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This article reports on a classroom-based experience that draws from the critical approach to heritage Spanish language teaching and Hanauer's concept of meaningful writing. Participants were three students enrolled in a first-year course for heritage Spanish speakers at a major Canadian public university. The writing component of this language course was fulfilled through online discussions and individual compositions that revolved around social, cultural and personal topics relevant to the linguistic experience of students. This study will demonstrate that placing meaningful writing at the core of heritage languages course not only encourages students to reflect on their own language identity and the role of Spanish in the Canadian society, but also fully engages them in the process of writing in Spanish.

In recent decades, the field of family language policy (FLP) has expanded in breadth to reconceptualize the notion of family structure and the rich variety of motivations of transnational families. In an age spotlighted by the blurring of linguistic and cultural borders, this study was guided by one overarching question: As a parent, would you be willing to compromise the development of your child’s heritage language in exchange for your child increasing their social capital, improving their English language skills, and becoming a global citizen? Interviews were conducted with three sets of highly-educated, multilingual parents who lived abroad for work and to afford their children future linguistic, cultural, and economic opportunities. Results found that as the parents realized these opportunities, the children’s relationship to the parents’ first language and culture deteriorated; however, the parents took these challenges in stride, not losing sight of the skills their children were currently developing. Further, owing to their positive outlook, the parents considered their children’s heritage language attrition as a temporary outcome that the children could ameliorate down the road, should they so choose.

This paper presents an exploratory study on the use of frequency-based probabilistic word combinations in Heritage Russian. The data used in the study are drawn from three small corpora of narratives, representing the language of Russian heritage speakers from three different dominant-language backgrounds, namely German, Finnish, and American English. The elicited narratives are based on video clips that the participants saw before the recording. Since the current study is based on a relatively small corpus, we conducted a manual corpus-based analysis of the heritage corpora and an automated analysis of the baseline (monolingual) corpus to investigate the differences between the heritage and monolingual language varieties. We hypothesize that heritage speakers deploy fewer probabilistic strategies in language production compared with native speakers and that their active knowledge of and access to ready-to-use multiword units are restricted compared with native speakers. When they cannot access a single lexical item or a collocation, heritage speakers are able to tap both into the resources of the dominant language and the resources of their home language. The connection to the dominant language results in transfer-based non-standard word combinations; when heritage speakers tap into the resources of their home language, they produce unattested in the monolingual variety, "heritage" collocations, many of which are nevertheless grammatically legitimate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In multilingual families, children often risk having limited exposure to their heritage languages, which can hinder their development of proficiency in these languages. Supporting these families with evidence-based language programmes could help children attain high proficiency in multiple languages and strengthen their connection to their multicultural background. However, research on multilingual parents’ needs for family support programmes that cultivate their language environment is sparse. Our study addresses this by investigating the language practices, attitudes, and support needs of 14 Bangladeshi parents with 3 – 5-year-old children in London, using structured interviews focused on the home environment. Thematic analysis showed that parents’ language use varies with different activities. While motivated to use their heritage language at home to connect their children with their culture and community, parents face challenges due to limited resources, practicality, and the availability of languages in their social network. Many parents are interested in language support programmes, particularly for maintaining their heritage languages, but face barriers to participation. The findings are analysed in the context of existing literature, offering implications for future research and policy practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated motivation of Chinese heritage language (CHL) learners with diverse Chinese language backgrounds at an American university. Using a mixed-methods design, it examined the factors that motivated CHL learners to enroll in Chinese courses and continue their studies. The Study explored interactions that enhanced the learning experience and self identity development. A survey was conducted, followed by individual interviews. The results identified five motivation factors significantly correlated to the ideal L2 self, which functions as an anchor. The ideal L2 self was the strongest predictor of intended effort via positive attitude. The classroom-related experience was another significant predictor of intended effort. Interview data highlighted the dynamic interplay between sociocultural contexts and learner-environment interactions which provokes motivation development and strengthens identity reconstruction and future self-guides. In the process, the learner continuously constructs and consolidates the identity as "Chinese" relating to family and culture. Lastly, the anti-ought-to L2 self, characterized by reactions to "others," emerged in dynamic interactions between learners and contexts. This motive inspired the learner to continuously develop the possible self and gain positive learning experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mountain Jewish immigrants to Israel from the Eastern Caucasus used two heritage languages, Juhuri (Judeo-Tat) and Russian. Juhuri was their home and Russian the societal languages prior to migration. In Israel, Juhuri and Russian are Heritage Languages and Hebrew is the societal language. The present study reports on frequency of use and codeswitching behaviour across three generations of Mountain Jewish speakers in order to account for patterns of language maintenance and language shift (LMLS). Audio-recorded conversations were collected from six female middle-generation speakers (G1.5: ages 33–50) with their mothers (G1: ages 60–75) and children (G2: ages 9–21). Findings for language use showed significant cross-generational differences, where use of both Russian and Juhuri declined and use of Hebrew increased across generations. Juhuri was maintained only among G1 participants, G1.5 speakers using it mainly for comprehension and G2 speakers abandoning it entirely. G1.5 participants maintained Russian for interaction with parents but did not use it with their children, for whom Hebrew was the dominant means of communication. Code-switching data showed the same overall shift to Hebrew with some maintenance of Russian among G1.5 speakers. Results are discussed in terms of LMLS and motivations for code-switching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As identity research in a globalised world progresses, so does our understanding of the need for nuanced research methodologies, to capture the complexities of multilingual identities. In this paper, we systematically explore the entanglements surrounding dual or mixed identity, supported by the analysis of 132 identity narratives from multilingual young people (11–18 years old) with Chinese heritage. Applying a poststructural lens and drawing on Dörnyei’s motivational self system, Norton’s investment theory, and Little’s conceptualisation of emotional and pragmatic reasons for heritage language maintenance, we strengthen the field of multilingual identity research by introducing a framework that corresponds to the complexities of participants’ lived experiences as heritage language speakers and learners, while honouring their preferences for self-expression. Crucially, the framework has been co-produced with a group of young co-researchers (aged 11–16 years old), ensuring that young people’s views and experiences are respected in the way we research and interpret identities in the heritage language context. In introducing the framework, we provide data examples in the form of relevant quotes for each aspect introduced, highlighting links to existing identity theories and situating the framework as a vital tool within heritage language and multilingual identity research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This ethnographic article examines the interactional processes through which Tibetan-Canadian heritage language learners agentively construct their linguistic identities in everyday family interactions. Because food is centrally involved in family routines, as well as broader cultural practices and the articulation of individual tastes, talk about food provides a site for analyzing negotiations of individual agency amid expressions of shared identity. Drawing from previous language socialisation scholarship that approaches family meal times as a resource for constructing identity, this paper analyzes children’s conversations at meal-times, during food preparation, and about food preferences. Through interactional analysis of twelve months of longitudinal video ethnography in two Tibetan-Canadian families, I found that, in these activities centered on food, children used multilingual and multimodal resources to negotiate authority over their cultural and linguistic knowledge. Specifically, children agentively displayed their knowledge of Tibetan language forms, elaborated on their capacities to participate in cultural activities, and instructed parents about their individual preferences. By analyzing these interactional displays of knowledge through the concepts of agency and co-operative action, I argue that children construct their identities as speakers of Tibetan, despite the dominance of English in their language repertoires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we combined the Focus on Multilingualism approach with the human capital theory to investigate multilingual profiles among first-generation adult immigrants in Germany and the relationship between immigrants' multiliteracy and their employment status. We used data representative for Germany on the self-reported literacy skills in the majority, heritage, and foreign languages of first-generation immigrants (n = 451, age 18–64) gathered in the LEO 2018 study. To analyze multilingual literacy skills, we estimated adults' multilingual profiles using LCA. In a second step, we conducted logistic regression models with multiliteracy and employment status. We found two multilingual profiles of first-generation immigrants: a profile with higher and a profile with lower literacy skills in all investigated languages. The profiles differed by the level of adults' literacy skills in all investigated languages and showed a unique non-overlapping language ordering pattern. The results gained from the logistic regressions revealed that multiliteracy in first-generation immigrants may represent human capital in Germany. After controlling for additional variables (age, gender, education), the analysis showed that higher multiliteracy increases the probability of adult immigrants' employment. Furthermore, our findings indicated independent positive effects of literacy in each language in multilingual repertoires on employment probability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper aims to investigate the interplay of lexical and grammatical development in school-aged Greek-Albanian bilingual children by providing evidence both from majority, Greek, and heritage, Albanian. To this end, 47 8 to 10-year-old bilingual children were tested by means of expressive vocabulary tests in Greek and in Albanian, while their grammatical skills were evaluated by means of the LITMUS Sentence Repetition Task administered in both languages. Additionally, input-related measures in both languages, such as oral language practices, literacy, and educational practices were used to assess the bilingual experience and examine how it would correlate with lexical and grammatical skills. The analysis showed that within each language, lexical and grammatical skills were closely related both for the majority and the heritage language, while when examining across-language effects, grammatical skills in the heritage language were correlated with grammatical skills in the majority language. Concerning the role of input, we found that input in the heritage language supported skills both in the heritage and the majority language. The study's contribution is that by providing novel evidence from this specific language pair it shows that supporting the use of heritage language can boost language skills in both languages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through fieldwork conducted between 2014 and 2016 in Arkhangelsk, Naryan-Mar, Krasnoye, and Saint Petersburg, this paper investigates the endangered status of Tundra Nenets, an underrepresented and understudied Samoyedic minority language in northern Russia. Criteria for assessing language endangerment are applied to Tundra Nenets while also taking into consideration the interplay between language identity, reactive ethnicity, negative attitudes, and state politics. The personal story of NC, a Tundra Nenets woman, serves as a case study and exemplifies the impact of decades of marginalization, stigmatization, and discrimination on the cultural and linguistic identity. NC's narrative illustrates how negative attitudes are exacerbating the decline of Tundra Nenets, further threatening its survival. Because of its absence from schools and institutions, Tundra Nenets seems to be turning into a heritage language in its own homeland. This paper studies the complex interplay between identity, language, and societal pressures, illustrating the broader challenges faced by the Tundra Nenets and other minority communities in maintaining their linguistic and cultural heritage. While the situation remains dire and political action is called for, efforts in boosting language awareness, documentation, and revitalization offer potential pathways for the preservation of Tundra Nenets, drawing on successful examples from other endangered language communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose adequate methodological approaches for Serbian as a heritage language based on the critical analysis of the existing Serbian Ministry of Education's Curriculum for Serbian as a foreign language. This curriculum is recommended for use in Serbian heritage language education; however, it has been shown to be insufficiently effective in the classroom. The methods in question should benefit heritage speakers the most, such as communication-based methods and form-focused instruction, which enhance metalinguistic awareness. Additionally, we suggest an integrative model of teaching as we believe that cross-cultural approaches positively impact both types of students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By drawing attention to the translingual practices in Malaysian Mandarin (MM), this study uses lexical variations as an analytical lens through which the changes in linguistic dimensions can be viewed from a social perspective. We present translingual practice as a communicative, rather than a pedagogical, resource that has broader applied relevance in multilingual society. Two findings are presented. First, we elaborate on how MM is interwoven with translingual words of various heritage languages (HLs)/dialects and major/powerful languages; second, we examine how translingual words varied from or standardised towards Standard Mandarin (SM) over time, by HL and in place/region. We argue that intersection with competing levelling pressures reflects not only a "standardisation" process at schools/in society but can be further interpreted as the decline of local translingual practices and local sounds, suggesting the risk of losing rich ethnic and regional heritage and identities. By giving a voice to marginalised HL speakers, this study goes beyond the description of an unstudied/understudied research site or linguistic phenomenon, implying important aspects of power and inequality and a subtle resistance against dominant policies/discourses. This could be salient for advancing future studies and theories to address efforts in advocating critical language awareness and inclusive policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family language policy (FLP) is a key focus of immigrant families, as parents are considered to play a vital role in children’s bilingual language development. Nevertheless, many parents report that they do not have an FLP. Accordingly, their FLP planning style is unplanned and spontaneous. This study compares families’ FLP planning styles (overt vs. covert). Data was collected via questionnaires from parents and their English-Hebrew bilingual children (n = 82). Children’s receptive and expressive vocabulary of both languages were assessed to explore the impact of FLP planning style. Results confirm that families present with a desire for proficient outcomes in both languages. However, families with an overt planning style present with more pro-heritage language policies (e.g. promoting English use with siblings). Those with a covert planning style lean towards pro-societal language policies and children may be allowed to speak any language at home. Differences in FLP planning did not significantly impact ratings of home language use or children’s vocabulary. The perceived value of English as a global language may be partially responsible for the findings. The study confirms that although there are many effective ways to raise a bilingual child, FLP planning has implications for the bilingual language learning environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transnationals constitute one-third of the population of the economically prosperous Singapore. Applying a family language policy (FLP) framework and collaborative autoethnography from data (interviews, videos, and diaries) spanning 13 years, this study delves into the linguistic journey of an Italian-Chinese family with two children born in Singapore. The analysis demonstrates the dynamics of language ideologies, management, and practices, following changes in parental beliefs, children's linguistic proficiencies and agency, availability of resources within the family and the host country, and unexpected events like COVID-19. The article highlights how multilingual parents' ideologies shape up owning to individual experiences, beliefs, and aspirations, and how these ideologies are translated into language choices and day-to-day language maintenance, vis-à-vis Singapore's English-centric policies. This unique longitudinal case study also touches on features pertaining to transnational families in Singapore, such as the perception of the local variety 'Singlish,' caregiving, and schooling options, illustrating the intricate interplay of micro and macro factors governing family multilingualism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Special Issue came about as the result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which brought unprecedented shifts in the conditions and opportunities for language education. In the context of heritage languages, there were significant challenges for learners, parents, and teachers, but there were also new opportunities for rethinking the ways in which languages were taught and passed on to the next generation. In this Special Issue, we take an ecological perspective on language policy and planning (henceforward LPP) and focus on micro- and meso-level LPP related to language learning and the intergenerational transmission of heritage languages. While the approach taken in this volume aligns with the notion that macro, meso and micro perspectives, goals and activities are not independent of each other but form a complex ecology (Baldauf, 2006), our focus here is not on formal policy making and implementation, but on the practices surrounding language learning, teaching and use, as forms of LPP (Liddicoat, 2020). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of language maintenance and shift (LMS) has attracted a large body of empirical work in language policy and planning (LPP) contexts, including allochthonous (immigrant) and autochthonous (indigenous) languages. However, some critical ontological questions that relate to the scope and terminology of language maintenance studies remain unanswered, and there seems to be a lack of consistency in the definitions of the relevant terms, such as what 'heritage' language refers to, whose heritage it is when a language can be classified as a heritage language, and what 'language' is at all. Therefore, this review summarises existing literature on LPP for language maintenance by employing a scoping review methodology, providing an overview of empirical studies of LPP in migration context over the past two decades (2001-2023), focusing on terminology, geographical settings, research focus and methods. The findings reveal that most studies (66.3%) use the term 'heritage language' to refer to the 'language of transnational minorities' among other terms. The results also highlight geographical gaps and imbalances in the literature, calling for more LPP studies from South American and East Asian contexts. In addition, further investigations are needed to explore the transnational and translocal aspects of language maintenance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a multifaceted portrait of immigrants to Germany from the post-Soviet states. The article traces the paths of two families over the course almost of a third of a century after immigration, focusing on language use and integration into the new environment. In-depth interviews conducted at various stages of the integration process and age-appropriate tests served as research material. The content, text, and lexical analyses, as well as a linguistic biography method, were used. The research included four generations of Russian Germans and Jews in each family. Russophones in Germany have not had an easy time integrating but, ultimately, have a positive attitude toward their adoptive country. The results show that the German language became the primary means of communication outside the family and partly within the family where Russian dominates among the second and third generations. The oldest generation (great-grandfathers and great-grandmothers) were fluent in German to some extent; those who moved at the age of 20–40 learned it sufficiently for their jobs; their children studied in German preschools and schools and became completely bilingual; and the great-grandchildren were born in Germany. The younger generations have fully integrated into German society, although strong connections with locals exist among the older generations too. Proficiency in the Russian language is still maintained even among the great-grandchildren's generation, although not to the same extent as among the generation of young parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Language policies in multilingual families refer to parents' decisions, whether explicitly articulated or not, regarding which languages will be used in which contexts. However, because most studies that explore language allocation focus on families with young children, they do not address how family language policies impact the retention of a home language through to the next generation. The present study investigates an important perspective on this issue, specifically how emerging adults' childhood experiences with their family language policy relate to the languages they currently use and plan to retain in the future. Methods: In all, 62 multilingual Canadian adults, aged between 17 and 29 years, participated in focus group interviews concerning their experience of language policies in their birth families, their current beliefs concerning language allocation and retention, and their plans about language policy in their future families. Results: The data revealed that not only are most participants interested in retaining their home language, thereby continuing to speak the language in their future families, but most are also open to incorporating additional languages into their policies. Discussion: The results provide insight into how to identify effective heritage language retention policies that transcend generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study examines the bilingual language development of twelve young children. We focus on the use of Spanish as a heritage language among the children while they learn English in an English-majority environment. Data was collected in English and Spanish four times over the first two years of formal schooling. The study focuses on oral language production in Spanish and English using several language-eliciting tasks including vocabulary identification and picture storytelling. Results demonstrated improvement in English oral fluency, vocabulary, and grammatical complexity over the two-year period, as expected. Most of the children maintained roughly the same scores on Spanish vocabulary identification and oral fluency over the same timeframe. The study shows that retention of the first language (L1) is achievable even by children living in English-majority neighborhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Narrative skills play an important role in children's reading, communication, and critical thinking. Most studies on narrative skills are based on monolingual children from middle- to upper middle-class populations and few have examined bilingual children's narratives outside of the western context. These factors may impose different sociocultural influences on children's storytelling abilities. The current study focuses on English–Mandarin bilingual children in Singapore and explores: (1) how English–Mandarin bilinguals apply their Mandarin lexical-grammatical proficiency to a given narrative task and (2) the compensatory strategies they employ in their Mandarin narratives. Data was obtained from 186 K1 pre-schoolers (85 boys and 101 girls) aged four to five. Children's Mandarin narrative skills were assessed with the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (MAIN; Gagarina et al. in ZAS Pap Linguist 56:155–155, 2012. https://doi.org/10.21248/zaspil.56.2019.414). Their macrostructural knowledge (e.g., story grammar) was scored with the MAIN coding scheme, and their microstructural knowledge (e.g., mean length of utterance) was calculated with CLAN. Children's Mandarin lexical-grammatical proficiency (i.e., receptive vocabulary, receptive grammar, and semantic fluency) was assessed with standard tests. The results indicate that compared to children's microstructural knowledge, their macrostructural knowledge was more influenced by their Mandarin competence. Children used a variety of strategies to compensate for their limited Mandarin competence, and the most frequently used ones were generalisation (e.g., all classifiers of nouns were "个"), codeswitching (at both the word and sentential levels), and sentential structural transfer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working (or volunteering) in a Lithuanian Saturday (or Sunday) school abroad is difficult. Teachers must balance work, family, and teaching in those schools, give up their free time to prepare for classes, and spend Saturdays working. Some of them need to find not only teaching materials, but also a place for teaching. Moreover, some parents often have very high expectations for the school—they do not speak enough Lithuanian at home, or not even at all, but they expect that the school will teach their child to speak it fluently in a half of a day. In addition, the Lithuanian language is a quite rare, non-international language for teaching and learning of which another motivation needs to be found rather than size, usefulness, and prestige. However, the number of schools abroad not only do not decrease in number, but every year more and more are established, and in more distant countries. The fact that this number of schools is growing tells us that teachers who want to take on the challenge can in fact be found. This article aims to find out why people choose to work or volunteer in these schools, what brings them there, and what keeps them there—what is their motivation. This article is based on the data of a quantitative survey about Lithuanian Saturday school teachers' attitudes and motivation (2021–2022). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Circassian language is the heritage language (HL) of a small minority group in Israel. Since its classification as an endangered language around the globe, the focus has been put on effective maintenance programs. Changes in education methods within Circassian communities were inevitable. In Israel, the Circassian Maintenance Program is crucial in primary schools, where formal literacy instruction in the Circassian language begins in fifth grade. This study examined the agentic role of the Circassian literacy teacher in engaging students in learning their heritage language and its maintenance, as expressed in her attitudes, beliefs and knowledge and her classroom strategies. This three-month-long ethnographic data collection was conducted at the teacher's study centre "Nal" (i.e., a treasure in Circassian). Data was gathered through classroom observations and semi-structured interviews with a Circassian HL teacher to understand her attitudes, beliefs and knowledge and to identify strategies to encourage student engagement in HL learning. In general, the teacher showed expertise in the HL and authentic use of it, as well as cultural and religious competence, adaptability, and flexibility. In addition, she encouraged children's agency and autonomy and provided individualised support, integration of technology and reflective practice. The results indicated that a sense of identity, unity and belonging to the community are all held together by the pillar of HL knowledge. By engaging her students in translanguaging practices, the teacher promoted their awareness of language patterns, vocabulary and grammar in both Circassian and other languages of their wide linguistic repertoire (Hebrew, Arabic and English). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on an evaluation of statistics on language provisions and self-declared language practice, and on longitudinal ethnographic observations, we examine the role of the Polish language in shaping single transactions and durable social bonds and in demarcating interaction spaces among Polish immigrants in a UK metropolitan area. Language choice can be essential, in that it cannot be replaced by a substitute. Therefore, it is either constitutive of an action routine in the sense that it lends a particular performative character to a practice; or casual, in that it accompanies a routine but is of little symbolic function and contributes little to performing belonging. We identify a spread of features of language across different practices, prompting reflection on the role of language as a co-defining indicator of diaspora communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing on interviews with staff from Language Supplementary Schools (LSS) in Manchester (UK), we discuss the emergence of makeshift ideologies whereby actors seek to legitimise choices and policies of heritage language transmission in the diaspora setting. Actors discuss the use of regional and vernacular varieties, the consideration given to pupils' multilingual repertoires, and the use of the majority language (English) as 'scaffold'. Conscious that such practices potentially clash with the schools' expected mission statements and prevailing ideological dispositions, actors seek to justify them. They do this with reference to changes in setting and attitudes, which they position along time and place axes, comparing origin countries with the diaspora reality, thereby forging new language narratives as a 'diasporic stance'. We consider the discursive tools and actions of talks that constitute descriptions, explanations, justifications, and their interplay in actors' efforts to share their perspective on practices and the attitudes that accompany them. The study shows how ideologies regarding the particular diasporic situation are shifting, and the relevance of pluralistic language repertoires within it. Methodologically, the study suggests that ideologies are not just discursive dimensions, rather they are constructed and communicated discursively, allowing us to trace their emergence using semiotic and discourse-analytical tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is a sociolinguistic exploration into the survival of a transnational language in the United States-a multilingual and multicultural environment. Using an adapted General Ethnicity Questionnaire, it interrogates the social dimensions of heritage language use and the diverse linguistic experiences of 120 first-generation Yorùbá-English Nigerian Immigrants living in New York, Texas, and Maryland. It also conducts structured interviews with 30 of them. The study tests two hypotheses that examine the significance of age and length of stay on heritage language use. Findings reveal that first-generation Yorùbá-English Nigerian Immigrants report high frequencies of heritage language use with their co-ethnic peers as well as in their self-created micro-linguistic markets. Results also show that age and the length of stay are significant to heritage language use in the United States. Finally, these immigrants create enabling environments where the heritage language is used frequently, ensuring continued use and survival. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Migrant students tend to underperform in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) subjects and are less likely to pursue higher education in STEM when compared with their nonmigrant peers. Given the substantial increase in migration, this disparity has been a central concern in science education in many European countries. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an innovative science outreach program that brings together migrant students and STEM professionals with the same linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The program consists of one‐off workshops that follow an inquiry‐based approach and include hands‐on activities and science communication in the students' heritage language. Using surveys with adapted scales and open‐ended questions, we applied a randomized block design with waitlist control groups and repeated measures. Eighty‐three Portuguese‐speaking migrant students aged 6–17 years participated in the workshops in Germany and the United Kingdom. Results indicate that both the students and STEM professionals evaluated the program positively and that students who participated in the workshops tended to demonstrate an increase in their attainment value for science and an increase in their self‐concept of ability for the heritage language 4 weeks after the intervention when compared with students in the control condition. These effects were particularly pronounced for students with low prior motivation to study science or speak the heritage language. Our results thus show that it is possible to foster migrant students' attainment value for science and increase their self‐concept of ability regarding the heritage language through a brief science outreach intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Immigration from diverse countries of origin has brought to Australia a great linguistic diversity. Moving to Australia, many migrant communities tend to shift from their heritage languages (HLs) and shift to English. Korean migrant communities, however, buck this trend. Notable within the Korean communities are ethnic church congregations, which offer social networks to maintain Korean identity. Focusing on the Korean communities in Australia, this study extends the limited knowledge about the potential of migrant religious organisations to promote HL maintenance. Specifically, drawing on data from 300 surveys collected from parents and semi-structured interviews with eight parents and their children, this study compares experiences of HL maintenance among families who attend a Korean church with those who do not. A key finding is that families affiliated with a Korean church are more likely to prioritise HL learning, practise the language and be proficient in the language than those who are not. Additionally, participants in this study reported that Korean churches provide valuable opportunities for HL learning. This study contributes to an understanding of the intertwined dynamics of migration, religion and language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research explores into the issues faced by heritage language speakers and learners, a topic gaining increasing relevance as millions of individuals reside outside their country or region of birth for various reasons. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the experiences and proficiency of the heritage language among ethnic Kazakhs living abroad, with a particular emphasis on those in Russia. The aim is to shed light on the challenges they encounter in using the Kazakh language, their language skill requirements, and the obstacles hindering language acquisition. The research employs a descriptive, non-experimental, quantitative research design, utilizing survey research, descriptive statistics, and descriptive analysis of research data. The survey questionnaire includes participants' personal data, scales addressing challenges in using the Kazakh language, needs in Kazakh language skills, and barriers to language acquisition. The survey involved 100 ethnic Kazakhs in the Russian Federation, ranging from 10 to 72 years old (mean age 43.4 years). The study's findings reveal infrequent use of the Kazakh language by ethnic Kazakhs abroad and a low language proficiency level, with 40% at 0-A0 proficiency levels and 15% at B2-C2 proficiency levels. Younger participants exhibit lower levels of heritage language proficiency and less frequent use of Kazakh compared to their older counterparts, indicating a generational decline in language skills and usage. Challenges in using the heritage language manifest in difficulties writing in Kazakh due to a lack of knowledge about grammar and spelling, struggles in reading and understanding books, newspapers, and magazines, and ineffective communication with Kazakhs from Kazakhstan due to a lack of familiarity with cultural nuances and communication subtleties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Long-distance dependencies such as relative clauses (RCs) are known to be vulnerable in heritage grammars (e.g., Montrul, 2008). Previous studies in RC comprehension have shown that heritage language (HL) children show similar comprehension to monolingual children (Jia & Paradis, 2020), while differential performance has also been found (Kidd et al., 2015). The present study investigates 11–13-year-old monolingual and German-dominant HL children's real-time parsing strategies in subject relative clause (SRC) and object relative clause (ORC) processing in Greek. We conducted a self-paced listening task in Greek in which we manipulated the type of RC (subject vs. object), and the RC internal word order (canonical vs. scrambled). Our analyses revealed no significant group differences between HL and monolingual children. Both groups of children processed SRCs faster than ORCs on the critical RC verb segment. We also examined if case-marked pre-verbal NPs would facilitate the processing of ORC structures. Although children processed pre-verbal faster than post-verbal NPs, ORC structures with pre-verbal NPs received the lowest scores in the grammaticality judgment task. We discuss these findings on the grounds of Relativized Minimality (Friedmann et al., 2009) and Fodor and Inoue's (2000) Diagnosis and Repair Model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Causal relations allow a very detailed insight into the narrative skills of children from various backgrounds; however, their contribution has not been sufficiently studied in bilingual populations. The present study examines the expression of causal relations and the linguistic forms used to encode them in narratives of bilingual children speaking Russian as the Heritage Language (HL) and Hebrew as the Societal Language (SL). Narratives were collected from 21 typically developing Russian–Hebrew bilingual children using the Frog story picture book and were coded for frequency and type of episodic components, and for causal relations focusing on enabling and motivational relations. Results showed that the number of episodic components was higher in Hebrew than in Russian. An in-depth analysis showed that more components were mentioned in the first five episodes, particularly at the onset of the story. Causal relations were similar in both languages but were differently distributed across the languages—more enabling relations in Russian stories and more motivational relations in Hebrew stories. Production of episodic components and causal relations was affected by language proficiency but not by age of onset of bilingualism (AoB). In terms of language forms, lexical chains (e.g., search~find) were the most frequent means for inferring relations. Syntactic and referential cohesion were used in dedicated episodes to convey relations in both languages. Finally, a higher number of significant correlations between narrative productivity measures, episodic components, and causal relations were found in SL/Hebrew than in HL/Russian. The study results underscore the need to understand how language-specific abilities interact with knowledge of narrative discourse construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines attitudes and ideologies associated with the Finnish language and identity among successive generations of Finnish Americans in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and Northern Minnesota, where Finnish is a postvernacular heritage language (HL). Employing ethnographic approaches including participant observation, narrative interviews, and the study of material analyzed using thematic analysis, I describe prevailing ideologies shaping perceptions of Finnishness. My findings highlight a pronounced pride and attachment to Finnish identity, which discursively and ideologically shape a sense of belonging and serve as a foundation for Finnish American identity formation. However, tensions emerge, particularly regarding the perceived pronunciation of Finnish words such as "sauna" and Finnish last names, indicating ideologies related to authenticity and purity. The evolution of terms like "Finlander" suggests generational change and reflects a history of friction with individuals not identifying as Finnish within the studied postvernacular speech communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper explores the pivotal role of mothers in maintaining the Lithuanian language within the Lithuanian diaspora, drawing upon Spolsky's family language policy theory and Curdt-Christiansen's dynamic family language policy model. Analyzing data collected in 2011–2013 and 2015–2017, the study investigates various factors shaping family language policy, with a particular focus on the mother's influence. It examines the interplay between the mother's role, emigrants' language ideology, Lithuanian identity, language acquisition, proficiency, and language usage across different domains and emotional dimension of language attitudes. Quantitative analysis, considering respondents' parents' ethnicities, reveals that respondents with Lithuanian mothers exhibit stronger connections to Lithuanian identity, more frequent acquisition of Lithuanian as their first language, higher proficiency, and increased usage of Lithuanian within the family and as an inner language. Moreover, positive language attitudes towards the heritage Lithuanian language are more pronounced among those with Lithuanian mothers. However, emotional attitudes towards language did not significantly differ based on parental ethnicity. The paper concludes by discussing the heightened responsibility of mothers in language maintenance within the diaspora and the challenges they face in fulfilling this role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mountain Jews (MJs), native of the eastern Caucasus, mass immigrated in the 1990s to Israel and the US. MJs brought with them two heritage languages (HLs): Russian, the language of wider communication in the former Soviet Union, and Juhuri, their traditional home language. The present study explores the effects of HL attitudes on proficiency among 146 Israeli and 138 American MJs differing in age (M = 35.42) and in education level. A questionnaire based on a triadic attitude model comprised of Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive items was used to examine the impact of language attitudes on self-rated Comprehension and Production of the two HLs. Results showed more positive attitudes toward Russian than Juhuri in both Israel and the US, with highest values registered for the Affective component. Attitudes toward Russian did not differ across countries, whereas attitudes toward Juhuri were more positive in the US. Attitudes predicted proficiency of Russian better than Juhuri and better in Israel than in the US. The findings are discussed in light of societal and cultural differences between Israel and the US, in terms of ethnolinguistic vitality and the status of the societal languages, as well as the implications of the unique attitude structure of the two HLs in the two countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Russian and Hebrew bilingualism offers a unique opportunity to study gender assignment in code-switched adjective-noun phrases, as both languages mark grammatical gender. The present study investigated code-switched Russian-Hebrew adjective-noun phrases in order to trace gender assignment strategies: default, translation equivalent, shape-based, and insertion. For this purpose, 60 Russian-Hebrew bilingual speakers were recruited and divided into two groups: heritage language (HL) speakers of Russian dominant in Hebrew and immigrant (IMM) speakers dominant in Russian. Participants filled out a background questionnaire and completed an experimental task in which they were asked to listen to and rate the acceptability of sentences with embedded Hebrew code-switched nouns within Russian matrix sentences. The results demonstrated that most participants in the study exhibited a clear preference for two gender assignment strategies: shape-based and insertion. However, rating for opaque Hebrew nouns differed between the HL and IMM groups, pointing to the role of language proficiency in the gender assignment strategy preference: the HL group favored the insertion strategy, while the IMM group showed a preference for the shape-based strategy. The current study adds to the existing literature on gender assignment strategies in code-switched adjective-noun phrases and the mechanisms driving the choices of the speakers.

This study investigated motivation of Chinese heritage language (CHL) learners with diverse Chinese language backgrounds at an American university. Using a mixed-methods design, it examined the factors that motivated CHL learners to enroll in Chinese courses and continue their studies. The Study explored interactions that enhanced the learning experience and self identity development. A survey was conducted, followed by individual interviews. The results identified five motivation factors significantly correlated to the ideal L2 self, which functions as an anchor. The ideal L2 self was the strongest predictor of intended effort via positive attitude. The classroom-related experience was another significant predictor of intended effort. Interview data highlighted the dynamic interplay between sociocultural contexts and learner-environment interactions which provokes motivation development and strengthens identity reconstruction and future self-guides. In the process, the learner continuously constructs and consolidates the identity as “Chinese” relating to family and culture. Lastly, the anti-ought-to L2 self, characterized by reactions to “others,” emerged in dynamic interactions between learners and contexts. This motive inspired the learner to continuously develop the possible self and gain positive learning experiences.

Heritage language maintenance is affected by many different factors. Particularly for families in subtractive bilingual environments, it is crucial to have a well-defined family language policy (FLP). Even with an established FLP, major disruptions and changes, as well as smaller shifts in families’ lives, can significantly affect children’s multilingual development and threaten heritage language maintenance. These shifts can be sudden or gradual. This study focuses on the importance of bringing the need for a FLP into multilingual families’ awareness and explores the challenges of sustaining it. More specifically, this study uses two parents’ reflections regarding their own families’ language policies to gain a better understanding of the challenges and to make recommendations to other families. It is guided by the following questions: To what extent are parents aware of their family’s multilingual habits and policies? How can parents support their children’s heritage language development in the face of significant disruptions or even subtle life changes? Two linguists raising multilingual children in different contexts agreed to become accountability partners to gain a better understanding of their own dynamic situations and support each other to become more intentional in their family multilingual development. Data were collected over a six-month period. Findings suggest that intentionality increased due to the accountability partnership. Furthermore, this study challenged several of the researchers’ assumptions, particularly regarding the amount of heritage language spoken, how transitions affect the family, what it takes for linguistic changes to occur, and the ease of tracking one’s own family’s linguistic habits. This study suggests that having a FLP is not sufficient, but that it requires periodic updating, and changes need to be implemented to match the evolving plan.

This study examines heritage language use and identity construction of two Korean-American bilingual adolescents who have acquired a high level of proficiency in the heritage language. An analysis of the interview narratives showed that the high level of their heritage language proficiency played a crucial role in understanding the heritage culture and its people, developing a strong sense of self, and building social relationships with members of the heritage language and mainstream communities. In addition, it was found that their ethnic identities were co-constructed and reshaped over time not only by their individual choices but also by various sociocultural factors — the environment, their surroundings, and their relationships with others. However, although both participants agreed that their heritage language and culture were fundamental parts of their identities, the forces and processes that shaped each participant’s identities were different. One participant developed his dual identities by maintaining cultural boundaries and group differentiation whereas the other participant tried to combine two cultural characteristics in creating a new self, having invested in dual identities — Korean and American — which she would assume in the private and public spheres of her life, respectively. The findings shed light on the complex process of bilingual adolescents’ identity construction.

This study intends to examine the reading process in Chinese of two young heritage language learners through the use of retrospective miscue analysis (RMA). Retrospective miscue analysis involves both the author and the reader in reflectively discussing the reader's oral reading miscues—responses that differ from the actual text. This study confirms the notion that reading is an active sense-making process where the graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic cues as well as translanguaging skills function interdependently to assist heritage language readers with meaning construction. Strategies of sampling, predicting, substituting, and correcting are also evident in their reading. These active but "invisible" reading behaviors are not available through asking comprehension questions. Instead, they are obtained from the reflective conversations between the researcher and the students. Retrospective miscue analysis helps readers gain a deeper understanding of the reading process and enhances their metacognitive skills. This study also includes language and reading behaviors that are unique to Chinese heritage language learners as well as implications for parents and teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study examines the extent to which language skills of adult speakers of heritage language (HL) English in a Hebrew-speaking society are affected by individual HL input patterns and cross-linguistic influence. Methodology: Adult HL-English speakers who grew up in families with one (N = 22) or two (N = 25) English-speaking parents were compared to a baseline group of native English speakers who emigrated to Israel as adults (N = 20). Data: Proficiencies in morphosyntactic and lexical domains were measured based on formal test performance and error types and frequencies in narratives. Detailed histories of speakers' linguistic input were documented. Findings: Results showed near-ceiling performance across the three groups in the morphosyntactic domain, while significant differences were observed between the baseline and HL groups in the lexical domain. No differences were found between HL-English speakers who grew up in families with one or two English-speaking parents. Individual HL input patterns explained a larger proportion of the variance in the lexical abilities, compared to morphosyntactic ones. Evidence of cross-linguistic influence from Hebrew was not detected in the morphosyntactic domain, but only in the lexicon, in the form of minor lexical production errors and calques. Originality: The HL examined here was English which, unlike other HLs, is heard and used in a variety of contexts outside the home. In most previous studies on HLs, English was the dominant societal language. Implications: The results suggest that morphosyntactic divergences, unlike lexical divergences, are not necessarily found in all HLs—morphosyntactic structures acquired in childhood, reinforced periodically in the societal environment, may be well-maintained because of the language's ubiquity and relatively sparse morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the governance, leadership and management of complementary schools through the case of Greek Cypriot complementary schools in England with a view to developing a research agenda for this under-researched yet significant sector of education for children and young people. Drawing on stakeholder and bottom-up theories of governance that aim to uncover the intricate networks of groups that surround organisations and the systems in which they exist, we highlight the multiple and sometimes conflicting stakes held. This exploratory research involves interviews with five practitioners in positions of responsibility. The governance, leadership and management of these schools matters because there are concerns about their sustainability requiring a greater appreciation of their contribution, the issues they face and how they make decisions with limited resources. We call for further research to increase the understanding of the sector and to improve the support for practitioners, organisations and communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the semantic development of heritage bilingual preschool children aged 3 to 5 who acquire Cantonese as their heritage language (HL) at home and English as their community language (L2) in school settings. The research examines how bilingual children organize and access their vocabulary in two distinct languages and how their heritage language influences semantic development in L2. We examined their performance in Word Association Identification Task (WAID) and Word Association Task (WAT) in both languages. Results showed that they perform similarly in WAID in both languages, with higher accuracy in semantically unrelated conditions. The WAT results showed that children had more syntagmatic responses in Cantonese than in English, but had similar paradigmatic responses in both languages. Regression analysis revealed that paradigmatic responses in Cantonese predicted children's English paradigmatic responses. Their English paradigmatic responses were also associated with WAID performance in English. This study contributes to understanding heritage bilingual children's semantic development, with implications for education and language support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Yildiz Journal of Educational Research is the property of KARE Publishing and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article explores language ideologies in urban and rural Nubian families in Egypt toward Arabic, English, and Nubian, analysing how these families’ different language ideologies could influence heritage language maintenance. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and observations with three urban and three rural families in Egypt, and qualitative content analysis was conducted to compare differences in parents’ ideologies between rural and urban Nubian families. The survey results show that parents from urban and rural families greatly emphasise Arabic learning. Parents in urban families are more willing to invest in their children's foreign language education. In contrast, parents in rural families consider Nubian to be of great significance for their children's education, which leads parents to prioritise having their children speak Nubian as the main language at home. They strongly recognise the value of the Nubian language in ethnic identity and cultural inheritance. The results suggest that parents’ language ideologies and heritage language maintenance in urban and rural Nubian families may be affected by macro factors (e.g. national language policy, socio-cultural environment) and micro factors (e.g. parents’ education level, family economic level). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This paper examines the productive vocabulary skills of five groups of English-Hebrew bilinguals in Israel and the United States. The juxtaposition of these five groups allows us to simultaneously compare performance across dominance profiles, acquisition contexts (L2 learned in school, HL maintained at home, immigration and immersion), and countries (Israel and the USA). Methods: A total of 185 participants took part in study: Hebrew-dominant heritage English speakers, Hebrew-dominant L2-English speakers, Englishdominant heritage Hebrew speakers, and English-dominant L2-Hebrew speakers in the US and in Israel. They were all administered the MINT assessment in both languages, as well as background questionnaires. We then employ network modeling based on a secondary data analysis of background questionnaires to consider how each group's lexical proficiency ties in to reported input factors. Results and Discussion: The MINT results indicate clear language dominance in all the groups except Hebrew-dominant heritage English speakers, who show balanced proficiency in both their languages. The network models indicate key distinctions between the groups as a function of linguistic context, and we assess our findings in the context of recent work on quantifying the bilingual experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]