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Reptiles have among the highest extinction risk across terrestrial vertebrates, with habitat fragmentation, habitat destruction, and invasive alien species being the primary causes of reptile species loss on a global scale. Invasive hybridization (i.e. hybridization between native and invasive alien species) is increasing globally, causing the extinction of native genotypes, and this phenomenon is particularly pervasive in Caribbean iguanas. The Lesser Antillean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima), a keystone species of Caribbean coastal ecosystems, has become critically endangered mainly due to ongoing hybridization with the invasive Common Green Iguana (I. iguana). For impactful conservation intervention, the need for early detection of invasive animals and their progeny, or detection of surviving pure native animals, is urgent. We aimed to develop a novel environmental DNA (eDNA) toolkit using Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) technology, a method of allele-specific amplification for cost-effective and efficient sampling of terrestrial substrates to aid in mapping the distribution of native I. delicatissima, invasive I. iguana, and signal potential invasive hybridization. We demonstrate proof-of-concept and successfully identified I. delicatissima, I. iguana, and their hybrids via blood samples using our primer sets, as well as successful detection of I. delicatissima in several ex-situ (Rotterdam Zoo) and in-situ (St. Eustatius) eDNA samples, collected with environmental swabs and tape-lifting. We found that sampling potential perching spots yielded the highest number of positive detections via environmental swabbing and tape-lifting. Our toolkit demonstrates the potential of terrestrial eDNA sampling for iguana conservation, enabling faster detection of putative invasive hybridization. Additionally, the method holds promise for other terrestrial cryptic species, contributing to broader collection of population-level information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive alien species severely impact native and endemic species, disproportionately affecting insular species like Caribbean reptiles. The Lesser Antillean iguana, Iguana delicatissima, is rapidly declining due to hybridization with non-native green iguanas (NNGIs). With numerous NNGI populations present in the region, the last I. delicatisisma-inhabited islands remain highly susceptible to invasion, whereupon the rapid in situ differentiation of NNGIs is essential. However, currently only few scale and coloration characters allow the in situ identification of NNGIs. Here, we assessed the differentiating power of an additional 20 meristic and length-dependent characteristics between the I. delicatissima population on St. Eustatius and the NNGI population on St. Maarten, the main source of NNGIs arriving on St. Eustatius. Of these, 13 significantly differed between I. delicatissima and NNGIs, with a ≥94% assignment accuracy in multi-variate predictive models. We recommend that these characteristics be assessed and validated, especially for hybrid individuals, allowing the identification of NNGIs even in populations where hybridization is ongoing. Our work demonstrates the value of investing in baseline morphometric datasets for I. delicatissima and other native iguanas to aid in the rapid in situ detection of NNGIs for removal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 9-yr-old, 6.5-kg male green iguana (Iguana iguana) presented with immobility and inflammation of the left pelvic limb with progression over 1 wk. Dorsoventral radiograph of the hip showed a left coxofemoral joint luxation in craniodorsal direction. Nonsurgical reduction maneuvers for a closed reduction of the coxofemoral joint luxation were performed under moderate sedation, using delicate movements of dorsal limb retraction at 20–30° to the body. The left thumb of the left-handed handler was placed on the femoral head, applying gentle pressure caudally. The leg was flexed so that the femur and the tibia formed a 90-degree angle with respect to the lateral aspect of the body, and the plantar surface of the foot was attached to the lateral aspect of the tail using a figure-of-eight modified bandage. The patient left the bandage intact for 21 days without any adverse effects. Two months after the bandage was removed normal movement was regained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The caging system becomes one of the most crucial points in the green iguana (Iguana iguana) husbandry practice since some pathogens are transmitted through ingesting contaminated feed or water in the cage. One of the most common health problems in the green iguana is caused by infection of the gastrointestinal nematode (GIN), Oxyuris spp. Here, we conducted a study to identify Oxyuris spp. infection in the green iguana under different cage types in Malang Raya, East Java. A total of 40 fecal samples were collected and examined through flotation and modified McMaster techniques from three cage types, namely loose cage / extensive (n= 7), terrarium (n= 13), and iron-based cage (n= 20). The results showed that all green iguanas are infected with Oxyuris spp. (40/40 or 100 % prevalence). The highest mean egg per gram (EPG) was found in the green iguana which kept in a loose cage / extensive (mean EPG [CI 95 %] = 14 799.21 [14 442.05 - 15 156.37]), followed by terrarium (mean EPG [CI 95 %] = 8 763.80 [8 436.30 - 9 091.30]), and iron-based cage (mean EPG [CI 95 %] = 1 433.42 [1 303.79 - 1 563.05], respectively. At the same time, there is a significant relationship (P<0,05) between the type of cage and the infection rate of Oxyuris spp. According to this result, we recommend an iron-based cage with routine daily cleaning as prevention for Oxyuris spp. infection among the green iguana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infection of Oxyuris spp., a gastrointestinal nematode, has been reported in reptiles around the world, including in the green iguana (Iguana iguana). In most cases, parasite control in reptiles relies on anthelmintics administration. Fenbendazole has been used as the drug of choice for parasite control in reptiles. However, the data of fenbendazole administration for Oxyuris spp. infection on green iguana (Iguana iguana) in Indonesia was absent. We evaluated the effect of fenbendazole administration (dose: 25 mg/kg body weight [BW] for five consecutive days per oral) for natural infection of Oxyuris spp. among thirty-three green iguanas in Malang Raya (Malang District, Malang City, and Batu City). The fecal examination was made through a modified Mc Master technique on the day-0, 7, 14, 21, and 31 post-treatment. The data on management (such as caging, feeding, and health program) conducted by the owners were recorded as well. The result showed that reduction of a hundred percent (100%) of egg per gram (epg) on day-31 post-treatment in all sampled animals. Iguanas were placed in individual and communal cages with daily cleaning and feeding. However, none of the owners arranged health programs such as anthelmintic treatment for their companion reptiles. This study can be used as a recommendation for future control of Oxyuris spp. in green iguanas in Indonesia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Invasive alien species are among the main drivers of the ongoing sixth mass extinction wave, especially affecting island populations. Although the Caribbean is well‐known for its high species richness and endemism, also for reptiles, equally important is the regional contribution of non‐native species to island biodiversity. The Lesser Antilles encompass high genetic diversity in Iguana, though most native populations either have gone extinct or are declining following competitive hybridization with invasive non‐native green iguanas. Here, we assessed non‐native presence in two poorly‐studied native melanistic Iguana iguana populations using available genetic tools and explored utilizing size‐dependent body measurements to discriminate between native and non‐native iguanas. Genetic samples from Saba and Montserrat were genotyped across 17 microsatellite loci with STRUCTURE, and multivariate analyses indicating non‐native iguana presence only on Saba. This was corroborated by mtDNA and nDNA sequences, highlighting a non‐native origin in Central America and the ABC islands. We identified preliminary evidence suggestive of hybridization. Morphological variation among size‐dependent characteristics showed that non‐native iguanas have significantly larger subtympanic plates than native iguanas. Non‐native individuals also differed in scalation and coloration patterns. Overall, our findings demonstrate the need for continuous monitoring of non‐native iguanas within remaining native Iguana populations in the Lesser Antilles, as those not directly threatened by non‐native green iguanas are restricted to only 8.7% of the historic range. Although genetic data allow for the identification of non‐native or hybrid iguana presence, this field‐to‐lab workflow is time‐consuming. Rapid in‐situ identification of non‐native individuals is crucial for conservation management. In addition to patterns of scalation and coloration, we have highlighted the utility of size‐dependent variables for rapid diagnosis. We urge regional partners to build morphometric databases for native Iguana populations allowing the quick detection of future incursions of non‐native green iguanas and the rapid implementation of effective countermeasures during the early phase of invasion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study aimed to redescribe two species of Ozolaimus, parasites of free-living green iguanas native to Marajó Island. The gastrointestinal system of four iguana specimens was evaluated for the presence of helminths. Altogether, 12,028 nematodes were found, with a prevalence of 100%, an infection range of 780 to 7,736 nematodes, an infection intensity of 3.007, and a mean abundance of 3,007. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to determine the species of nematodes found. The cecum was the site of infection that had the highest parasitic load. Morphologically, the nematodes were compatible with the genus Ozolaimus Dujardin, 1844, with the species Ozolaimus megatyphlon (Rudolphi, 1819) Dujardin, 1845, and Ozolaimus cirratus Linstow, 1906. Scanning electron microscopy showed the presence of small structures (serrated in Ozolaimus cirratus and rounded in Ozolaimus megatyphlon) located below the esophageal leaves. We also evidenced the phasmids in both species; this is the first record of these structures in nematodes of the genus Ozolaimus. In addition, this work expands the records on the geographic distribution of these parasites.

A 1-year-old Green iguana (Iguana iguana) was brought to the clinic with a complaint of a slowly growing mass on the left mandible and symptoms of weakness and loss of appetite for several weeks. The clinical examination noted that the mass was quite firm, invasive to the region, and had a necrotic appearance. It was removed by surgical operation and sent to the laboratory for investigation. In the microbiological evaluation, Citrobacter freundii was isolated and identified very intensely. According to the laboratory results, enrofloxacin was chosen as the broad-spectrum antibiotic and used for 1 week. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A single 30 mg/kg dose of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMS) was administered orally (n = 17) and intravenously (n = 13) in a crossover study design, with a 10 day washout period, to determine drug pharmacokinetics in healthy adult green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Blood samples were collected at 0 (pretreatment), 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 h after PO and IV drug administration, including a 6 h sample for the IV protocol. Plasma drug concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, and oral bioavailability of trimethoprim (>100%) and sulfamethoxazole (69.4%) were then established. Pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated using a two-stage, noncompartmental analysis of naïve-averaged data. Following the crossover study, a multidose drug trial was performed to determine steady-state nädir plasma drug concentrations. Green iguanas (n=10) were given 30 mg/kg TMS PO once daily for 7 days, with blood collected from each animal on the eighth day, 24 h after the final dose of TMS. Based on once daily oral dosing for 7 days, steady-state nädir drug concentrations of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole were 396 ± 116 and 5,290 ± 5,130 µg/l, which are below the minimum inhibitory concentrations breakpoints of TMS (≤2 µg per ml/38 µg per ml for susceptible organisms and ≥4 µg per ml/76 µg per ml for resistant organisms) for human isolates, per the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. However, the ratio of trimethoprim:sulfamethoxazole remained greater than 1:40 up to 12 h after single oral dose exposure and at the 24 h sampling after multiple dosing at steady-state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Captive reptiles often present with clinical signs suggestive of a clotting disorder or severe illness that can induce or exacerbate a coagulopathy. However, coagulopathies in reptiles are difficult to characterize due to lack of species‐appropriate reagents to perform coagulation tests. The objective of this study was to develop screening tests to evaluate the extrinsic and common pathways of coagulation in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Key Findings: Reptile and avian thromboplastin, extracted from reptile and avian brains, respectively, were used to initiate coagulation in prothrombin time (PT) assays and commercially available reagents were used to determine Russell's viper venom time, thrombin time, and fibrinogen using the Clauss method. Coagulation assays were performed on citrate‐anticoagulated plasma from 18 healthy green iguanas. Results were summarized as median (minimum–maximum): PT (reptile thromboplastin), 34.8 seconds (27.1–42.1 s), PT (avian thromboplastin), 78.5 seconds (51.6–114.23 s), Russell's viper venom time, 56.15 seconds (18.4–79.7 s), thrombin time, 10 seconds (7.0–36.5 s), and fibrinogen, 258 mg/dl (89–563.0) (2.58 [0.89–5.63 g/L]). Significance: Commercial reagents can be used to evaluate the common pathway and fibrinogen; however, avian‐ or reptile‐sourced thromboplastin is preferred for a reliable coagulation trigger to perform the PT assay and evaluate the extrinsic pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infections with various bacteria, especially gram-negative aerobes, are a well-recognized problem in captive cold-blooded animals with immunocompromised health status, or in those kept under poor conditions. Pseudomonas is one of the most represented genera. Here, we present a case of fatal disseminated infection caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a captive green iguana kept at the “Pionirska dolina” Zoo in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. At necropsy, severe stomatitis, pneumonia, hepatitis and nephritis, accompanied with focally extensive dermatitis were observed. Histopathology revealed multifocal necrosis in various visceral organs. Culture and subsequent MALDI-TOF MS analysis were conducted to identify the isolate as P. aeruginosa. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed a wide susceptibility of the isolate, however applied therapy was instilled too late in the presented case. This case demonstrates the significance of timely and accurate identification, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing of bacterial isolates implicated in the pathology of captive reptiles. The importance of monitoring the adequate environmental conditions (enclosure temperature, humidity and conformation), health status and possible clinical signs of illness are highlighted.

Nannizziopsis guarroi is a highly pathogenic fungal organism affecting various lizard species which often manifests as cutaneous disease. Pulmonary involvement with Nannizziopsis infections has rarely been reported in reptiles. An 8-year-old, female green iguana was presented for clinical evaluation following a chronic history of upper and lower respiratory tract signs and fistula formation in the right maxilla communicating with the oral cavity. Pulmonary infiltrates were noted on serial computed tomography scans and repeated baseline bloodwork was unremarkable. Based on a poor response to chronic antibiotic therapy, rigid pulmonoscopy was elected. The lung parenchyma contained multifocal clusters of yellow-brown ovoid masses. Biopsy of the lesions revealed granulomas with intralesional fungal hyphae. Fungal culture had no growth but panfungal PCR identified the organism Nannizziopsis guarroi. The iguana failed to completely recover postprocedure and died despite further supportive care. Computed tomography helped determine the extent of pulmonary pathology but pulmonoscopy, lung biopsy and molecular diagnostic methods were ultimately required to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Nannizziopsis fungal pneumonia should be considered a differential diagnosis in squamates with respiratory clinical signs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seventeen healthy sub-adult green iguanas (Iguana iguana) naturally infected with oxyurid nematodes were treated to assess the anthelmintic efficacy of a single 25 mg/kg oral dose of oxfendazole. Pooled fecal samples were collected pre-treatment, then weekly for 4 wk post-treatment, and processed the same day via a quantitative double centrifugation technique using Sheather's sugar flotation solution. Total oxyurid egg counts were determined and parasites identified to genus, Ozolaimus or Alaeuris, based on egg morphometry. Fecal egg count reduction (FECR) was then calculated for total oxyurids, total Ozolaimus spp., and total Alaeuris spp. separately for each time point post-treatment. Based on FECR, the single oral dose of oxfendazole was found to be 100% effective (100% FECR) at eliminating nematodes from the GI tract 4 wk post-treatment, without any obvious morbidity or mortality. Additionally, a lack of larvated eggs was observed in the feces as soon as 1 wk post-treatment, with all eggs appearing degenerate at 2 and 3 wk post-treatment. Therefore, the eggs being shed at 3 wk post-treatment were likely nonviable, indicating that oxfendazole was able to impact nematode reproduction prior to reaching 100% efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light/dark cycle affects the physiology of vertebrates and hypothalamic orexin neurons (ORX) are involved in this function. The breathing pattern of the green iguana changes from continuous to episodic across the light/dark phases. Since the stimulatory actions of ORX on breathing are most important during arousal, we hypothesized that ORX regulates changes of breathing pattern in iguanas. Thus, we: (1) Localized ORX neurons with immunohistochemistry; (2) Quantified cyclic changes in plasma orexin-A levels by ELISA; (3) Compared breathing pattern at rest and during hypoxia and hypercarbia; (4) Evaluated the participation of the ORX receptors in ventilation with intracerebroventricular microinjections of ORX antagonists during light and dark phases. We show that the ORX neurons of I. iguana are located in the periventricular hypothalamic nucleus. Orexin-A peaks during the light/active phase and breathing parallels these cyclic changes: ventilation is higher during the light phase than during the dark phase. However, inactivation of ORX-receptors does not affect the breathing pattern. Iguanas increase ventilation during hypoxia only during the light phase. Conversely, CO2 promotes post-hypercarbic hyperpnea during both phases. We conclude that ORXs potentiate the post-hypercarbic (but not the hypoxic)-drive to breathe and are not involved in light/dark changes in the breathing pattern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a fatal kidney disease in green iguanas (Iguana iguana), associated with severe nephromegaly. Affected animals have enlarged kidneys, which fill the pelvic cavity, leading to compression of adjacent organs, obstipation and, ultimately, death. The pathological features of this disease have been poorly described and its aetiology is unknown. We performed detailed gross and histological analyses of 17 green iguanas with a clinical diagnosis of nephromegaly, and compared the results with those of eight healthy controls. Grossly, the kidneys of all 17 individuals were markedly enlarged and the distal colons were distended and overfilled with faecal contents. Histopathological examination revealed that these enlarged kidneys consisted mainly of tubular hyperplasia, resembling poorly developed proximal segments. The nephrogenic zones were either poorly developed or absent. There was a reduction in the density of glomeruli and the distal segments were reduced in number. There was no histological evidence of an aetiology for the nephron disruption and nephromegaly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green iguanas are heavily hunted and traded in their native range, and apprehended as invasives in their introduced range, where their populations have become increasingly challenging to monitor and control. Fiji islands in the Pacific are endowed with unique biodiversity and ecosystems; there are four native iguana species, three of which are endemic to the islands. Green iguanas were introduced accidentally as a pet in the island of Qamea, and have since spread to the islands of Matagi, Taveuni, Vanua Levu, Laucala, Koro and Wakaya, possibly by natural and anthropogenic means of dispersal. Reports of adverse impacts on biodiversity, communities and livelihoods have surfaced but local communities encounter difficulties in distinguishing between the native and introduced iguanids. Invasive species management has been prioritised for localising the invasion, however, there is a strong need to incorporate research as an indispensable tool for evidence based decision making. This is particularly important for accidently introduced species whose impacts are unconfirmed but suspected to be serious. Recognising inter- and transdisciplinary approaches in invasion science can facilitate participatory decision making and generate long term benefits. Research on the foraging behaviour and nutritional physiology, impacts on seed germination and dispersal of native and invasive plant species, ecological processes, and interactions between the green and native iguanid population, would improve our understanding of actual and potential impacts on species, ecosystems and habitats. At the same time exploring the environmental, social and economic impacts, benefits and costs, and people's perception can generate strong support for management actions, secure long term funding and foster closer coordination between scientists, local communities, and policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green iguana (Iguana iguana) was most likely introduced as a pet and became overabundant during the last 20 years on Grand Cayman. Because negative impacts were unmanageable (e.g., damage to buildings and other infrastructure), a harvest management strategy was developed and implemented, and over 874,252 green iguanas were removed between October 2018 and August 2019. Distance sampling surveys were conducted to estimate abundance in February 2019 and annually in August 2014–2019. Abundance estimates were used to develop a Bayesian state-space logistic model, generate the posterior distributions of population and harvest management parameters, and make future predictions of abundance for August 2020–2030. Abundance increased over fivefold between August 2014 and 2018, from an average of 254,162 to 1,319,939 green iguanas. However, after harvesting for 5 months, abundance declined to an average of 600,113 green iguanas in February 2019; and after 11 months, abundance declined to an average of 103,020 green iguanas in August 2019. Maximum population growth rate averaged 1.552, carrying capacity averaged 1,611,013, equilibrium abundance averaged 805,506, maximum sustainable total harvest averaged 628,491, and maximum sustainable harvest rate averaged 0.776. With harvest rates between 0.600 and 0.800, predicted abundance averaged 28,751 green iguanas for August 2020–2030. However, harvest mortality may have unforeseen outcomes due to the release from density dependence and overcompensation through high survival and fecundity rates. Because natural resource managers have partial control over harvesting and incomplete understanding of green iguana population dynamics, monitoring and modeling are essential to assess population response and guide harvest management decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We isolated Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, from liver granulomas of a pet green iguana (Iguana iguana) in Belgium. This case highlights a risk for imported green iguanas acting as a reservoir for introduction of this high-threat, zoonotic pathogen into nonendemic regions.

In Puerto Rico, the Green Iguana, Iguana iguana, is considered an introduced and invasive species responsible for annual losses estimated in millions of dollars to local governmental and private sectors. The purpose of this study was to use GAP analyses to generate habitat distribution models for Green Iguanas in Puerto Rico. The two models had 79.7% and 88.4% predictability, respectively. The second model, which included road corridors as a habitat widely known to be used by iguanas for dispersal, basking, and mating displays, might have overestimated the Green Iguana's distribution. The use of one model over the other should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, depending on habitat type. These habitat modeling and mapping efforts should be repeated periodically as new distributional records are obtained and the land-cover changes to provide land managers an updated distribution of this species in the islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carnivorous reptiles exhibit an intense metabolic increment during digestion, which is accompanied by several cardiovascular adjustments responsible for meeting the physiological demands of the gastrointestinal system. Postprandial tachycardia, a well-documented phenomenon in these animals, is mediated by the withdrawal of vagal tone associated with the chronotropic effects of non-adrenergic and non-cholinergic (NANC) factors. However, herbivorous reptiles exhibit a modest metabolic increment during digestion and there is no information about postprandial cardiovascular adjustments. Considering the significant impact of feeding characteristics on physiological responses, we investigated cardiovascular and metabolic responses, as well as the neurohumoral mechanisms of cardiac control, in the herbivorous lizard Iguana iguana during digestion. We measured oxygen consumption rate (O2), heart rate (fH), mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), myocardial activity, cardiac autonomic tone, fH/MAP variability and baroreflex efficiency in both fasting and digesting animals before and after parasympathetic blockade with atropine followed by double autonomic blockade with atropine and propranolol. Our results revealed that the peak of O2 in iguanas was reached 24 h after feeding, accompanied by an increase in myocardial activity and a subtle tachycardia mediated exclusively by a reduction in cardiac parasympathetic activity. This represents the first reported case of postprandial tachycardia in digesting reptiles without the involvement of NANC factors. Furthermore, this withdrawal of vagal stimulation during digestion may reduce the regulatory range for short-term fH adjustments, subsequently intensifying the blood pressure variability as a consequence of limiting baroreflex efficiency., Competing Interests: Competing interests The authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2024. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Abstract Iguana iguana is a lizard found in South America, and its metabolism is directly related to ambient heat. However, the physiology underlying the effect of temperature change on the metabolism of these reptiles has not been fully elucidated. I. iguana hemoglobin (iHb) was isolated and purified by exclusion chromatography. Mass spectrometry, circular dichroism, SAXS and spectroscopic characterization were used to evaluate the primary and secondary structures and oligomeric state of iHb. The secondary structure of intact iHb, which mainly consisted of α-helices, was not stable if heated at 60 °C. Autoxidation rates of iHb were measured at 30 and 40 °C, revealing a suggestive bi-exponential behavior. Furthermore, by lowering the pH from 7.4 to 6.0, an increase in autoxidation rate was observed, indicating a behavior responsive to metabolic changes. Compared to ATP, ADP showed an allosteric effect on iHb oxygenation by lowering its oxygen binding. Alignment of the amino acid sequences revealed that iHb exhibits conserved substitution of a residue at the allosteric site, suggesting that some unknown molecular mechanism accounts for the allosteric effect caused by ADP. The ability of iHB to oxygenate is directly related to metabolic changes, ensuring the survival of Iguana iguana in different environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: A variety of exotic reptiles are kept as “pets” and the ownership of these animals is rising in Hong Kong. Two lizard species are known to be venomous: the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum) and the Mexican Beaded Lizard (Heloderma horridum). Both of them are native to the North America but are traded in the pet markets. Bites from these lizards are capable of causing severe envenomation in humans. Case presentation: A 41-year-old man presented to the emergency department after bitten by his exotic pet. His right hand was bitten by a Gila monster resulting in local swelling and intense pain. The local envenomation lasted for about 12 hours and then gradually improved. Discussion: Bite by Gila monster could result in local and systemic envenomation. Local envenomation includes intense pain of the injured site, edema and paraesthesia. Systemic envenomation including hypotension and airway edema occurs in severe envenomation. Conclusion: With the increasing popularity of keeping exotic pets in Hong Kong, envenomation by exotic venomous animals may be encountered by the emergency physicians. Knowledge about the potential envenomation effects of these exotic animals is essential for proper management of the patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Lesser Antillean Iguana (Iguana delicatissima) is an endangered species threatened by habitat loss and hybridization with non-native Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana). Iguana delicatissima has been extirpated on several islands, and the Green Iguana has invaded most islands with extant populations. Information is essential to protect this species from extinction. We collected data on 293 iguanas including 17 juveniles from St. Eustasius, one of the few remaining I. delicatissima strongholds. Genetic data were leveraged to test for hybridization presence with the Green Iguana using both mitochondrial and nuclear genes, including 16 microsatellite loci. The microsatellites were also analyzed to estimate genetic diversity, population structure, and effective population size. Using molecular and morphological data, we identified 286 I. delicatissima individuals captured during our first fieldwork effort, and 7 non-native iguanas captured during a second effort, showing hybridization occurs within this population. Comparing homologous microsatellites used in studies on Dominica and Chancel, the I. delicatissima population on St. Eustatius has extremely low genetic diversity (HO = 0.051; HE = 0.057), suggesting this population is genetically depauperate. Furthermore, there is significant evidence for inbreeding (FIS = 0.12) and weak spatial genetic structure (FST = 0.021, P = 0.002) within this population. Besides immediate threats including hybridization, this population's low genetic diversity, presence of physiological abnormalities and low recruitment could indicate presence of inbreeding depression that threatens its long-term survival. We conclude there is a continued region-wide threat to I. delicatissima and highlight the need for immediate conservation action to stop the continuing spread of Green Iguanas and to eliminate hybridization from St. Eustatius. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJECTIVE To assess effects of photobiomodulation, silver sulfadiazine, and a topical antimicrobial product for the treatment of experimentally induced full-thickness skin wounds in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). ANIMALS 16 healthy subadult green iguanas. PROCEDURES Iguanas were anesthetized, and three 5-mm cutaneous biopsy specimens were obtained from each iguana (day 0). Iguanas were randomly assigned to 2 treatment groups, each of which had a control treatment. Wounds in the topical treatment group received silver sulfadiazine, a topical antimicrobial product, or no treatment. Wounds in the laser treatment group received treatment with a class 4 laser at 5 or 10 J/cm2 or no treatment. Wound measurements were obtained daily for 14 days. Iguanas were euthanized, and treatment sites were evaluated microscopically to detect ulceration, bacterial contamination, reepithelialization, necrosis, inflammation, fibrosis, and collagen maturity. RESULTS On day 14, wounds treated with a laser at 10 J/cm2 were significantly smaller than those treated with silver sulfadiazine, but there were no other significant differences among treatments. Histologically, there were no significant differences in ulceration, bacterial infection, reepithelialization, necrosis, inflammation, fibrosis, and collagen maturity among treatments. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Photobiomodulation at 10 J/cm2 appeared to be a safe treatment that was tolerated well by green iguanas, but it did not result in substantial improvement in histologic evidence of wound healing, compared with results for other treatments or no treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In terrestrial environments, upright spatial orientation can dramatically influence animals' hemodynamics. Generally, large and elongated species are particularly sensitive to such influence due to the greater extent of their vascular beds being verticalized, favoring the establishment of blood columns in their bodies along with caudal blood pooling, and thus jeopardizing blood circulation through a cascade effect of reductions in venous return, cardiac filling, stroke volume, cardiac output, and arterial blood pressure. This hypotension triggers an orthostatic-(baroreflex)-tachycardia to normalize arterial pressure, and despite the extensive observation of this heart rate (fH) adjustment in experiments on orthostasis, little is known about its mediation and importance in ectothermic vertebrates. In addition, most of the knowledge on this subject comes from studies on snakes. Thus, our objective was to expand the knowledge on this issue by investigating it in an arboreal lizard (Iguana iguana). To do so, we analyzed fH, cardiac autonomic tones, and fH variability in horizontalized and tilted iguanas (0°, 30°. and 60°) before and after muscarinic blockade with atropine and double autonomic blockade with atropine and propranolol. The results revealed that I. Iguana exhibits significant orthostatic-tachycardia only at 60o inclinations--a condition that is primarily elicited by a withdrawal of vagal drive. Also, as in humans, increases in low-frequency fH oscillations and decreases in high-frequency fH oscillations were observed along with orthostatictachycardia, suggesting that the mediation of this fH adjustment may be evolutionarily conserved in vertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to establish the pharmacokinetic parameters of ceftiofur crystalline free acid (CCFA) for a single intramuscular injection in green iguanas ( Iguana iguana). Six green iguanas received an injection of 5 mg/kg CCFA into the triceps muscle. Using high-performance liquid chromatography, concentrations of ceftiofur free acid equivalents in plasma samples collected at predetermined time points were evaluated up to 21 days following drug administration. Noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was applied to the data. The observed maximum plasma concentration (Cmax obs) was 2.765 ± 0.864 μg/mL, and the time of observed maximum concentration (Tmax obs) was 6.1 ± 9.2 hr. The area under the curve (0 to infinity) was 239.3 ± 121.1 μg·hr/mL. No significant adverse drug reactions were clinically observed, and no visible injection site reactions were noted. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of bacterial isolates from iguanas were used to establish a target plasma concentration of 2.0 μg/mL. Based on the results from this study, a potential dosing interval for ceftiofur crystalline free acid administered at 5 mg/kg intramuscularly for iguanas maintained at a temperature of 30°C would be 24 hr based on a target plasma concentration of 2 μg/mL; however, multidose studies still need to be performed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green iguana has arboreal and terrestrial habits. It is widely distributed in Central and South America, inhabiting several biomes in Brazil. Some researches were focused on this species, however, morphological information are still limited. With that in sight, we aimed to add data to the anatomical knowledge. Two post mortem specimen of Iguana i. iguana were acquired, donated by a scientific breeding, and dissected. To describe the muscles we refuted the skin and removed the fascias, individualizing the muscles. We identified the following muscles: pectoralis, deltoideus clavicularis, deltoideus scapularis, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, coracobrachialis brevis, coracobrachialis longus, serratus thoracis, levator scapulae, biceps brachii and triceps brachii. Some of them, like coracobrachialis brevis, present conservative anatomy, originating from the ventral surface of the coracoid and inserting onto the proximal humerus. Some, like trapezius and biceps brachii, are similar to other reptile species, trapezius takes its origin from the thoracodorsal fascia and biceps arises by two heads and inserts on the radial tuberosity. Deltoideus clavicularis and deltoideus scapularis share a common insertion tendon. Pectoralis varies its origin and divisions, however, the insertion always occur on the deltopectoral crest. Triceps brachii is comprised of four heads. Its long medial head originates via a tendinous arc, feature described only in crocodilians. We conclude that Iguana i. iguana forelimb musculature is similar to other reptiles, presenting its own characteristics that reflect its habits.

The somatotropic axis (SA) regulates numerous aspects of vertebrate physiology such as development, growth, and metabolism and has influence on several tissues including neural, immune, reproductive and gastric tract. Growth hormone (GH) is a key component of SA, it is synthesized and released mainly by pituitary somatotrophs, although now it is known that virtually all tissues can express GH, which, in addition to its well-described endocrine roles, also has autocrine/paracrine/intracrine actions. In the pituitary, GH expression is regulated by several hypothalamic neuropeptides including GHRH, PACAP, TRH and SST. GH, in turn, regulates IGF1 synthesis in several target tissues, adding complexity to the system since GH effects can be exerted either directly or mediated by IGF1. In reptiles, little is known about the SA components and their functional interactions. The aim of this work was to characterize the mRNAs of the principal SA components in the green iguana and to develop the tools that allow the study of the structural and functional evolution of this system in reptiles. By employing RT-PCR and RACE, the cDNAs encoding for GHRH, PACAP, TRH, SST and IGF1 were amplified and sequenced. Results showed that these cDNAs coded for the corresponding protein precursors of 154, 170, 243, 113, and 131 amino acids, respectively. Of these, GHRH, PACAP, SST and IGF1 precursors exhibited a high structural conservation with respect to its counterparts in other vertebrates. On the other hand, iguana's TRH precursor showed 7 functional copies of mature TRH (pyr-QHP-NH 2 ), as compared to 4 and 6 copies of TRH in avian and mammalian proTRH sequences, respectively. It was found that in addition to its primary production site (brain for GHRH, PACAP, TRH and SST, and liver for IGF1), they were also expressed in other peripheral tissues, i.e. testes and ovaries expressed all the studied mRNAs, whereas TRH and IGF1 mRNAs were observed ubiquitously in all tissues considered. These results show that the main SA components in reptiles of the Squamata Order maintain a good structural conservation among vertebrate phylogeny, and suggest important physiological interactions (endocrine, autocrine and/or paracrine) between them due to their wide peripheral tissue expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An 11-year-old intact male Green iguana ( Iguana iguana) was referred for treatment of a probable iridophoroma based on previous cytopathology. A periocular mass was present near the right medial canthus. Computed tomography did not show any sign of metastasis. Clinicopathologic abnormalities included lymphopenia and hyperproteinemia. Cytologic and histologic evaluations of the mass were consistent with iridophoroma. Complete surgical excision of the mass was not possible without removal of the orbit due to local tissue involvement. Recovery and suture removal were unremarkable. Adjunctive radiation therapy was recommended, but not performed. A year later, the surgical site had healed well. To our knowledge, this is the first reported chromatophoroma cytopathology in a Green iguana. Chromatophoromas should be included in the differential diagnoses of pigmented skin tumors in reptiles. Early surgical excision is useful to limit local tissue destruction and metastatic potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on workshop hosted by the Ecological Society of America's (ESA) Strategies for Ecology, Education, Diversity, and Sustainability (SEEDS) Program at the El Yunque National Forest, Puerto Rico in April, 2017. Topics discussed include the problems faced by the forest due to climate change and the pressure put on soil and watersheds; a presentation given by student Celina Gray; and the invasive species Iguana iguana.

Large initial body size and rapid early growth rate are important in many species, both because predation rates decline as individuals grow and because females that attain a larger adult body size are more fecund. To identify possible factors contributing to size and growth rate variation in hatchling green iguanas, we artificially incubated six clutches at three constant temperatures to test for effects of incubation temperature and/or clutch effects on initial size and growth rate. Higher incubation temperatures resulted in significantly shorter incubation periods but did not influence initial body size. There were significant differences among clutches in egg size, and also in initial hatchling body size, even after correcting for differences in egg size among clutches. A subset of hatchlings from each nest was reared in semi-natural conditions for four months, with individuals from the high incubation temperature condition exhibiting the slowest longer-term growth rates. No clutch effects were detected in the growth rate analyses. The observed variation in early growth rate of juvenile iguanas seems to be selectively important and this variation may be due in part to the conditions the eggs experience during incubation, but clutch effects in this study were limited to egg size and initial hatchling body size variation, but were not found for subsequent growth rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We report a population of the Green Iguana, Iguana iguana, in a remnant of Atlantic Forest in the municipality of Vila Velha, Espírito Santo state, southeastern Brazil. We found both adult and subadult specimens, which indicates the existence of an established population. This is the southernmost record of the species, located at 820 km south from the previous southern extreme of the species' range in the Atlantic Forest (Amargosa, Bahia). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ontogenesis of the nasal cavity has been described in many mammalian species. The situation is different with reptiles, despite the fact that they have become relatively common as pets. In this study we focused on the ontogenesis of the olfactory epithelium, as well as other types of epithelia in the nasal cavity of pre-hatched green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Collection of samples began from day 67 of incubation and continued every four days until hatching. Microscopic examination revealed that significant morphological changes in the nasal cavity began approximately at day 91 of ontogenesis. Approximately at this same stage, the nasal cavity epithelium began to differentiate. The cavity was divided into two compartments by a cartilaginous disc. The ventral compartment bulged rostrally and eventually opened up into the external environment. Three clearly demarcated areas of epithelium in the nasal cavity were visible at day 107.

Reptiles have recently become a popular group of pet animals. A relatively large number of studies on the morphology of the oral cavity and method of feeding in adult individuals have been published. Nevertheless, embryological descriptions of reptile body parts or structures are rare. In this study, we describe the morphology of the developing tongue, in particular its dorsal surface, in pre-hatched green iguanas. Microscopic examination of the oral cavity of early embryos revealed that the tongue was divided into three different areas: apex, corpus and radix. The dorsal lingual surface was smooth and covered by nonkeratinised stratified squamous epithelium with slight prominences in some cases. In the underlying mesenchyme of the tongue, striated muscular tissue was formed. The epithelium thickness was reduced during formation of the lingual papillae and in later stages remained simple cuboidal. No developing taste buds could be recognised in the lingual epithelium.