accidents for the horse and the rider/handler. Since noise anxiety can significantly impact on horse welfare, the aim of the present study was to investigate owners' perception of noise anxiety severity in their horses, their management strategies and perceived efficacy. In a survey, 409 out of 1836 owners reported that their horse shows unusual behavior during a noise event. Among those, two noise anxiety clusters could be identified: very and slightly anxious horses. Very anxious horses were reported to have higher frequency of all anxiety behaviors and higher frequency of signs of noise reactivity; furthermore, their anxiety did not improve with time. The most frequently used management strategies were providing hay throughout the night or turning out or moving horses to a paddock; though, most of these techniques were reported to be effective only in the slightly anxious subjects. Our results confirmed that noise anxiety is a widespread behavioral problem (22% of our respondents reported that their horse had ever shown any unusual behavior in relation to loud noises) that can lead to negative welfare consequences for horses. Noise anxiety is an over-reaction to loud noises commonly detected among pets and can greatly impact on their welfare and on their management. When exposed to noisy events, horses can show intense escape attempts, which may cause severe accidents for the horse and the rider/handler. The aim of the present study was to investigate, through a web survey, UK and US owners' perception of noise anxiety severity in their horses, their management strategies and perceived efficacy. The questionnaire was shared via social networking and advertised as "What is your horse afraid of?". Over a total of 1836 questionnaires filled out; 409 owners reported that their horse has shown unusual behavior during a noise event. A two-step cluster analysis identified two groups: very anxious (VA) and slightly anxious (SA). VA horses were reported to have higher frequency of anxiety behaviors; higher frequency of signs of noise reactivity; and their anxiety did not improve with time. The most used management strategies consisted in providing hay throughout the night, turning in/out their horse or moving it to a paddock. A binomial logistic regression identified that horses that have reported injuries during noise events were more likely to be clustered as VA (OR = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.08–0.76); while providing hay throughout the night was more likely to be very effective management strategy in SA horses (OR = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.16–1.01). Our results confirmed that noise anxiety is a growing behavioral problem that can lead to important welfare concerns for horses. New management strategies, including the use of medicinal products, should be considered to reduce behavioral and physiological signs and help horses to cope with noisy events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article argues that we legitimise the use of nature through cultural nature rationales. We adapt our understanding of nature to how we want to use it in a cultural sense. The material for the discussion is equine husbandry, using a past and contemporary perspective. The treatment of the horses that Robert Falcon Scott brought with him on his south pole expedition in 1910-1912, and the treatment of horses today were and are culturally acceptable. However, researchers in the field of equine science and some experts in horse keeping believe some of our contemporary understanding of horses may be problematic for horse welfare. The many cultural versions of the nature of horses is a topic that lends itself well to museological discussions. Usually, museums only present horses as representatives of a biological species. A stronger museum-activism approach looks at horses as culturally produced and as individuals with personalities shaped in interaction between horse and human. This can create new and better versions of horses, better for horse welfare in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Body condition in horses is a growing concern that has different patterns of development in horses that are above and below the ideal range. This study used professional and para-professional evaluators (veterinarians, farriers, trainers, Danish Equestrian Federation (DEF) officials) who were trained and certified in the use of a modified Henneke scoring system to assign a body condition score (BCS) on a scale of 1–9. Scores of 5–6 are regarded as ideal, and 78.6% of the evaluated horses were in these groups. Only 4.8% of horses were below ideal BCS but 16.5% were above ideal BCS, and this was influenced by type, age, and training. A significant protective effect towards above ideal BCS was shown for horses trained at higher intensities. Cold-blooded horses and traditional ponies had increased risk for being above ideal BCS. Although BCS increased with age, a large proportion of geriatric horses were both above and below ideal BCS. Discipline was not related to BCS. Patterns of BCS distribution for horses attended by different professionals were investigated. Veterinarians attended more horses with BCS above and below ideal values, farriers mostly saw horses that were above ideal BCS, and officials at competitions mainly saw horses with ideal BCS.

The study aimed to assess the effect of two management housing system on breeding horse welfare. An adapted version of the assessment protocol for horses was used for that purposed to this study, with the focus on the animal-based measures section. This includes individual animal scoring of good feeding, good health and appropriate behaviour. The study was conducted in a professional Equine Breeding Centre with a representative set of housing and management systems and practices used for breeding purposes in Spain. A total of 49 stallions stabled individually and 43 broodmares living loose housing in groups were subject for individual scoring. A descriptive statistic for each welfare indicator was calculated. Pearson’s Chi-square test or Fisher’s test were calculated between the different welfare measures and the housing system. Odds ratios were computed to quantify the association of prevalence of welfare issues with husbandry and management practices according to the type of housing. The stallions were almost two and a half times more at risk than mares to exhibit acceptation to the chin contact behavioural test. Broodmares were prone to present significant lower body condition scores (BCS). The prevalence of rubbed and broken hairs in mane and tail (OR = 4.413), gait abnormalities (OR = 5.429), skin lesions in upper and lower legs regions (OR = 2.691) was higher in stabled animals. In contrast, broodmares presented more often with general skin lesions, specifically in withers-back-barrel-girth (OR = 0.349), hindquarters (OR = 0.016) and skin irritation in lower legs (OR = 0.287). The risk factor analysis applying a multivariable logistic regression model disclosed the way that the group housing freedom system management predicted significantly the prevalence of three animal based indicators deviations: one behavioural indicator (fear to the novel object test), one feeding indicator (lower BCS) and one health indicator (harm in lower legs).Highlights The the effect of management housing system on breeding horse welfare could be evaluated using a protocol with special focus on individual animal scoring of feeding, health and behaviour. The major welfare problems identified in the horses housed in individual boxes were associated with confinement and could be minimised with better management of the access to free exercise. The source of fear and aggression in horses living in pastures can greatly improve with intensive and correct human handling and providing sufficient feeding resources.

Despite an increase in awareness of their essential needs, many stallions continue to be kept in conditions limiting their social interactions and movement. To supplement the studies which highlight the effects of these practices on selected aspects of equine mental and physical wellbeing, we aimed to monitor a group of 32 adult intact stallions during their transition from tethered housing with limited outdoor access to free group housing through the lens of their overall welfare, perceived emotional status, and docility toward humans. Over three visits (before the management change, two weeks, and three months after, respectively), their welfare, qualitative behavior, and docility were assessed. Analysis of the data collected showed an improvement in the stallions’ overall welfare and no decrease in their docility after their group-release, with a constant correlation between these two aspects. The evaluation of their emotional states was less relevant, lacking consistency between the assessments for most of the descriptors used, warranting further research in similar conditions. Although our study covered a relatively short period of time, our results provide encouraging support for stallion owners in deciding on a similar management change for the welfare of their animals.

Noise anxiety is an over-reaction to loud noises commonly detected among pets and can greatly impact on their welfare and on their management. When exposed to noisy events, horses can show intense escape attempts, which may cause severe accidents for the horse and the rider/handler. The aim of the present study was to investigate, through a web survey, UK and US owners’ perception of noise anxiety severity in their horses, their management strategies and perceived efficacy. The questionnaire was shared via social networking and advertised as “What is your horse afraid of?”. Over a total of 1836 questionnaires filled out; 409 owners reported that their horse has shown unusual behavior during a noise event. A two-step cluster analysis identified two groups: very anxious (VA) and slightly anxious (SA). VA horses were reported to have higher frequency of anxiety behaviors; higher frequency of signs of noise reactivity; and their anxiety did not improve with time. The most used management strategies consisted in providing hay throughout the night, turning in/out their horse or moving it to a paddock. A binomial logistic regression identified that horses that have reported injuries during noise events were more likely to be clustered as VA (OR = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.08–0.76); while providing hay throughout the night was more likely to be very effective management strategy in SA horses (OR = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.16–1.01). Our results confirmed that noise anxiety is a growing behavioral problem that can lead to important welfare concerns for horses. New management strategies, including the use of medicinal products, should be considered to reduce behavioral and physiological signs and help horses to cope with noisy events.

The study aimed to assess the effect of two management housing system on breeding horse welfare. An adapted version of the assessment protocol for horses was used for that purposed to this study, with the focus on the animal-based measures section. This includes individual animal scoring of good feeding, good health and appropriate behaviour. The study was conducted in a professional Equine Breeding Centre with a representative set of housing and management systems and practices used for breeding purposes in Spain. A total of 49 stallions stabled individually and 43 broodmares living loose housing in groups were subject for individual scoring. A descriptive statistic for each welfare indicator was calculated. Pearson's Chi-square test or Fisher's test were calculated between the different welfare measures and the housing system. Odds ratios were computed to quantify the association of prevalence of welfare issues with husbandry and management practices according to the type of housing. The stallions were almost two and a half times more at risk than mares to exhibit acceptation to the chin contact behavioural test. Broodmares were prone to present significant lower body condition scores (BCS). The prevalence of rubbed and broken hairs in mane and tail (OR = 4.413), gait abnormalities (OR = 5.429), skin lesions in upper and lower legs regions (OR = 2.691) was higher in stabled animals. In contrast, broodmares presented more often with general skin lesions, specifically in withers-back-barrel-girth (OR = 0.349), hindquarters (OR = 0.016) and skin irritation in lower legs (OR = 0.287). The risk factor analysis applying a multivariable logistic regression model disclosed the way that the group housing freedom system management predicted significantly the prevalence of three animal based indicators deviations: one behavioural indicator (fear to the novel object test), one feeding indicator (lower BCS) and one health indicator (harm in lower legs). The the effect of management housing system on breeding horse welfare could be evaluated using a protocol with special focus on individual animal scoring of feeding, health and behaviour. The major welfare problems identified in the horses housed in individual boxes were associated with confinement and could be minimised with better management of the access to free exercise. The source of fear and aggression in horses living in pastures can greatly improve with intensive and correct human handling and providing sufficient feeding resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polo is an equestrian team sport, consisting of Open and Women's only handicapping systems. Equine activities may differ in distribution and their affect upon match outcome in Women's Polo compared to Open Polo, potentially impacting equine preparation and management. We aimed to quantify spatiotemporal differences between Open and Women's Polo when matched for handicap and assess their interaction with chukka and match outcomes. Distance, speed and high-intensity activity data were collected via player-worn global positioning system (GPS) units during 16-goal Open and Women's Polo tournaments. Notational analysis quantified chukka duration and chukka and game outcomes. Spatiotemporal metric differences between Open and Women's Polo were small to large (ES: 0.54–1.81). In Open Polo, players covered moderately more distance in games won (mean: 429.0 m; 95% CI: 238.9 m to 619.0 m), with small to large increases in high-intensity activities also performed. Whereas in Women's Polo, moderately higher maximum speeds were attained in games won (17.13 km.h−1; 11.86 km.h−1 to 22.40 km.h−1) and a small increase in accelerations performed (5.1; 0.2 to 10.0). Open and Women's Polo, when matched for handicap, present with small to large spatiotemporal differences that are likely of practical significance, and may influence game outcome differently between codes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Round-pen, lunging, and liberty training has grown in popularity in recent years in a number of equestrian contexts, due in part to the popularity of contemporary training methods and colt-starting competitions. When well applied, the round-pen can become a classroom, but when poorly applied and without an understanding of learning theory, training in the round-pen or on a lunge-line can pose significant risks to both horse welfare and handler safety. The most serious problems arise when exceeding optimal and safe thresholds of arousal in the horse, which can be detrimental to both human safety and horse welfare in at least 2 ways. First, through the appearance of conflict (e.g., behaviors indicating that the horse is not managing stress-inducing circumstances well) and defensive behaviors that are often associated with a flight response. Second, there is a risk of increased resistance to extinction of flight behavior and the subsequent spontaneous recovery of high levels of arousal and dangerous behaviors. Thus, if the arousal levels are very high, learning and performance are repressed. When arousal levels are insufficient to engage the horse (i.e., acquire and maintain its attention), learning and performance may also be inhibited. Thus, there is an optimal threshold level of arousal where learning can be optimized, and such thresholds are likely unique for individual horses. The precise range of these arousal thresholds is yet to be identified. It therefore follows that in the absence of this information, trainers should adopt a precautionary conservative principle and avoid high arousal levels. Doing so, coupled with optimal application of knowledge of learning theory, can make the round-pen or lunge-line as a safe and useful addition to the horse's training. To minimize the risks associated with training in the round-pen and working horses on a lunge-line, training goals, lesson plans, and training methodologies must apply scientific knowledge on equine ethology, cognition, and learning. Given recent increases in scientific interest in round-pen training, now is an appropriate time to discuss good practice in the context of lunging, round-pens, and other training techniques that may involve the chasing of horses. This review examines current usage, potential risks to horse welfare, and how to ensure training using these methods fosters positive learning outcome and promotes horse welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Detection of irregular gait (IG) during endurance competitions is based on a brief subjective veterinary examination. Horse elimination due to IG is common and may elicit competitors' complaints. We hypothesized that detection of IG by objectively assessing motion asymmetry can be performed during endurance competitions. The aim of this preliminary study was to start investigating the feasibility of detecting and quantifying IG with a portable inertial sensor-based system (PISBS) during endurance races. Horses participating in two qualifying endurance rides were simultaneously and independently evaluated by Fédération Equestre Internationale veterinarians and the PISBS, and the results were compared after the rides. Asymmetric vertical displacement of the head and/or pelvis measured with the PISBS indicated severity of IG and identified the affected limb(s). Veterinarians and competitors answered questionnaires about the use of the PISBS. The PISBS detected IG in 21/22 horses (48/70 evaluations). Significant disagreement between the PISBS and veterinarians was detected. Disagreement between the PISBS and veterinarians was no longer detected after reducing the sensitivity of the PISBS by reclassifying horses with mild IG as sound. Competitors and veterinarians had favorable impressions about the use of the PISBS but recommended reducing instrumentation time and trotting distance for expediency. Inherent human limitations can explain the lower sensitivity of veterinary evaluation relative to PISBS evaluation. Simple methodological changes are likely to address the issues raised in this study by competitors and Fédération Equestre Internationale veterinarians. Additional studies are needed to complete the feasibility assessment of objective detection and quantification of IG during endurance competitions with a PISBS. Highlights • A portable inertial sensor-based system (PISBS) can be used for objective gait evaluation in endurance races. • There was significant disagreement between the PISBS and veterinarians. • Inherent human limitations explain the lower sensitivity of veterinary evaluation. • Riders and veterinarians had positive impression about the use of the PISBS. • More studies are needed to fully test the PISBS for IG detection during endurance races. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current evidence of how human sex-related differences in riders and handlers may influence horse behaviour is limited. The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was used to collect demographic data on riders and handlers (n = 1420) and behavioural data on their horses. It includes demographic items about the sex of the respondent and how frequently the horse has been ridden or handled by male and female humans. The questionnaire then gathers observations on the horse’s behaviour on the ground and under saddle or when driven. Using E-BARQ’s battery of 97 questions, the current study showed differences in ridden and non-ridden horse behaviour that were related to the sex of the rider or handler. Data were evaluated using multivariate analysis and revealed that horses handled by male humans were significantly more difficult to catch (t-value = −3.11; p = 0.002) and significantly more defensive when approached (t-value = −2.104; p = 0.035), but significantly less likely to pull on the reins/brace the neck or toss their head (t-value 1.980; p = 0.048) than horses handled more frequently by female humans. The differences found between male and female horse handlers suggest that sex is an important factor to consider when understanding equine behaviour. Our study explored reported differences in confidence, handling and working compliance and touch sensitivity among horses ridden and handled by male and female humans and suggested further research into how these differences are gendered.

The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) is a questionnaire instrument developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad of training, management, and behaviour of horses. The E-BARQ was developed to identify how changes in training and management impact behaviour over time, to define normal behaviour in horses, and to discover how to improve rider safety and horse welfare, leading to ethical equitation. During the development of the E-BARQ, we also investigated how best to motivate stakeholders to engage with this citizen science project. The pilot version of the E-BARQ collected qualitative data on respondents’ experience of the questionnaire. The pilot questionnaire was developed with the assistance of an international panel (with professional expertise in horse training, equitation science, veterinary science, equestrian coaching, welfare, animal behaviour, and elite-level riding), and was used to collect data on 1320 horses from approximately 1194 owner/caregiver respondents, with an option for respondents to provide free-text feedback. A Rotated Principal Component Analysis of the 218 behavioural, management, and training questionnaire items extracted a total of 65 rotated components. Thirty-six of the 65 rotated components demonstrated high internal reliability. Of the 218 questionnaire items, 43 items failed to reach the Rotated Principal Component Analysis criteria and were not included in the final version of the E-BARQ. Survey items that failed the Rotated Principal Component Analysis inclusion criteria were discarded if found to have a less than 85% response rate, or a variance of less than 1.3. Of those that survived the Rotated Principal Component Analysis, items were further assigned to horse temperament (17 rotated components), equitation (11 rotated components), and management and equipment (8 rotated components) groups. The feedback from respondents indicated the need for further items to be added to the questionnaire, resulting in a total of 214 items for the final E-BARQ survey. Many of these items were further grouped into question matrices, and the demographic items for horse and handler included, giving a final total of 97 questions on the E-BARQ questionnaire. These results provided content validity, showing that the questionnaire items were an acceptable representation of the entire horse training, management, and behavioural domain for the development of the final E-BARQ questionnaire.

The Equine Behaviour Assessment and Research Questionnaire (E-BARQ) was developed to obtain quantitative data on the domestic equine triad: training, management and behaviour. It can be taken repeatedly, thus collecting longitudinal data to enable evaluation of how changes in a horse’s training and management are reflected in that horse’s behaviour over time and how these changes can impact horse welfare in the longer term. Questionnaire validation and reliability were tested by determining (a) whether an owner’s subjective ratings of their horse’s problematic behaviours or undesirable temperament traits were reflected in the questionnaire scores obtained for that horse (construct validity), (b) whether two respondents, equally familiar with a particular horse, reported comparable scores for that horse through the questionnaire (inter-rater reliability), and (c) whether the same respondent, scoring the same horse after a known interval of time, recorded similar responses (intra-rater reliability). Construct validity testing of 1923 responses showed significant alignment between owners’ reported experience of focal horses’ behaviour and those horses’ E-BARQ scores, with scores varying from 1.13 to 1.34 for ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001) and from 1.06 to 1.43 for non-ridden horse behaviour (all p < 0.001). Inter-rater reliability testing of ten horse–rider pairs revealed that 203 of the 215 question items were significantly aligned (p < 0.001) when tested by two independent raters. Of the remaining 19 items, four had fair alignment (ĸ = 0.174–0.316; p = 0.281) and ten items, largely related to whether the horse shows behavioural signs related to anxiety when taken away from home, did not align (ĸ = 0; p = 1). Intra-rater reliability tests showed that the responses significantly aligned on all 215 question items tested (p < 0.001). The results of these tests confirmed the construct validity and reliability of E-BARQ as a standardised behavioural assessment tool for horses.

During the evolution of the horse, an extended period of feed intake, spread over the entire 24-h period, determined the horses’ behaviour and physiology. Horses will not interrupt their feed intake for more than 4 hours, if they have a choice. The aim of the present study was to investigate in what way restrictive feeding practices (non ad libitum) affect the horses’ natural feed intake behaviour. We observed the feed intake behaviour of 104 horses on edible (n = 30) and non-edible bedding (n = 74) on ten different farms. We assessed the duration of the forced nocturnal feed intake interruption of horses housed on shavings when no additional roughage was available. Furthermore, we comparatively examined the feed intake behaviour of horses housed on edible versus non-edible bedding. The daily restrictive feeding of roughage (2 times a day: n = 8; 3 times a day: n = 2), as it is common in individual housing systems, resulted in a nocturnal feed intake interruption of more than 4 hours for the majority (74.32%, 55/74) of the horses on shavings (8:50 ± 1:25 h, median: 8:45 h, minimum: 6:45 h, maximum: 13:23 h). In comparison to horses on straw, horses on shavings paused their feed intake less frequently and at a later latency. Furthermore, they spent less time on consuming the evening meal than horses on straw. Our results of the comparison of the feed-intake behaviour of horses on edible and non-edible bedding show that the horses’ ethological feeding needs are not satisfied on non-edible bedding. If the horses accelerate their feed intake (also defined as “rebound effect”), this might indicate that the horses` welfare is compromised. We conclude that in addition to the body condition score, the longest duration of feed intake interruption (usually in the night) is an important welfare indicator of horses that have limited access to roughage.

About 112 million working equids are the source of income for 600 million people globally. Many equids are used for pulling loads (up to 15,000 kg per day) to transport goods. Most of them are associated with brick kilns, mining, and agriculture industries in developing countries. They may suffer from welfare issues such as overloading, being beaten, and being forced to work for long periods. These issues may occur due to a poor understanding of load-pulling equids. Understanding their capabilities and the elements that influence them is critical for efficient performance and welfare. The measurement of stride characteristics and gait kinematics can reveal loading adaptations and help identify loading limitations. It is known that both loading and fatigue change the locomotor patterns of load-pulling horses. Heart rate is a stress quantifying metric and an important representative of the speed of work and draught force. Heart rate variability is a regularly used statistic to quantify a physiological response to stresses, but it has never been used for load-pulling equids. Changes in blood lactate, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide contents are reliable biochemical indicators of the effects of load pulling. Changes in plasma cortisol levels reflect the intensity of exercise and stress levels in horses while pulling a load. However, eye blink rate is a cheap, simple, and immediate indicator of acute equine stress, and we suggest it may be used to aid in load-pulling equine welfare assessment. However, further research is needed for a standardized and evidence-based draught load pulling capacity of working horses, mules, and donkeys., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Bukhari and Parkes.)

Research shows that thoroughbred race horses reach top velocity when no whip is used and that increased whip use is not related to variation in velocity or improved finish position. The cloverleaf barrel race is a popular timed event among American youth riders, who are often encouraged to aggressively use both the whip and leg to increase the velocity of the horse. Hence, the purpose of this study was to quantify aggressive riding behaviors among youth riders in a timed cloverleaf barrel race, as well as specific horse behaviors. The first hypothesis stated there is a positive correlation between aggressive rider behaviors and performance time, such that increased aggressive riding would result in increased, and hence slower, run times. The second hypothesis asserted a positive correlation exists between aggressive rider behaviors and horse behaviors. Study participants included 64 horse-and-rider teams competing in a state-level cloverleaf barrel race. This class was chosen because it allows for recording of individual runs of horse-and-rider pairs. Patterns were of the same measured distance, in the same arena, with the same footing conditions. Each horse-and-rider combination was videotaped from the time they approached the gate to the time they dismounted after their run. Three trained observers separately assessed horse and rider behaviors, and frequency of behaviors was recorded using a predetermined ethogram. Interobserver reliability of trained personnel ranged from 0.69 to 0.97. Aggressive riding did not enhance competition time (mean equaled 19.33 ± 1.77 seconds). There was a small but significant positive relationship between mean gate and whip scores (r = 0.25; P < 0.05): horses whipped more during the run were more likely to react poorly to entering the arena. Similarly, there was a small but significant correlation between mean kick and pop-up scores (r = 0.30; P < 0.05): horses kicked more frequently by the rider were more likely to perform small rears. Finally, mean tail lashing and pop-up score were significantly correlated (r = 0.36; P < 0.005). These data suggest that rider behavior does influence horse behavior in cloverleaf barrel racing and provide supporting evidence for future youth education programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Facial expressions and behaviors can indicate the valence of emotions in horses. • The cognitive bias paradigm is a robust tool to assess emotions in horses. • For greater accuracy, more than 1 indicator should be used. • The "Umwelt" of a horse should be considered when interpreting emotional indicators. • Knowing how to identify emotions may help improve the horse-human relationship. Stabled horses often experience negative emotions due to the inappropriate living conditions imposed by humans. However, identifying what emotions horses experience and what can trigger positive and negative emotions in stabled horses can be challenging. In this article we present a brief history of the study of emotions and models that explain emotions from a scientific point of view and the physiological bases and functions of emotions. We then review and discuss physiological and behavioral indicators and cognitive bias tests developed to assess emotions in horses. Hormone concentrations, body temperature, the position of the ears, facial expressions and behaviors, such as approach and avoidance behaviors, can provide valuable information about emotional states in horses. The cognitive bias paradigm is a recent and robust tool to assess emotions in horses. Knowing how to evaluate the intensity and frequency of an individual's emotions can guide horse owners and caretakers to identify practices and activities that should be stimulated, avoided or even banned from the individual's life, in favor of a life worth living. The development and validation of novel indicators of emotions considering positive and negative contexts can help in these actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Social license is key for all involved in interactions with horses–at all levels and within all disciplines. • The horse industry needs to be proactive more than reactive if they want to maintain their social license to operate. • All equestrian stakeholders need to play an active role in prioritizing equine welfare if social license to operate is to be believed by the public. What is a social license to operate (SLO)? Why would this concept matter for horse sport? In perhaps its simplest form, "social license to operate" is the public's perception of an industry or activity. It is a challenging concept to fully grasp because it does not arrive as a document given by a government agency. Yet it is every bit as important–perhaps more so. Does the industry in question operate with transparency? Does the public believe in the integrity of the stakeholders who are most likely to benefit from the activity? Do people believe there is legitimacy in the scrutinized industry or discipline? Industries who operate with impunity, during our current era of 24-7-365 scrutiny do so at their own risk. It is no longer acceptable to say, "but we've always done it this way." It is no longer acceptable to say, "if we just educate the naysayers, they'll understand our position." Our horse industry will have a challenging time in the current environment convincing stakeholders that horses are "happy athletes" if we are merely avoiding blatantly abusive practices. The public, as well as a large percentage of equestrian stakeholders, want to be convinced that we truly believe "horse welfare shall be paramount." This is not merely a hypothetical, ethical assessment exercise. This is real; this is a threat; and the horse industry should consider themselves put on notice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horses are mainly housed in individual boxes. This housing system is reported to be highly detrimental with regard to welfare and could trigger the expression of four behavioural indicators of a compromised welfare state: stereotypies, aggressiveness toward humans, unresponsiveness to the environment, and stress-related behaviours. The aim of this study was to identify housing and management factors that could alleviate the detrimental effects of individual boxes on welfare. A total of 187 horses were observed over 50 days by scan sampling. The impact of 12 factors was investigated on the expression of the four behavioural indicators in three different analyses. The results show that the majority of factors tested did not influence the expression of the behavioural indicators. Only three (straw bedding, a window opening onto the external environment, and a reduced quantity of concentrated feed) would have beneficial, although limited, effects. Furthermore, the longer the horses spent in individual boxes, the more likely they were to express unresponsiveness to the environment. To preserve the welfare of horses, it seems necessary to allow free exercise, interactions with conspecifics, and fibre consumption as often as possible, to ensure the satisfaction of the species’ behavioural and physiological needs.

This dataset presents information pertaining to the spatiotemporal characteristics of Polo play from a 0 to 24-goal level. Data were collected by player worn GPS units, across a New Zealand Polo season. The dataset comprises observations from 466 chukkas of Polo, across mixed and women’s only Polo and is curated by cumulative player handicap. Data are presented for distance, speed and high intensity metrics, which have further categorised into five equine-based speed zones. The purpose of this dataset is to provide a detailed quantification of a range of Polo performance levels, advancing the scope and size of previous Polo literature that has employed GPS technology. This dataset may be of value to equine scientists and trainers, veterinary practitioners and sports scientists.

Traveller horses are often perceived to be exposed to poor welfare due to Travellers’ traditional way of horsemanship. However, few studies have investigated Traveller horse welfare. Hence, the present study aims to explore Traveller horse owners’ attitudes to horse care and welfare. Semi-structured interviews and discussion groups examined 14 Irish Traveller horse owners’ attitudes and approach to horse ownership. Additionally, a body condition scoring (BCS) instrument was assessed for its accuracy and ease of use when applied by Traveller horse owners. Additionally, the BCS system was used to assess 18 horses. Results show that Travellers have a good understanding of horses’ natural behaviours and environment, which is reflected in their management practices. However, barriers to improved welfare are land availability, since landowners are often reluctant to lease to Travellers, and the impoundment of horses as a consequence of fly grazing, under the Control of Horses Act 1996 (Ireland). Furthermore, Travellers regarded the BCS as a useful tool, but would require training to apply the scoring successfully. The results suggest that attitudes and management practices are favourable, but Travellers have limited means to overcome barriers. Therefore, it is necessary to increase capacity building and assist with the acquisition of land.

We explore how herd composition and management factors correlate with frequencies of social interactions in horse groups. Since the welfare of horses correlates with low aggression levels and social contact opportunities, information of this kind is important. The data are a collection of records of social interactions of 426 Icelandic horses in 20 groups of at least eight horses. The complexities and limitations of the data prohibit useful statistical modelling so the results are presented descriptively. Interesting and informative patterns emerge which can be of use both in management and in future studies. Of special interest are the low levels of agonistic behaviours in breeding groups where one stallion was present. The horses were less agonistic when in groups with young foals and where group membership was stable. Unfamiliar yearlings in peer groups were especially aggressive. Allogrooming was most frequent in groups with relatively more young horses and in unstable and small groups. Interestingly, the horses allogroomed more if they had few preferred allogrooming partners. The findings show that composition (age/sex) and stability of groups are of great importance with respect to aggression levels and opportunities for establishing bonds.

Many veterinary and undergraduate equine science students have little previous horse handling experience and a poor understanding of horse behaviour; yet horses are one of the most unsafe animals with which veterinary students must work. It is essential for veterinary and equine students to learn how to interpret horse behaviour in order to understand demeanour and levels of arousal, and to optimise their own safety and the horses' welfare. The study utilised a qualitative research approach to investigate veterinary science and veterinary technology and undergraduate equine science students' interpretation of expressive behaviours shown by horses. The students (N = 127) were shown six short video clips and asked to select the most applicable terms, from a pre-determined list, to describe the behavioural expression of each individual horse. A wide variation of terms were selected by students and in some situations of distress, or situations that may be dangerous or lead to compromised welfare, apparently contradictory terms were also selected (happy or playful) by students with less experience with horses. Future studies should consider the use of Qualitative Behavioural Analysis (QBA) and free-choice profiling to investigate the range of terms used by students to describe the expressive demeanour and arousal levels of horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reasons for performing study Oro-dental disease can have a significant impact on equine welfare. Objectives To determine the prevalence of oro-dental disease and to identify risk factors for oro-dental disorders and poor body condition scores ( BCS) in a working horse population in Egypt. Study design Cross-sectional survey. Methods Oro-dental examination was performed on 450 working horses in 2 Egyptian provinces. Horse and management historical data were collected and horses were assigned to no/mild, moderate and severe dental disease categories based on findings on examination. Multivariable logistic regression and generalised additive models were used to identify risk factors for oral mucosal injuries and very poor/poor BCS, and to explore the relationship between age and different oro-dental disorders. Results Oro-dental disease was common, with 45.3% and 8.4% of horses considered to have moderate and severe oro-dental disease, respectively. None of these horses had previously undergone any form of proper dental examination and treatment by trained personnel. Oral mucosal injuries (64.2%) and sharp enamel points (79.8%) were most common. Oral mucosal injuries were significantly associated with increasing age (odds ratio ( OR) 1.1, 95% confidence interval ( CI) 1.01-1.1, P = 0.03), focal dental overgrowths ( OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.4-4.0, P = 0.002) and sharp enamel points ( OR 6.3, 95% CI 3.5-11.0, P<0.001). Very poor and poor BCS were significantly associated with severe dental disease ( OR 2.6, 95% CI 1.2-5.8, P = 0.02), horses aged 16-30 years ( OR 3.5, 95% CI 1.7-7.0, P = 0.001), height ( OR 0.9, 95% CI 0.9-0.97, P = 0.001) and packed cell volume ( OR 0.9, 95% CI 0.85-0.95, P<0.001). Conclusions There is a need for education of working horse-owners in Egypt about the importance of oro-dental disease and for greater availability of veterinarians with suitable training and equipment to perform dental prophylaxis and treatment. Even simple dental prophylaxis could have a significant impact on the health and welfare of this population of working horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a bit to communicate with and control the horse while riding is one of the longest standing traditions in horse riding. However, horses' aversion to bits and high levels of bit-induced trauma have led some to question whether this practice is commensurate with modern understanding of animal welfare. This study represents one of the first attempts to compare horses ridden with and without a bit in terms of horse welfare, rider safety and rider satisfaction. Australian recreational and sport horse riders (n = 399, 94.4% female; Mdn age=46.0 years) from a range of riding disciplines were anonymously surveyed online. Only n = 20 (5.0%) participants reported riding without a bit, however, this is likely consistent with the recreational horse-riding population, given riding with a bit is mandated in most equestrian sports. A whole sample analysis and a case-matched analysis were performed where cases were matched based on horse breed and age, discipline, and rider age. Whole sample analyses found horses ridden without a bit have better relative welfare scores for management, and during riding and handling compared to horses ridden with a bit (Mdn 13.0, IQR 2.0 and Mdn 11.0, IQR 5.0; Mdn 35.0, IQR 9.0 and Mdn 32.0, IQR 6.0; and Mdn 24.0, IQR 3.25 and Mdn 23.0 IQR 4.0 respectively, p < 0.05), but did not differ in relation to health. Fewer ridden hyperreactive behaviours (bucking, spooking, rearing and bolting) were reported for bitless horses compared with bitted horses (Mdn 0.0, IQR 1.0 and Mdn 1.0, IQR 4.0, respectively, p = 0.04), however, rider safety and perceived control were similar for both groups. Riders of bitless horses were more satisfied than riders of bitted horses (Mdn 16.0, IQR 2.0 and Mdn 14.0, IQR 4.0, respectively, p = 0.01) and reported better horse-rider partnerships (Mdn 4.0, IQR 0.0 and Mdn 3.0, IQR 1.0, respectively, p < 0.001). More riders of bitless horses had knowledge of learning theory than riders of bitted horses (55.0% and 23.0% respectively, p = 0.003). Results from the case-matched analysis were consistent with the whole sample results, except for rider satisfaction and knowledge of learning theory which were not statistically significant. These findings suggest that bitless riding is not related to reduced horse control or rider safety, but is related to greater rider satisfaction and improved horse-rider partnership. Considering current challenges to the industry's social licence to operate due to poor horse welfare, increased adoption of bitless riding may present a valuable opportunity to improve horse welfare. • Bitless horses had better welfare during riding compared with bitted horses. • Bitless horses performed fewer hyperreactive behaviours than bitted horses. • Rider safety did not differ between bitless or bitted horses. • Rider satisfaction was greater for riders of bitless horses than bitted horses. • Horse-rider partnerships were better for bitless horses compared with bitted horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]