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To analyze the epidemiological characteristics of group A rotavirus (RVA) diarrhea in Beijing between 2019 and 2022 and evaluate the effectiveness of the RV5 vaccine. Stool specimens were collected from patients with acute diarrhea, and RVA was detected and genotyped. The whole genome of RVA was sequenced by fragment amplification and Sanger sequencing. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using Bayesian and maximum likelihood methods. Descriptive epidemiological methods were used to analyze the characteristics of RVA diarrhea. Test‐negative design was used to evaluate the vaccine effectiveness (VE) of the RV5. Compared with 2011–2018, RVA‐positive rates in patients with acute diarrhea under 5 years of age and adults decreased significantly between 2019 and 2022, to 9.45% (249/634) and 3.66% (220/6016), respectively. The predominant genotype of RVA had changed from G9‐VIP[8]‐III between 2019 and 2021 to G8‐VP[8]‐III in 2022, and P[8] sequences from G8‐VP[8]‐III strains formed a new branch called P[8]‐IIIb. The complete genotype of G8‐VP[8]‐III was G8‐P[8]‐I2‐R2‐C2‐M2‐A2‐N2‐T2‐E2‐H2. The VE of 3 doses of RV5 was 90.4% (95% CI: 28.8%–98.7%) against RVA diarrhea. The prevalence of RVA decreased in Beijing between 2019 and 2022, and the predominant genotype changed to G8P[8], which may be related to RV5 vaccination. Continuous surveillance is necessary to evaluate vaccine effectiveness and improve vaccine design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveTo investigate the changes in the pathogen spectrum of viral diarrhea in local pediatric inpatients as well as any variations in genotypes of major pathogens during the COVID-19 control period.MethodsFecal samples were collected from the children

Group A rotaviruses are a well-known cause of viral gastroenteritis in infants and children, as well as in many mammalian species and birds, affecting them at a young age. This group of viruses has a double-stranded, segmented RNA genome with high genetic diversity linked to point mutations, recombination, and, importantly, reassortment. While initial molecular investigations undertaken in the 1900s suggested host range restriction among group A rotaviruses based on the fact that different gene segments were distributed among different animal species, recent molecular surveillance and genome constellation genotyping studies conducted by the Rotavirus Classification Working Group (RCWG) have shown that animal rotaviruses serve as a source of diversification of human rotavirus A, highlighting their zoonotic potential. Rotaviruses occurring in various animal species have been linked with contributing genetic material to human rotaviruses, including horses, with the most recent identification of equine-like G3 rotavirus A infecting children. The goal of this article is to review relevant information related to rotavirus structure/genomic organization, epidemiology (with a focus on human and equine rotavirus A), evolution, inter-species transmission, and the potential zoonotic role of equine and other animal rotaviruses. Diagnostics, surveillance and the current status of human and livestock vaccines against RVA are also reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group A rotavirus (RVA) is considered an important cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in all age groups, especially in children. We investigated the epidemiology of RVA in outpatients aged ≤ 16 years at the Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China. In this study, 16.6% (246/1482) were infected with RVA. The detection rate of RVA was significantly higher in the year of 2021 (20.3%, 147/725) compared to the year of 2020 (14.5%, 77/531) and 2022 (9.7%, 22/226) (p = 0.000). RVA infection was prevalent in all seasons from 2020 to 2022, with a different monthly distribution observed in different years. Among 246 RVA‐positive samples, 14 different RVA genotypes were detected with different frequencies. Overall, G9P[8] (45.5%, 112/246) was the most common RVA genotype, followed by G8P[8] (37.4%, 92/246) and G3P[8] (4.1%, 10/246). The prevalence of G/P combinations varied from 2020 to 2022. G9P[8] was the most prevalent circulating genotype in 2020 (68.2%, 15/22) and 2021 (57.8%, 85/147). However, G8P[8] (68.8%, 53/77) suddenly became the most prevalent genotype in 2022 after being first identified in 2020 and prevalent in 2021. The G8 strains detected in the study were all clustered to DS‐1‐like G8 strains with the closest genetic distance to strains circulating in Southeast Asia. Our study demonstrated the diversity of circulating RVA genotypes in Shanghai. The sudden emergence and high prevalence of unusual G8P[8] strains deserve more concern and indicate the need for continuous surveillance of RVA in children with AGE in the future to refine future vaccine strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To analyze the detection of group A rotavirus (RVA) in the diarrheal patients of Zhuhai City and its correlation with patient gender, age, and infection timing. Fecal specimens were collected from patients with diarrhea in Zhuhai Center for Maternal and Child Health Care from January 2019 to December 2022 and were tested for RVA antigen using antigen test kit. Statistical analysis of the results was performed using SPSS 20.0. Among the 11 385 fecal samples collected, with an overall RVA detection rate of 9.170% (1 044/11 385), and no significant difference in gender distribution (P>0.05). RVA was detected in all age groups, with the highest positive rate of 9.962% (369/3 704) in infants (29 days to <1 year), significantly higher than those in school-age children (6 to <12 years) and adults (≥18 years) (P<0.01). There were no significant differences in the positive rate of RVA among children under 6 years old (P>0.05). RVA infections occurred throughout the year, with the highest positive rate of 15.456% (117/757) in February. The positive rate of RVA in February was significantly higher than that in other months except for January, March, and May (P<0.01). Seasonally, the positive rate of 11.666% (341/2 923) was the highest in spring, which was significantly higher than that in summer and autumn (P<0.01). The study showed that RVA infection in Zhuhai from 2019 to 2022 exhibited obvious seasonal and population distribution characteristics. It is necessary to strengthen the prevention and control of RVA in children under 6 years old in late winter and early spring. This study is helpful to better understand transmission characteristics and rules of RVA in Zhuhai, and provide scientific basis for the prevention and control of RVA in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

rotaviruses are one of the vital causative agents of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in young children worldwide. Genotyping of detected RVA strains is needed for a more extensive knowledge of the epidemiology of rotaviral infections. This descriptive cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate the circulation of RVA genotypes in diarrheic children living in Edo State, Nigeria. A total of 400 stool samples collected from children less than five years with acute diarrhea were initially screened for RVA antigen by immumochromatographic method, and the RVA antigen-positive samples were subsequently analyzed using Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR), multiplex PCR and sequencing of the VP7 and VP4 gene segments of the RVA strains. Phylogenetic trees were constructed from the nucleotide sequences using the neighbor joining algorithm in MEGA software, version 6. Seventeen stool samples were confirmed as RVA-positive by the first round RT-PCR out of the twenty RVA antigen-positive samples that were examined. Based on RT-PCR assay, the prevalence of RVA which caused diarrhea in children less than five years was estimated at 4.25%. All the 17 stool samples that were confirmed RVA-positive by first round RT-PCR were successfully genotyped for VP7-G and VP4-P genes. Multiplex PCR revealed that G2[P6] was the most frequently found genotype combination (1.50%) rather than the G1[P8] (1.25%) which occurred most frequently worldwide. G9[P6] strains were responsible for 0.50% of RVA prevalence. Unusual RVA strains carrying genotype G2[P8] accounted for a prevalence of 0.50% while mixed infections caused by the G2G9[P6] strains also accounted for a prevalence of 0.50%.

Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are one of the vital causative agents of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in young children worldwide. Genotyping of detected RVA strains is needed for a more extensive knowledge of the epidemiology of rotaviral infections. This descriptive cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate the circulation of RVA genotypes in diarrheic children living in Edo State, Nigeria. A total of 400 stool samples collected from children less than five years with acute diarrhea were initially screened for RVA antigen by immumochromatographic method, and the RVA antigen-positive samples were subsequently analysed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), multiplex PCR and sequencing of the VP7 and VP4 gene segments of the RVA strains. Phylogenetic trees were constructed from the nucleotide sequences using the neighbor joining algorithm in MEGA software, version 6. Seventeen stool samples were confirmed as RVApositive by the first round RT-PCR out of the twenty RVA antigen-positive samples that were examined. Based on RT-PCR assay, the prevalence of RVA which caused diarrhea in children less than five years was estimated at 4.25%. All the 17 stool samples that were confirmed RVA-positive by first round RT-PCR were successfully genotyped for VP7-G and VP4-P genes. Multiplex PCR revealed that G2[P6] was the most frequently found genotype combination (1.50%) rather than the G1[P8] (1.25%) which occurred most frequently worldwide. G9[P6] strains were responsible for 0.50% of RVA prevalence. Unusual RVA strains carrying genotype G2[P8] accounted for a prevalence of 0.50% while mixed infections caused by the G2G9[P6] strains also accounted for a prevalence of 0.50%. The findings of this study provide baseline data for health authorities to plan public health care strategies that could mitigate the disease burden caused by RVA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A rabbit rotavirus Z3171 isolate from diarrheic rabbits was identified and sequenced. The genotype constellation of Z3171 is G3-P[22]-I2-R3-C3-M3-A9-N2-T1-E3-H3, which is different from the constellation observed in previously characterized LRV strains. However, the genome of Z3171 differed substantially from those of the rabbit rotavirus strains N5 and Rab1404 in terms of both gene content and gene sequence. Our study suggests that either a reassortment event occurred between human and rabbit rotavirus strains or there are undetected genotypes circulating in the rabbit population. This is the first report of detection of a G3P[22] RVA strain in rabbits in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Group A rotavirus (RVA) is a common causative agent of acute gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide. RVA P genotypes, determined by VP4 sequences, have been confirmed to infect humans and animals. However, their codon usage patterns that are essential to obtain insights into the viral evolution, host adaptability, and genetic characterization remained unclear, especially across animal hosts. Results We performed a comprehensive codon usage analysis of eight host-specific RVA P genotypes, including human RVA (P[4] and P[8]), porcine RVA (P[13] and P[23]), and zoonotic RVA (P[1], P[6], P[7] and P[19]), based on 233 VP4 complete coding sequences. Nucleotide composition, relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU), and effective number of codons (ENC) were calculated. Principal component analysis (PCA) based on RSCU values was used to explore the codon usage patterns of different RVA P genotypes. In addition, mutation pressure and natural selection were identified by using ENC-plot, parity rule 2 plot, and neutrality plot analyses. All VP4 sequences preferred using A/U nucleotides (A: 0.354-0.377, U: 0.267-0.314) than G/C nucleotides across genotypes. Similarly, majority of commonly used synonymous codons were likely to end with A/U nucleotides (A: 9/18-12/18, U: 6/18-9/18). In PCA, human, porcine, and zoonotic genotypes clustered separately in terms of RSCU values, indicating the host-specific codon usage patterns; however, porcine and zoonotic genotypes were partly overlapped. Human genotypes, P[4] and P[8], had stronger codon usage bias, as indicated by more over-represented codons and lower ENC, compared to porcine and zoonotic genotypes. Moreover, natural selection was determined to be a predominant driver in shaping the codon usage bias across the eight P genotypes. In addition, mutation pressure contributed to the codon usage bias of human genotypes. Conclusions Our study identified a strong codon usage bias of human RVA P genotypes attributable to both natural selection and mutation pressure, whereas similar codon usage bias between porcine and zoonotic genotypes predominantly attributable to natural selection. It further suggests possible cross-species transmission. Therefore, it warrants further surveillance of RVA P genotypes for early identification of zoonotic infection.

Rotavirus infections cause severe gastroenteritis and dehydration in young children and animals worldwide, leading to high rates of morbidity and mortality, predominantly in low- and middle-income countries. In the past decade, substantial progress has been made in the development and implementation of rotavirus vaccines, which have been essential in alleviating the global burden of this disease, not only in human being but also in livestock species like calves and piglets, where these infections can cause significant economic losses. By synthesizing the latest research and real-world evidence, this review article is designated to provide deep insights into the current state of rotavirus vaccine technology and its global implementation as well as the application of rotavirus vaccines in veterinary settings and their importance in controlling zoonotic transmission and maintaining food security., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Producing specific antibodies in chickens is an attractive approach for diagnosis or therapeutic applications. Besides the high immunoglobulin Y (IgY) yield transferred to the egg yolk and its suitability for large-scale production, such an approach is more bioethical for animal maintenance. The IgY technology offers new possibilities for application in human and veterinary diagnostics and therapeutics, including strategies for treating severe intestinal diseases in children, particularly in emerging countries. Herein, we describe the production and purification of polyclonal antibodies against rotavirus group A (RVA) in immunised hens aiming at its application in prophylaxis and treatment of rotavirus-induced diarrhoea. For this purpose, we inoculated Rhodia laying chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) with two or three doses of RVA combined with adjuvants or only adjuvants (control group). As the egg-laying period began, the yolk protein purification processes yielded a high concentration of specific IgY, the highest titre resulting from the group of hens that received three doses of the immunogen. The purified IgY blocked the functional activity of RVA in MA-104 cells, thus confirming the neutralisation ability. Therefore, anti-RVA IgY could be a promising candidate for pre- and post-exposure prevention or treatment of rotavirus-induced diarrhoea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yin-Jiang Lv, Qi-Lei Hu, Rong Huang, Liang Zhang, Li-Feng Wu, Shui Fu Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First People’s Hospital of Yuhang District, Hangzhou, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311100, People’s Republic of ChinaCorrespondence: Shui FuDepartment of Clinical Laboratory, The First People’s Hospital of Yuhang District, Hangzhou, No. 369 Yingbin Road of Nanyuan Street, Yuhang District, Hangzhou, 311100, People’s Republic of ChinaTel +86 571 89369404Email fushuiolo@163.comObjective: This study explores the significance of serum amyloid A (SAA), C-reactive protein (CRP), and white blood cell (WBC) in the diagnosis and treatment of diarrhea in infants.Methods: Specimens were collected from 126 children with diarrhea and 66 healthy children undergoing health examination. According to the results of stool culture and rotavirus (RV) antigen, these children were divided into three groups: rotavirus group (70 cases), bacterial infection (56 cases), and control groups (66 cases). On the fourth day of admission, children in the RV group underwent stool culture again. Based on the subsequent results, they were further divided into two groups, ie, no secondary bacterial infection and secondary bacterial infection groups. The levels of RV antigen, bacterial antigen, SAA, CRP, and WBC were detected in all children. Then, ROC curve analysis was performed to determine the diagnostic efficacy of SAA, CRP and WBC.Results: The levels of SAA, CRP, and WBC for the RV group were lower than those of the bacterial infection group, but higher compared with the control group (P< 0.05). The diagnostic efficacy of SAA was higher than that of CRP and WBC, with the area under the curve of 0.876, 0.803, and 0.765, respectively. The positive and negative predictive values, specificity, and sensitivity of SAA were slightly better compared with CRP and WBC. The SAA, CRP, and WBC levels of children with a bacterial infection in the RV group on the fourth and seventh days after admission were also significantly higher compared with children without bacterial infection.Conclusion: Serum amyloid A, CRP, and WBC levels had a high value in the differential diagnosis of infantile diarrhea. As such, they can be used in the early diagnosis and curative efficacy assessment of children with diarrhea.Keywords: group A rotavirus, serum amyloid A, C-reactive protein, white blood cell, diagnostic efficacy

Aims: This study was carried out from January 2018 to March 2020 in Kolkata, eastern India to determine the prevalence rates and epidemiological patterns associated with the major viral agents of gastroenteritis among children ≤5 years of age. Molecular characterization of GARV, the predominant agent of viral gastroenteritis, was done to understand their genotype diversity. Methods and Results: 1284 of 3157 stool samples (~40%) from children (≤5 years) with acute gastroenteritis tested positive for one or more enteric viruses with positivity rates 25.11%, 8.74%, 6.62% and 6.11% for GARV, HAdV‐F, AstV and NoV respectively. Co‐infection was observed in 5.31% of cases. Associated clinical/meteorological variables like age, sex, symptoms, temperature and precipitation were assessed to find any correlation between these and enteric virus infection rates. >70% of viral gastroenteritis cases were observed in 6–24 months' age group. GARV and AstV infection occurred mostly during cooler months while HAdV‐F infection mostly occurred during warmer periods. No definite seasonality was observed for NoV infections. Clinical severity associated with GARV infection was higher compared to other enteric viruses. Genotyping of rotavirus positive samples revealed G3P[8] was the predominantly circulating GARV genotype throughout the study period. Conclusions: GARV remained the predominant viral agent of acute gastroenteritis among children though its prevalence rates in this region declined significantly compared to the previous years (2010–2016). The prevalence of other enteric viruses was below 10%. Significance and Impact of study: This study provides valuable insights regarding the current burden of viral gastroenteritis in Eastern India. The 2‐year study in children will provide the baseline data for future surveillance studies in evaluating the impact of the introduced GARV vaccine on the overall prevalence of viral gastroenteritis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Group A rotavirus (RVA) is a common causative agent of acute gastroenteritis in infants and young children worldwide. RVA P genotypes, determined by VP4 sequences, have been confirmed to infect humans and animals. However, their codon usage patterns that are essential to obtain insights into the viral evolution, host adaptability, and genetic characterization remained unclear, especially across animal hosts. Results: We performed a comprehensive codon usage analysis of eight host-specific RVA P genotypes, including human RVA (P[4] and P[8]), porcine RVA (P[13] and P[23]), and zoonotic RVA (P[1], P[6], P[7] and P[19]), based on 233 VP4 complete coding sequences. Nucleotide composition, relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU), and effective number of codons (ENC) were calculated. Principal component analysis (PCA) based on RSCU values was used to explore the codon usage patterns of different RVA P genotypes. In addition, mutation pressure and natural selection were identified by using ENC-plot, parity rule 2 plot, and neutrality plot analyses. All VP4 sequences preferred using A/U nucleotides (A: 0.354-0.377, U: 0.267-0.314) than G/C nucleotides across genotypes. Similarly, majority of commonly used synonymous codons were likely to end with A/U nucleotides (A: 9/18-12/18, U: 6/18-9/18). In PCA, human, porcine, and zoonotic genotypes clustered separately in terms of RSCU values, indicating the host-specific codon usage patterns; however, porcine and zoonotic genotypes were partly overlapped. Human genotypes, P[4] and P[8], had stronger codon usage bias, as indicated by more over-represented codons and lower ENC, compared to porcine and zoonotic genotypes. Moreover, natural selection was determined to be a predominant driver in shaping the codon usage bias across the eight P genotypes. In addition, mutation pressure contributed to the codon usage bias of human genotypes. Conclusions: Our study identified a strong codon usage bias of human RVA P genotypes attributable to both natural selection and mutation pressure, whereas similar codon usage bias between porcine and zoonotic genotypes predominantly attributable to natural selection. It further suggests possible cross-species transmission. Therefore, it warrants further surveillance of RVA P genotypes for early identification of zoonotic infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Group A rotavirus (RVA), despite being a leading cause of gastroenteritis in infants and young children, is less studied in Shanxi Province, China. The current study was conducted to determine the prevalence and genetic characterization of RVA in hospitalized children younger than 10 years of age with the diagnosis of acute gastroenteritis in Shanxi Province, China. Methods A hospital-based active surveillance of rotavirus gastroenteritis was conducted at Children’s Hospital of Shanxi from Jan 1, 2015, through Dec 31, 2019. Rotavirus was detected in stool samples by real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). G- and P-genotypes were determined by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) and nucleotide sequencing. Results A total of 961 children younger than 10 years of age was enrolled over the study period, of whom 183 (19.0%) were positive for RVA. The highest RVA-infection frequency (23.7%) was found among children aged 12–23 months, and the seasonal peak was in December. G9P[8] was most prevalent (76.0%), followed by G3P[8] (7.1%), G2P[4] (3.3%), G1P[8] (0.5%) and G9P[4] (0.5%). Conclusions These results report for the first time that RVA was one of the main causes of severe infectious gastroenteritis in children, and a high proportion of G9P[8] strains circulating in most areas of Shanxi Province. While the protective efficacy of the rotavirus vaccines has been demonstrated against G9P[8] strains, our results highlight that the dominant strains have not been effectively controlled in China.

Abstract Background Group A Rotavirus (RVA), despite being an important pathogen in hospitalized children, is less studied in pediatric outpatients, and even rarely investigated in adults. This study aims to understand the genetic diversity of RVA in outpatients across all age groups in Shanghai, and thus providing a molecular basis for vaccine implementation and evaluation. Methods Stool samples were first screened by Real-time Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (rRT-PCR). RVA genotyping was performed through the amplification of partial VP7 and VP4 gene. Strains of interest were further sequenced and analyzed using MEGA 6.0. Results Four thousand nine hundred one samples were collected, from which 7.61% (373 cases) were screened positive for RVA. RVA prevalence was higher in children (9.30%) than in adults (7.21%) (χ2 = 4.72, P

Group A rotavirus (RVA) is one of the most common causes of severe diarrhea in children worldwide. However, RVA is also an important pathogen causing adult diarrhea, with higher infection rates in older patients. To provide evidence for rotavirus epidemic control and to inform vaccine development, we analyzed the molecular epidemiology of RVA among adult outpatients with diarrhea in Beijing from 2011 to 2018. Stool specimens were collected monthly from 14 districts. RVA was detected using enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay and real‐time reverse‐transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR). Genotyping of rotavirus was performed using multiplex semi‐nested RT‐PCR. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using maximum likelihood methods implemented in MEGA software (version 6.06). Logistic regression and chi‐square tests were used to assess differences among age groups, districts, years, and genotype distributions. The prevalence of rotavirus was 10.16% (1310 of 12,893) among adult outpatients with diarrhea from 2011 to 2018 in Beijing. The highest prevalence (13.74%, 600 of 4367) was observed among those aged 41 to 65 years. November, December, and January had the highest positive detection rates. In 2011, G3P[8] and G9P[8] were the dominant genotypes. Starting from 2012, G9P[8] became the dominant genotype. Most G9 strains belonged to the G9‐VI clade. Most P[8] strains belonged to the P[8]‐III clade. RVA is a major cause of adult diarrhea in Beijing. Continuous molecular surveillance is needed, and transmission of rotavirus between children and adults should be investigated further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute gastroenteritis is a global public health concern. This study aimed to analyze the trend and characteristics of acute viral gastroenteritis through a national surveillance network. Enteric viruses were detected in 9510 of 31,750 (30.1%) cases assessed from 2013 to 2019 by EnterNet. The most prevalent pathogens were norovirus (15.2%) and group A rotavirus (9.7%); most infections were reported in 2017 (34.0%). Norovirus and rotavirus coinfections were the most common. Norovirus infections were prevalent among 1‐year‐old children (1835 out of 9510 cases) during winter, and group A rotavirus infections were common during spring. Seasonality was not observed among enteric adenovirus, astrovirus, and sapovirus. The prevalent viral genotypes detected included norovirus GII.4, enteric adenovirus F41, astrovirus genotype 1, and sapovirus GI.1. However, changes in enteric virus trends were noted during the study period. Norovirus prevalence extended into spring, and new genotypes of enteric adenovirus, astrovirus, and sapovirus were identified. These surveillance data elucidate enteric virus epidemiological characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exact evolutionary patterns of human G4P[6] rotavirus strains remain to be elucidated. Such strains possess unique and strain-specific genotype constellations, raising the question of whether G4P[6] strains are primarily transmitted via independent interspecies transmission or human-to-human transmission after interspecies transmission. Two G4P[6] rotavirus strains were identified in fecal specimens from hospitalized patients with severe diarrhea in Thailand, namely, DU2014-259 (RVA/Human-wt/THA/DU2014-259/2014/G4P[6]) and PK2015-1-0001 (RVA/Human-wt/THA/PK2015-1-0001/2015/G4P[6]). Here, we analyzed the full genomes of the two human G4P[6] strains, which provided the opportunity to study and confirm their evolutionary origin. On whole genome analysis, both strains exhibited a unique Wa-like genotype constellation of G4-P[6]-I1-R1-C1-M1-A8-N1-T1-E1-H1. The NSP1 genotype A8 is commonly found in porcine rotavirus strains. Furthermore, on phylogenetic analysis, each of the 11 genes of strains DU2014-259 and PK2015-1-0001 appeared to be of porcine origin. On the other hand, the two study strains consistently formed distinct clusters for nine of the 11 gene segments (VP4, VP6, VP1-VP3, and NSP2-NSP5), strongly indicating the occurrence of independent porcine-to-human interspecies transmission events. Our observations provide important insights into the origin of zoonotic G4P[6] strains, and into the dynamic interaction between porcine and human rotavirus strains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group A rotaviruses (RVAs) are representative enteric virus species and major causes of diarrhea in humans and animals. The RVA virion is a triple-layered particle, and the outermost layer consists of the glycoprotein VP7 and spike protein VP4. To increase the infectivity of RVA, VP4 is proteolytically cleaved into VP5* and VP8* subunits by trypsin; these subunits form a rigid spike structure on the virion surface. In this study, we investigated the growth of RVAs in cells transduced with type II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs), which cleave fusion proteins and promote infection by respiratory viruses, such as influenza viruses, paramyxoviruses, and coronaviruses. We identified TMPRSS2 and TMPRSS11D as host TTSPs that mediate trypsin-independent and multicycle infection by human and animal RVA strains. In vitro cleavage assays revealed that recombinant TMPRSS11D cleaved RVA VP4. We also found that TMPRSS2 and TMPRSS11D promote the infectious entry of immature RVA virions, but they could not activate nascent progeny virions in the late phase of infection. This observation differed from the TTSP-mediated activation process of paramyxoviruses, revealing the existence of virus species-specific activation processes in TTSPs. Our study provides new insights into the interaction between RVAs and host factors, and TTSP-transduced cells offer potential advantages for RVA research and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION : Cryptosporidium, Giardia and rotaviruses are amongst the leading causes of acute gastroenteritis in children ≤5 years worldwide. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and molecular characteristics of rotaviruses after Rotarix® introduction in Botswana.Methods: in this case study, 200 diarrheic stool specimens and 100 control samples from children under five years old were collected between March and November, 2017. Samples were analyzed by modified Ziehl Neelsen staining technique for cryptosporidium, wet mount procedure for Giardia and negative samples were confirmed by immunochromatographic assay. Specimens were analyzed for rotavirus by ELISA, PAGE, RT-PCR, sequencing of VP7 and VP4 antigen followed by phylogenetic analysis.Results: prevalence rates of 20.5%, 16.5% and 11.0% in diarrhea cases were observed for Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and rotavirus, respectively. Four percent of diarrheic specimens had multiple infections. The predominant rotavirus genotype was GIP[8] (7/15) followed by G2P[4] (2/15) and G3P[8] (1/15). Twenty percent of specimens were non-typeable. One mixed strain, G1+G2P[4,8] (2/15), was detected. Phylogenetic analysis of VP4 and VP7 sequences clustered Botswana rotavirus strains within G1 lineages 1 and 2, G3 lineage 1, P[8] lineage 3 and P[4] lineage 5 together with Southern African strains.Conclusion: this study provides important information on occurrence and demographic risk groups for Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and rotavirus in young children as well as genetic diversity of rotaviruses after vaccine introduction in Botswana. Constant monitoring of circulating rotavirus strains is essential in assessing effectiveness of current vaccines in Botswana.

Abstract Background Rotavirus is a leading cause of severe diarrheal disease, and one of the common causes of death in children aged under five years old. The dominant epidemic strains may change in different years in the same area. In order to provide evidence for rotavirus epidemic control and inform vaccine development, we analyzed epidemiological patterns and genetic characteristics of rotavirus in Beijing during 2011–2016. Methods Stool specimens of outpatient children under five years old were collected from three children’s hospitals on a weekly basis. Group A rotavirus antigens were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. The partial VP4 genes and VP7 genes of rotavirus were both amplified and sequenced. Genotyping and phylogenetic analyses were performed. Logistic regression and Chi-square tests were performed to determine differences across age groups, districts and years in rotavirus prevalence and genotype distribution. Results A total of 3668 stool specimens from children with acute diarrhea identified through hospital-based surveillance were collected from 2011 to 2016 in Beijing. A total of 762 (20.8%) specimens tested positive for rotavirus. The rotavirus-positive rate was highest among the 1–2 years old age group (29.0%, 310/1070). November, December and January were the highest rotavirus-positive rate months each year. G9 was the most common G genotype (64.4%, 461/716), and P [8] was the most common P genotype (87.0%, 623/716) among the 716 rotavirus-positive specimens. G9P [8], G3P [8] and G2P [4] were the most common strains. The rotavirus-positive rates of samples in 2012 and 2013 were higher than that in 2011, and the dominant genotype changed from G3P [8] to G9P [8] in 2012 and 2013. VP7 gene sequences of G9 strains in this study clustered into two main lineages. Most of the G9 strains exhibited the highest nucleotide similarity (99.1%~ 100.0%) to the strain found in Japan (MI1128). VP4 gene sequences of P [8] strains were almost P[8]b. Conclusions Rotavirus accounted for more than one fifth of childhood diarrhea in Beijing during the study period. Targeted measures such as immunization with effective rotavirus vaccines should be carried out to reduce the morbidity and mortality due to rotavirus.

Background: Group A rotavirus (RVA), despite being a leading cause of gastroenteritis in infants and young children, is less studied in Shanxi Province, China. The current study was conducted to determine the prevalence and genetic characterization of RVA in hospitalized children younger than 10 years of age with the diagnosis of acute gastroenteritis in Shanxi Province, China.Methods: A hospital-based active surveillance of rotavirus gastroenteritis was conducted at Children's Hospital of Shanxi from Jan 1, 2015, through Dec 31, 2019. Rotavirus was detected in stool samples by real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). G- and P-genotypes were determined by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) and nucleotide sequencing.Results: A total of 961 children younger than 10 years of age was enrolled over the study period, of whom 183 (19.0%) were positive for RVA. The highest RVA-infection frequency (23.7%) was found among children aged 12-23 months, and the seasonal peak was in December. G9P[8] was most prevalent (76.0%), followed by G3P[8] (7.1%), G2P[4] (3.3%), G1P[8] (0.5%) and G9P[4] (0.5%).Conclusions: These results report for the first time that RVA was one of the main causes of severe infectious gastroenteritis in children, and a high proportion of G9P[8] strains circulating in most areas of Shanxi Province. While the protective efficacy of the rotavirus vaccines has been demonstrated against G9P[8] strains, our results highlight that the dominant strains have not been effectively controlled in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in young (aged <5 years) children. Several studies showed that RVA is one of the main cause of nosocomial gastroenteritis in hospitalized pediatric population worldwide, with an incidence ranging from 8 to 33 cases per 100 hospitalized children. Nosocomial infections, in which AGE symptoms develop at least 2 days after admission, may severely affect children already admitted to hospital for other causes. This study aimed to define the trends of the RVA genotypes through statistical analysis of the data obtained by the rotavirus surveillance in Umbria in 10 consecutive seasons, from 2007‐2008 to 2016‐2017, with update information on hospital‐acquired RVA AGE. During RVA gastroenteritis surveillance in Umbria (Italy) in 2007 to 2017, a total of 741 RVA positive faecal samples were collected from children hospitalized with AGE, and RVA strains were genotyped following standard EuroRotaNet protocols. Of the 741 analyzed samples, 75 (10%) were reported to be hospital‐acquired. Comparing the distributions of the RVA genotypes circulating in the community or associated with nosocomial infections, we observed a different distribution of genotypes circulating inside the hospital wards, with respect to those observed in the community except in 2010 to 2011, 2011 to 2012, and 2012 to 2013 when G1P[8], G4P[8] and the novel strain G12P[8] caused a large community‐ and hospital‐acquired outbreak. Of the 741 analyzed samples, 75 (10%) were reported to be hospital‐acquired. Comparing the distributions of the RVA genotypes circulating in the community or associated with nosocomial infections, we observed a different distribution of genotypes circulating inside the hospital wards, with respect to those observed in the community except in 2010 to 2011, 2011 to 2012, and 2012 to 2013 when G1P[8], G4P[8], and the novel strain G12P[8] caused a large community‐ and hospital‐acquired outbreak. The information from this study will be useful to implement guidelines for preventing nosocomial RVA AGE, which should include an improved management of the hospitalized patients and an increase in vaccination coverage. Highlights: Better management of children admitted to pediatric units and an implementation of the immunization coverage, not only for rotavirus but also for influenza, are needed to decrease of both community‐ and hospital‐acquired RVA infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species A rotaviruses (RVAs) are a leading cause of diarrhea in children and in the young of a large variety of mammalian and avian host species. The purpose of this study was to identify RVA in nomadic goats and calves during severe diarrhea outbreaks in 2012 and 2014 in Bouaarfa, Morocco, and to characterize the complete genomic constellation of two bovine and caprine strains (S18 and S19) and their genetic relatedness with the human strain ma31 detected in 2011 in Morocco. Partial nucleotide sequencing of VP4 and VP7 genes for the twenty-two positive samples revealed three circulating genotypes: G6P[14], G10P[14], and G10P[5] with predominance of G6P[14] genotype. Full-genome sequencing for both strains S18 and S19 presented, respectively, the following genomic constellations: G6-P[14]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A3-N2-T6-E2-H3 and G10-P[14]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A11-N2-T6-E2-H3. Phylogenetic analyses and the analysis of the VP8* antigenic epitopes for S18, S19 and ma31 revealed a shared similarity with bovine, caprine, ovine and human strains from Morocco and other countries. The VP2 and NSP1 genes of the S19 strain were closely related to those of the cognate genes of the human ma31 strain, while the VP4 gene of S18 strain was closely related to the cogent gene of the ma31 strain. Our findings revealed cases of zoonotic transmission and confirmed the risk of emergence of new genotypes in some environments such as nomadic regions, where close physical proximity between human and livestock is common. The present study is novel in reporting whole-genome analyses of RVA isolates obtained from nomadic livestock in Morocco. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Cryptosporidium, Giardia and rotaviruses are amongst the leading causes of acute gastroenteritis in children ≤5 years worldwide. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and molecular characteristics of rotaviruses after Rotarix® introduction in Botswana. Methods: in this case study, 200 diarrheic stool specimens and 100 control samples from children under five years old were collected between March and November, 2017. Samples were analyzed by modified Ziehl Neelsen staining technique for cryptosporidium, wet mount procedure for Giardia and negative samples were confirmed by immunochromatographic assay. Specimens were analyzed for rotavirus by ELISA, PAGE, RT-PCR, sequencing of VP7 and VP4 antigen followed by phylogenetic analysis. Results: prevalence rates of 20.5%, 16.5% and 11.0% in diarrhea cases were observed for Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and rotavirus, respectively. Four percent of diarrheic specimens had multiple infections. The predominant rotavirus genotype was GIP[8] (7/15) followed by G2P[4] (2/15) and G3P[8] (1/15). Twenty percent of specimens were non-typeable. One mixed strain, G1+G2P[4,8] (2/15), was detected. Phylogenetic analysis of VP4 and VP7 sequences clustered Botswana rotavirus strains within G1 lineages 1 and 2, G3 lineage 1, P[8] lineage 3 and P[4] lineage 5 together with Southern African strains. Conclusion: this study provides important information on occurrence and demographic risk groups for Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia intestinalis and rotavirus in young children as well as genetic diversity of rotaviruses after vaccine introduction in Botswana. Constant monitoring of circulating rotavirus strains is essential in assessing effectiveness of current vaccines in Botswana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Group A Rotavirus (RVA), despite being an important pathogen in hospitalized children, is less studied in pediatric outpatients, and even rarely investigated in adults. This study aims to understand the genetic diversity of RVA in outpatients across all age groups in Shanghai, and thus providing a molecular basis for vaccine implementation and evaluation.Methods: Stool samples were first screened by Real-time Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (rRT-PCR). RVA genotyping was performed through the amplification of partial VP7 and VP4 gene. Strains of interest were further sequenced and analyzed using MEGA 6.0.Results: Four thousand nine hundred one samples were collected, from which 7.61% (373 cases) were screened positive for RVA. RVA prevalence was higher in children (9.30%) than in adults (7.21%) (χ2 = 4.72, P < 0.05). 9.38% RVA positive cases had taken antibiotics before hospital visit while 49.60% had been prescribed antibiotics afterwards. RVA displayed a strong seasonality in both adults and children with a shared commonality in genotype repertoire, where G9P[8] was the most prevalent strain (67.96%) followed by G3P[8] (15.49%) and G1P[8] (12.32%). Meanwhile the first local case of fecal shedding of the G10P[15] vaccine strain was also discovered.Conclusions: While the prevalence of rotavirus is highest during cold seasons, it is revealed for the first time that G9P[8] is the predominant genotype in both adults and pediatric outpatients. Clinically, higher occurrence of nausea or vomiting was observed in RVA positive cases. Antibiotic overuse was implicated in both non-clinical and clinical settings. The finding emphasizes the importance of RVA genotyping in surveillance as it provides the basis for new vaccine application as well as a baseline for future vaccine efficacy evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective To understand the change and epidemic trend of common pathogenic types in viral diarrhea in Hanzhong City from 2016 to 2019, and to provide scientific basis for prevention and control of viral diarrhea. Methods The stool samples of infectious diarrhea cases were detected by colloidal gold method and real time RT-PCR for Rotavirus antigen and Norovirus nucleic acid in group A. Results 243 of 822 samples were positive, the positive rate was 29.56%, which was 42.80%, 5.76%, 50.62% and 0.82% respectively, compared with Rotavirus, Norovirus G I, Norovirus G H and Norovirus G I/G II mixed type in group A (P<0.05); the difference of the positive rate among the age groups was statistically significant (P<0.05). The viral diarrhea caused by Rotavirus and Norovirus in group A was seasonal. Conclusion From 2016 to 2019, the incidence rate of infectious diarrhea in Hanzhong showed a decreasing trend. Viral diarrhea mainly consisted of group A Rotavirus and Norovirus G H subtype. Based on the promotion of the vaccination of oral A group Rotavirus vaccine to reduce the incidence of children under 3 years old, the daily surveillance of Norovirus was further strengthened. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to detect, quantify, and assess the risk of infection and illness for Group A Rotavirus (RVA) in the watersheds of the Santa Lucia and Uruguay rivers in Uruguay. Monthly sampling was carried out for one year in six sites in the watershed of the Santa Lucía River and four in the Uruguay River. All the collection sites are used for recreational activities. Viral concentration was performed with the adsorption–elution method, and detection and quantification of RVA was carried out by TaqMan quantitative PCR (qPCR). Quantitative microbial risk assessment was applied to estimate the daily and annual risk of RVA infection, as well as the daily risk of illness considering direct exposure through recreational activity. RVA was detected in 42% (20/48) of the analyzed samples in the Uruguay River and 40% (29/72) in the Santa Lucía River. The virus was present in all the analyzed points in both watersheds. A pattern of seasonality, characterized by a higher detection frequency of the virus during coldest month of the year, was observed in both basins. The mean concentration for RVA was 1.3 × 105 genomic copies/L. The microbiological risk assessment shows that Santa Lucía watershed presented the highest daily risk of infection (6.41E–01) and illness (3.20E–01) estimated for the point downstream of Florida City; meanwhile for Uruguay River, the highest probabilities of infection (6.82E–01) and illness (3.41E–01) were estimated for the collection site for drinking water intake in Salto city. These results suggest that RVA contamination of these important rivers negatively impact on their microbiological quality since they are used for recreation and drinking water intake, demonstrating that the disposal of waste from cities located in their riverside confers a constant threat of infection for the general population, especially for children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group A rotavirus (RVA) is an important cause of diarrhoea in people, especially children, and animals globally. Due to the segmented nature of the RVA genome, animal RVA strains have the potential to adapt to the human host through reassortment with other co‐infecting human viruses. Macaques share food and habitat with people, resulting in close interaction between these two species. This study aimed to detect and characterize RVA in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Bangladesh. Faecal samples (N = 454) were collected from apparently healthy rhesus macaques from nine different sites in Bangladesh between February and March 2013. The samples were tested by one‐step, real‐time, reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Four percent of samples (n = 20; 95% CI 2.7%–6.7%) were positive for RVA. RVA positive samples were further characterized by nucleotide sequence analysis of two structural protein gene fragments, VP4 (P genotype) and VP7 (G genotype). G3, G10, P[3] and P[15] genotypes were identified and were associated as G3P[3], G3P[15] and G10P[15]. The phylogenetic relationship between macaque RVA strains from this study and previously reported human strains indicates possible transmission between humans and macaques in Bangladesh. To our knowledge, this is the first report of detection and characterization of rotaviruses in rhesus macaques in Bangladesh. These data will not only aid in identifying viral sharing between macaques, human and other animals, but will also improve the development of mitigation measures for the prevention of future rotavirus outbreaks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are associated with acute gastroenteritis in children and in young domestic and wild animals. A RVA strain was detected from a roe deer for the first time during a survey of game animals in Slovenia in 2014. A further RVA strain (SLO/D110–15) was detected from a roe deer during 2015. The aim of this study was to provide a full genetic profile of the detected RVA strain from roe deer and to obtain additional information about zoonotic transmitted strains and potential reassortments between human rotavirus strains and zoonotic transmitted rotavirus strains. The next generation sequencing (NGS) analysis on Ion Torrent was performed and the whole genome sequence has been determined together with a phylogenetic analysis. Results The whole genome sequence of SLO/D110–15 was obtained by NGS analyses on an IonTorrent platform. According to the genetic profile, the strain SLO/D110–15 clusters with the DS-1-like group and expresses the G8-P[14]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A3-N2-T6-E2-H3 genome constellation. Phylogenetic analysis shows that this roe deer G8P[14] strain is most closely related to RVA strains found in sheep, cattle and humans. A human RVA strain with the same genotype profile was detected in 2009 in Slovenia. Conclusions The G8P[14] genotype has been found, for the first time, in deer, a newly described host from the order Artiodactyla for this RVA genotype. The finding of a rotavirus with the same genome segment constellation in humans indicates the possible zoonotic potential of this virus strain.

In 2011, a group A rotavirus was isolated from the brain of a fox with encephalitis and neurologic signs, detected by rabies surveillance in Italy. Intracerebral inoculation of fox brain homogenates into mice was fatal. Genome sequencing revealed a heterologous rotavirus of avian origin, which could provide a model for investigating rotavirus neurovirulence.

BACKGROUND: Rotavirus Group A is one of the most important causes of gastroenteritis as it is isolated from 30 to 50% of infant diarrhea from humans and other animals. G genotype of the virus is determined by gene sequence of a surface protein of the virus (VP7), one of the most important factors in inducing immunity against the virus which acts very specific to each genotype. OBJECTIVES: In the present study the presence of common bovine rotavirus genotypes A was examined in human rotavirus population. METHODS: A total of 100 stool samples from children under 2 years of age in Tehran and Varamin were collected and to track the presence of rotavirus A, were evaluated using ELISA method. Positive samples were isolated and cultured on the MA-104 cell line after several passages. The positive samples (49 samples) were determined to be the G type using semi-nested RT-PCR and primers specific for bovine common genotype. RESULTS: From 100 samples, 49 were positive in ELISA. Eight samples in the first semi nested RT-PCR showed the desired rotavirus bands and in the second round, the results were positive for the presence of bovine VP7 in two samples taken from Varamin, in one sample, G6, and in another sample, two genotypes of VP7, G6 and G8 were detected, indicating infection with at least two strains of human rotavirus reassortant. Six of the ELISA selected positive samples that were taken to the cell line MA104, showed effects of cell damage (CPE) after 4-5 consecutive passages, demonstrating proliferation of the rotaviruses of this study and so, their viability was confirmed. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate reassortment between bovine and human rotaviruses and show that in case of occurrence of bovine and human rotavirus infection and the emergence of new human type, due to reassortment strain differences in protein immunogen it is possible to overcome due to lack of maternal immunity in the human population and low efficiency of current vaccines and, ultimately, epidemic and considerable losses may occur. Hence, more research is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group A rotaviruses (RVAs) are important gastroenteric pathogens that infect humans and animals. This study aimed to analyze the complete genome sequence, i.e., 11 genome segments of the lapine rotavirus (LRV) identified in the intestine of a dead rabbit in the Republic of Korea (ROK) and to describe the genetic relationships between this lapine isolate [RVA/Rabbit-wt/KOR/Rab1404/2014/G3P[22] (Rab1404)] and other lapine isolates/strains. Rab1404 possessed the following genotype constellation: G3-P[22]-I2-R3-C3-M3-A9-N2-T3-E3-H3. The P[22] genotype was found to originate from rabbits and was for the first time identified in the ROK. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Rab1404 possessed VP1-3 and VP7 genes, which were closely related to those of the bat strain LZHP2; NSP1-4 genes, which were closely related to those of the simian strain RRV; and VP4, VP6, and NSP5 genes, which were closely related to the genes obtained from other rabbits. Interestingly, a close relationship between Rab1404 and simian RVA strain RVA/Simian-tc/USA/RRV/1975/G3P[3] for 8 gene segments was observed. RRV is believed to be a reassortant between bovine-like RVA strain and canine/feline RVA strains. Rab1404 and canine/feline RVAs shared the genes encoding VP1, VP3, VP7, NSP3, and NSP4. Additionally, the genome segments VP6 (I2), NSP1 (N2), and NSP5 (H3) of Rab1404 were closely related to those of bovine RVAs. This is the first report describing the complete genome sequence of an LRV detected in the ROK. These results indicate that Rab1404 could be a result of interspecies transmission, possibly through multiple reassortment events in the strains of various animal species and the subsequent transmission of the virus to a rabbit. Additional studies are required to determine the evolutionary source and to identify possible reservoirs of RVAs in nature. • This is the first report to describe the complete genome sequence of a rabbit rotavirus (Rab1404) detected in the ROK. • The 11 genome segments of Rab1404 were determined; G3-P[22]-I2-R3-C3-M3-A9-N2-T3-E3-H3. • G3P[22] identified in this study is found to originate from rabbit and may have more species specificity. • Rab1404 could be a result of multiple reassortment events from strains originating from various animal species and transmitted to the rabbit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inter-genogroup reassortant group A rotavirus (RVA) strains possessing a G3 VP7 gene of putative equine origin (EQL-G3) have been detected in humans since 2013. Here we report detection of EQL-G3P[8] RVA strains from the Dominican Republic collected in 2014–16. Whole-gene analysis of RVA in stool specimens revealed 16 EQL-G3P[8] strains, 3 of which appear to have acquired an N1 NSP1 gene from locally-circulating G9P[8] strains and a novel G2P[8] reassortant possessing 7 EQL-G3-associated genes and 3 genes from a locally-circulating G2P[4] strain. Phylogenetic/genetic analyses of VP7 gene sequences revealed nine G3 lineages (I–IX) with newly-assigned lineage IX encompassing all reported human EQL-G3 strains along with the ancestral equine strain. VP1 and NSP2 gene phylogenies suggest that EQL-G3P[8] strains were introduced into the Dominican Republic from Thailand. The emergence of EQL-G3P[8] strains in the Dominican Republic and their reassortment with locally-circulating RVA could have implications for current vaccination strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An unusual group A rotavirus (RVA) strain MAR/ma31/2011/G8P[14] was detected for the first time in Morocco in a stool sample from hospitalized child aged 18 months suffering from acute gastroenteritis and fever in 2011. Complete genome sequencing of the ma31 strain was done using the capillary sequencing technology. The analysis revealed the G8-P[14]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A11-N2-T6-E2-H3 constellation and the backbone genes: I2-R2-C2-M2-A11-N2-T6-E2-H3 are commonly found in RVA strains from artiodactyls such as cattle. The constellation was shared with another Italian zoonotic G8P[14] strains (BA01 and BA02), two Hungarian human strains (182-02 and BP1062) and a sheep RVA strain OVR762. Phylogenetic analysis of each genome segment of ma31 revealed a mixed gene configuration originated from animals and human. Comparison of the antigenic regions of VP7 and VP4 amino acid sequences between ma31 strain and selected animal and human strains bearing G8 and or P[14], showed a high level of conservation, while many substitutions was observed in comparison with RotaTeq™ and Rotarix™ vaccine strains. In contrast, alignment analysis of the four antigenic sites of VP6 revealed a high degree of conservation. These findings reveal a typical zoonotic origin of the strain and confirm a high potential for RVA zoonotic transmission between bovine and humans, allowing the generation of novel rotavirus genotypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) remains a global public health concern and Nigeria is one of the two countries accounting for 42% of global under‐5 deaths attributable to gastroenteritis. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, seasonality, and risk factors of enteric viruses (EVs) in children with AGE in Ogun State, Nigeria. Stool samples collected from children under‐5 from three different hospitals between February 2015 and April 2017 were analyzed using molecular methods for the presence of four EVs (group A rotavirus [RVA], norovirus [NoV], human astrovirus [HAstV], and human adenovirus [HAdV]). Among the 175 samples analyzed, 63 (36%) were positive for at least one EV. The most prevalent was HAstV (19.4%), followed by RVA (16.6%), NoV (5.1%), and HAdV (5.1%). Mixed infections were found in 17 cases. No significant association was observed with age, sex, and risk factors. Though not significant, EV prevalence was higher in the dry season. Positive cases (asides HAdV) had no correlation with temperature and/or humidity. This study provides information on the prevalence and seasonal fluctuations of EVs, which will be of value in the effective management of patients and control strategies for viral gastroenteritis in the country. Highlights: ●Enteric viruses (EV) were found in 36% of samples from hospitalized children with diarrhea●The most prevalent virus was HAstV (19.4%), followed by RVA (16.6%), NoV (5.1%), and HAdV (5.1%)●Though not significant, EV prevalence was higher in the dry season●Positive cases (asides HAdV) had no correlation with temperature and/or humidity [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract A monovalent rotavirus vaccine (RV1) was introduced to the national immunization program in Kenya in July 2014. There was increased detection of uncommon G3P[6] strains that coincided temporally with the timing of this vaccine introduction. Here, we sequenced and characterized the full genomes of two post-vaccine G3P[6] strains, RVA/Human-wt/KEN/KDH1951/2014/G3P[6] and RVA/Human-wt/KEN/KDH1968/2014/G3P[6], as representatives of these uncommon strains. On full-genomic analysis, both strains exhibited a DS-1-like genotype constellation: G3-P[6]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A2-N2-T2-E2-H2. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all 11 genes of strains KDH1951 and KDH1968 were very closely related to those of human G3P[6] strains isolated in Uganda in 2012–2013, indicating the derivation of these G3P[6] strains from a common ancestor. Because the uncommon G3P[6] strains that emerged in Kenya are fully heterotypic as to the introduced vaccine strain regarding the genotype constellation, vaccine effectiveness against these G3P[6] strains needs to be closely monitored. Highlights • Characterization of uncommon human G3P[6] strains isolated in Kenya. • G3P[6] strains emerged in Kenya in 2014, just after the RV1 vaccine introduction. • Post-vaccine G3P[6] strains exhibited a DS-1-like genotype constellation. • Kenyan G3P[6] strains are fully heterotypic to the introduced RV1 vaccine strain. • Vaccine effectiveness against these G3P[6] strains needs to be closely monitored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]) is a rare combination of human rotavirus VP7/VP4 genotypes with a complex evolutionary pattern but limited related studies. Detailed genomic characterisation and genetic evolutionary analyses of G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]) rotaviruses have helped to enhance our understanding of rotavirus diversity. For the first time, we detected two human G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]) Rotavirus A (RVA) strains, RVA/Human-tc/CHN/2020999/2020/G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]) and RVA/Human-wt/CHN/23582009/2023/G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]), in diarrhoea patients from the Ningxia region of China, and carried out a whole-genome analysis of these strains. 2,020,999 and 23,582,009 have identical gene constellations: G3-P[9]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A3-N2-T3-E3-H3, and this genotypic constellation was reported first time in China. They are closely related in 11 genome segments. The genotypes of these two strains are different from the human RVA strains L621 and E2451, which are only G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]) strains reported so far in China, but are identical to those of the Thai feline strain Meesuk and the Korean human strain CAU12–2-51.Phylogenetic analysis showed that the VP6, VP1-VP3, and NSP2 genes of the two strains in this study clustered with human/bovine and feline/bovine rotavirus strains to form a sublineage distinct from the common DS-1-like G2 human rotavirus. In contrast, the VP7, VP4, NSP1, and NSP3-NSP5 gene segments were closely associated with human/feline rotavirus and feline rotavirus strains. These findings suggest that the evolutionary origin of the G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]) human rotavirus found in Ningxia, China, is consistent with the Meesuk and CAU12–2-51 strains， may have arisen through reassortment between uncommon human/bovine， feline/bovine rotavirus strains and human/feline， feline rotaviruses. However, VP1-VP2 gene segments did not have the same lineage as strains Meesuk and CAU12–2-51, suggesting that these genes might be derived from additional reassortment event. • Our study reports for the first time the genomic analysis of human infection with group A rotavirus G3P (Matthijnssens et al., 2008b [9]) in Ningxia, China. • Our study reported the Chinese rotavirus G3-P[9]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A3-N2-T3-E3-H3 genotype cluster for the first time. • Two strains have the same genogroup as the present strain, some of their genome segments don't belong to the same lineage. • The two G3P[9] strains we reported from Ningxia, China, had very high nucleotide identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are one of the major cause of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) in young children, being responsible for up to 250.000 deaths worldwide, mostly in developing countries. The two outer capsid proteins VP7 (glycoprotein, G-genotype) and VP4 (protease-sensitive protein, P-genotype) are the basis for the binary RVA nomenclature. Although at least 36 G-types and 51 P-types of rotavirus are presently known, most RVA infections in humans, worldwide as well as in Italy, are related to six major G/P combinations: G1P[8], G2P[4], G3P[8], G4P[8], G9P[8] and G12P[8]. In November 2016, in the framework of the Italian 2016/17 rotavirus surveillance season, a total of 22 rotavirus-positive samples from hospitalized children presenting AGE symptoms were collected in a small area of Central Italy (Ancona, Marche). After genotyping, 3 samples presented the G9P[4] genotype. In order to better understand the origin of these uncommon RVA strains causing dehydrating diarrhea in three children, the strains RVA/Human-wt/ITA/AN18/2016/G9P[4], RVA/Human-wt/ITA/AN19/2016/G9P[4] and RVA/Human-wt/ITA/AN22/2016/G9P[4] were subjected to nucleotide sequencing of all the 11 gene segments to define their genomic constellation. Nucleotide sequencing revealed that the genomic constellation of the three strains was G9-P[4]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A2-N2-T2-E2-H2, highlighting human origin for all the gene segments investigated. The molecular characterization of RVAs and the continue monitoring of their circulation is needed to better define the epidemiology of these pathogen and to detect the emergence of viral variants presenting a high spreading potential in humans in the post-vaccination era. Highlights • Among over 700 RVA positive fecal samples, 3/22 (13.6%) from a small area of Central Italy were G9P[4]. • The G9-P[4]-I2-R2-C2-M2-A2-N2-T2-E2-H2 genomic constellation was determined. • All the genomic segments were of human origin, belonging to the DS-1-like constellation. • The Italian G9P[4] strains where similar to those detected previously as predominant in South-East Asia and Central America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence and rapid spread of novel DS‐1‐like intergenogroup reassortant rotaviruses having the equine‐like G3 genotype (DS‐1‐like G3P[8] strains) have been recently reported from several countries. During rotavirus surveillance in Japan in 2015–2016, three DS‐1‐like G3P[8] strains were identified from children with severe diarrhea. In the present study, we sequenced and characterized the full genomes of these three strains. On full‐genomic analysis, all three strains showed a unique genotype constellation including both genogroup 1 and 2 genes: G3‐P[8]‐I2‐R2‐C2‐M2‐A2‐N2‐T2‐E2‐H2. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that each of the 11 genes of the three strains was closely related to that of Japanese DS‐1‐like G1P[8] and/or Japanese equine‐like G3P[4] human strains. Thus, the three study strains were suggested to be reassortants that acquired the G3‐VP7 gene from equine G3 rotaviruses on the genetic background of DS‐1‐like G1P[8] strains. Our observations will provide important insights into the evolutionary dynamics of emerging DS‐1‐like G3P[8] strains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was undertaken on VP6 gene based detection of Rotavirus in faeces of diarrheic bovine, porcine, caprine, ovine, canine species of animals and human. A total of 44faecal samples from bovine calves, piglets, kids, lambs, pups and human infants (0-1 yr of age) were screened for the detection of group A Rotavirus by VP6 gene based RT-PCR assay. Out of 44 samples total of 43 (97.72%) samples were found positive for Rotavirus. Samples from all other species were found cent percent positive for group A Rotavirus except for the human infants where 17 out of 18 samples were found positive. VP6 gene base RT-PCR study confirmed the prevalence of group A Rotavirus in animals and human species. RT-PCR assay can be used as a sensitive and specific assay for the rapid detection of group A Rotavirus in faecal samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human rotavirus strains having the unconventional G3P[6] genotype have been sporadically detected in diarrheic patients in different parts of the world. However, the full genomes of only three human G3P[6] strains from Asian countries (China, Indonesia, and Vietnam) have been sequenced and characterized, and thus the exact origin and evolution of G3P[6] strains in Asia remain to be elucidated. Here, we sequenced and characterized the full genome of a G3P[6] strain (RVA/Human-wt/JPN/SO1199/2020/G3P[6]) found in a stool sample from a 3-month-old infant admitted with acute gastroenteritis in Japan. On full genomic analysis, strain SO1199 was revealed to have a unique Wa-like genogroup configuration: G3-P[6]-I5-R1-C1-M1-A8-N1-T1-E1-H1. VP6 genotype I5 and NSP1 genotype A8 are commonly found in porcine rotavirus strains. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that all 11 genes of strain SO1199 were closely related to those of porcine and/or porcine-like human rotaviruses and thus appeared to be of porcine origin. Thus, strain SO1199 was shown to possess a porcine-like genomic backbone and thus is likely to be the result of interspecies transmission of a porcine rotavirus strain. Of note is that all 11 genes of strain SO1199 were phylogenetically located in clusters, distinct from those of the previously identified porcine-like human G3P[6] strains from around the world including Asia, suggesting the occurrence of independent porcine-to-human zoonotic transmission events. To our knowledge, this is the first report on full genome-based characterization of a human G3P[6] strain that has emerged in Japan. Our findings revealed the diversity of unconventional human G3P[6] strains in Asia, and provide important insights into the origin and evolution of G3P[6] strains. • Characterization of an unconventional human G3P[6] strain detected in Japan. • This is the first Japanese G3P[6] strain whose full genome has been characterized. • All 11 genes of the G3P[6] strain appeared to be of porcine origin. • Evidence for porcine-to-human interspecies transmission of rotaviruses. • There is diversity of zoonotic G3P[6] strains in Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are the primary pathogens of acute gastroenteritis. Currently, two live attenuated RVA vaccines, LLR and RotaTeq, have been introduced into mainland China but are not included in the national immunization program. Because of the unknown genetic evolution of group A rotavirus in an all-age population in Ningxia, China, we monitored the epidemiological characteristics and circulating genotypes of RVA as a reference for developing vaccine strategies. We conducted seven years of consecutive surveillance of RVA based on stool samples from patients with acute gastroenteritis in sentinel hospitals in Ningxia, China, from 2015 to 2021. Reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction(RT-qPCR) was used to detect RVA in stool samples. Genotyping and phylogenetic analysis of VP7, VP4 and NSP4 genes were performed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction(RT-PCR) and nucleotide sequence determination. RVA was detected in 16.58% (1436/8662) of 8662 stool samples. The positive rates were 7.17% (201/2805) and 21.09% (1235/5857) in adults and children, respectively. The most affected age group was infants and children aged 12–23 months, with a positive rate of 29.53% (p < 0.05). A significant winter/spring seasonality was observed. 23.29% positive rate in 2020 was the highest in 7 years (p < 0.05). The region with the highest positive rate in the adult group was Yinchuan, and the children's group was Guyuan. A total of 9 genotype combinations were found to be distributed in Ningxia. The dominant genotype combinations in this region gradually changed from G9P[8]-E1, G3P[8]-E1, G1P[8]-E1 to G9P[8]-E1, G9P[8]-E2, and G3P[8]-E2 during these seven years. Rare strains (e.g., G9P[4]-E1, G3P[9]-E3 and G1P[8]-E2) were occasionally detected during the study. During the study period, changes in the significant RVA circulating genotype combinations and the emergence of reassortment strains were observed, particularly the emergence and prevalence of G9P[8]-E2, G3P[8]-E2 reassortants in the region. These results indicate the importance of continuous monitoring of the molecular evolution and recombination characteristics of RVA, and should not be limited to G/P genotyping but should consider multi-gene fragment co-analysis and whole genome sequencing. • Variation of major genotypes of group A rotavirus in Ningxia, China • Emergence and prevalence of G9P[8]-E2 and G3P[8]-E2 recombinant genotypes in Ningxia, China • Rare genotypes were detected incidentally during the study • In 2020, Group A rotavirus had the highest rate of positivity, with no reduction due to the impact of Covid-19. • Genotype diversity was less in the adult group than in the child group, but the proportion of major genotypes was similar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are responsible for causing infantile diarrhea both in humans and animals. The molecular characteristics of lapine RVA strains are only studied to a limited extent and so far G3P[14] and G3P[22] were found to be the most common G/P-genotypes. During the 2012-2013 rotavirus season in Belgium, a G3P[14] RVA strain was isolated from stool collected from a two-year-old boy. We investigated whether RVA/Human-wt/BEL/BE5028/2012/G3P[14] is completely of lapine origin or the result of reassortment event(s). Phylogenetic analyses of all gene segments revealed the following genotype constellation: G3-P[14]-I2-R2-C2-M3-A9-N2-T6-E5-H3 and indicated that BE5028 probably represents a rabbit to human interspecies transmission able to cause disease in a human child. Interestingly, BE5028 showed a close evolutionary relationship to RVA/Human-wt/BEL/B4106/2000/G3P[14], another lapine-like strain isolated in a Belgian child in 2000. The phylogenetic analysis of the NSP3 segment suggests the introduction of a bovine(-like) NSP3 into the lapine RVA population in the past 12 years. Sequence analysis of NSP5 revealed a head-to-tail partial duplication, combined with two short insertions and a deletion, indicative of the continuous circulation of this RVA lineage within the rabbit population.