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Background: Adult-led organized settings for children (eg, classrooms) provide opportunities for physical activity (PA). The structure of setting time may influence inequalities (ie, unequalness) in the distribution of PA. This study examined differences in PA inequality by setting and time-segment purpose in time-segmented organized group settings for children. Methods: PA and setting meetings were assessed using accelerometer and video observation data from school, before-/after-school, and youth club groups (n = 30) for third- through sixth-grade children (n = 699) in 2 rural US communities. Meetings (n = 130) were time-segmented into smaller units (sessions; n = 835). Each session was assigned a purpose code (eg, PA). Accelerometer data were paired with the meetings and sessions, and the Gini coefficient quantified inequality in activity counts and moderate to vigorous PA minutes for each segment. Beta generalized estimating equations examined differences in PA inequality by setting and session purpose. Results: Activity count inequality was lowest (P <.05) during youth club meetings (Gini = 0.17, 95% CI, 0.14–0.20), and inequality in moderate to vigorous PA minutes was greatest (P <.01) during school (Gini = 0.34, 95% CI, 0.30–0.38). Organized PA sessions (Gini = 0.20, 95% CI, 0.17–0.23) had lower activity count inequality (P <.0001) than academic (Gini = 0.30, 95% CI, 0.27–0.34), enrichment (Gini = 0.31, 95% CI, 0.27–0.36), and nonactive recreation (Gini = 0.30, 95% CI, 0.25–0.34) sessions. Inequality in moderate to vigorous PA minutes was lower (P <.05) in organized PA (Gini = 0.26, 95% CI, 0.20–0.32) and free play (Gini = 0.28, 95% CI, 0.19–0.39) than other sessions. Conclusions: PA inequality differed by setting time structure, with lower inequality during organized PA sessions. The Gini coefficient can illuminate PA inequalities in organized settings and may inform population PA improvement efforts in rural communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: China's National Essential Public Health Service (NEPHS) Program was launched in 2009 to deliver population-based public health and individual health management services to all residents at 800,000 primary health-care centers nationwide. This study assessed NEPHS utilization data and evaluated usage inequities using comprehensive nationwide data. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted, selecting 16 indicators (out of 18) from 12 service packages to evaluate inequity. These included 4 indicators for services provided to all residents and 12 for pregnant women, new mothers, children aged 0–6 years, and patients with hypertension, diabetes, severe mental disorders, or tuberculosis. Data on service utilization and target populations for these indicators across the 31 provinces and 453 cities in mainland China were obtained from the NEPHS database and management platform for the period January 1 to December 31, 2019. Service utilization rates and bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to determine utilization. Inequities were assessed using the Gini coefficient and Sitthiyot-Holasut composite inequality index at the national and provincial levels, and the Theil index was employed to decompose overall inequity into within-region and between-region subgroups. Results: The NEPHS collected health records for 88.25% of China's permanent residents (95% CI: 79.23%–98.82%). The nationwide vaccination coverage rate was 97.44% (95% CI: 91.33%–99.91%). Newborn visit and child health management rates for children aged 0–6 years were 92.08% (95% CI: 74.85%–98.34%) and 90.87% (95% CI: 82.49%–98.47%), respectively. At the national level, NEPHS service utilization in 2019 was generally equitable, with Gini coefficients below 0.4 for the 15 indicators. Potential large equity gaps were observed in the provision of health education services in Shanghai [Gini coefficient = 0.358 (95% CI: 0.219, 0.444)], Inner Mongolia [Gini coefficient = 0.370 (95% CI: 0.073, 0.440)] and Xinjiang [Gini coefficient = 0.457 (95% CI: 0.217, 0.502)]. Additionally, the utilization of family planning education and sanitation inspection services also indicated potential large and severe equity gap in 13 provinces. The Theil indices revealed that inequities primarily existed within rather than between regions. Province-level results indicated perfect equity in health record management and vaccination coverage, while several provinces showed potential equity gaps in health education and family planning services. Potential equity gaps were also observed in health management services for patients with hypertension and diabetes, particularly in Beijing, Hunan and Xinjiang. Conclusions: This study provides evidence for health planning in China's primary health sector and guidance for analyzing equity in national health programs similar to the NEPHS Program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the Palma proposition and the Lorenz fitting curve, this paper estimates the sample Gini coefficient using the income share of the top 10% and bottom 40% of the population. Empirical research shows that the absolute error between the estimated value and sample Gini coefficient is within a hundredth. Monte Carlo simulation shows that the new method has good performance and robustness for estimating Gini coefficients with different sample sizes and different inequality levels. Using the two quantiles in the deciles to estimate the sample Gini coefficient and the Lorenz fitting curve is a practical method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate residual strength prediction of corroded pipelines is of great significance to pipeline reliability assessment and transportation safety. In this paper, a novel physics-informed domain generalization model is proposed for predicting the residual strength of corroded pipelines. Firstly, a physics-informed feature space is constructed with physical prior knowledge. Secondly, Gini coefficient is utilized to rank the feature importance. To determine the optimal feature subset, the feature number, prediction accuracy and model stability are comprehensively considered. Subsequently, a predictive model based on deep forest (DF) and reinforcement learning is developed, double deep Q-network (DDQN) is used to optimize the hyper-parameters. Finally, the domain generalization performance is verified for different application scenarios. The results demonstrate that the proposed model has better prediction performance than other models, and generalization performance is the best in term of external loads and multiple defects. This study provides a novel perspective for integrity assessment of corroded pipelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The economic inequalities impede the equal distribution of water among various household groups, potentially leading to inequal access to this vital resource. By integrating a multi-regional input–output model with household expenditure, we investigate the water footprint (WF) for ten income groups in each of the provinces and evaluate water inequality among regions, households, and expenditure categories comprehensively. Our findings reveal significant disparities in water footprints, with urban households exhibiting nearly three times the WF of rural residents. Wealthier eastern provinces show higher per capita consumption-based WFs compared to the less developed western regions. The interregional trade exacerbates water inequality because water-intensive goods are produced in less developed regions and are being consumed in more developed provinces. This study underscores the importance of targeted policies to address water inequality, achieve sustainable water management, and promote equitable water use in the face of increasing water demand and supply imbalances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the effectiveness of water environment governance in China, this study employs the Super-SBM model to measure the WEGE (water environment governance efficiency) of 283 prefecture-level cities in China from 2013 to 2022. Multidimensional decomposition is conducted using the Dagum Gini coefficient, kernel density estimation, convergence models, and the Tobit model. The findings reveal the following: (1) China's WEGE is generally at a low-efficiency development stage, exhibiting a pattern of "western regions > central regions > eastern regions". WEGE evolves from "scattered distribution" to "multi-center aggregation". (2) The overall Gini coefficient for WEGE in China is relatively low, with an average of 0.120. Intra-group differences and transvariation intensity are the primary sources of regional disparities. (3) The country and the three major regions exhibit right-tailed and multi-polar phenomena. (4) σ-convergence is observed exclusively in the eastern area, whereas both absolute and conditional β-convergence are evident throughout the country as well as within the three major regional divisions. (5) Government intervention has a significant positive impact on WEGE, while artificial intelligence, spatial agglomeration, and industrial structure upgrading exert negative effects on WEGE. Therefore, it is urgent to pay attention to the regional differences in WEGE and implement practical measures for collaborative water environment governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to coordinate the relationship between water resources and economic and social development in the Yellow River Basin, based on the current water consumption data of the Yellow River Basin in Shandong Province from 2008 to 2022, the evolution characteristics and spatial distribution law of water consumption structure in the Yellow River Basin in Shandong Province were analyzed by using the methods of information entropy and equilibrium degree, Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient. The results show that the agricultural water use in the Yellow River Basin in Shandong Province no longer has a single absolute advantage, and the water resources allocation is transforming into multi-objective. The information entropy and equilibrium degree show a synchronous upward trend, indicating that the distribution of various types of water consumption is developing towards uniformity. From 2008 to 2022, the spatial equilibrium degree of agricultural water use in the Yellow River Basin of Shandong Provinceis is decreased obviously, the spatial equilibrium degree of industrial water use is increased slightly, the spatial equilibrium state of domestic water use does not change greatly, and the spatial equilibrium degree of ecological water use is increased obviously. From 2008 to 2022, the spatial distribution of agricultural water use in the Yellow River Basin in Shandong Province changs from an obvious equilibrium state to a relatively balanced state, while the spatial distribution of industrial and domestic water use has always been relatively balanced, and the spatial distribution of ecological water use has changed from a poor equilibrium state to a relatively balanced state. The proportion of agricultural water in Dezhou is the highest, the proportion of industrial water in Zibo is obviously higher than that in other regions, and the proportion of domestic water in Jinan is the highest and slowly rising. In 2018, the proportion of ecological water in Jinan is the highest, and the proportion of ecological water is the lowest in Dezhou. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess the spatial accessibility and inequality of antidepressants and its correlation with VBP (Volume-based procurement) policy using procurement data from four representative Chinese cities between 2018 and 2020. Methods: The least-cost-path algorithm was employed to calculate travel time from each population point to the nearest medical institution. Gini coefficient and Theil index were utilized to measure accessibility and inequality. OLS (Ordinary Least Squares) and mediation analysis were used to investigate potential statistical relationships. Results: Under the influence of the VBP policy, we observed varying degrees of growth in the procurement volumes of two antidepressants across different cities (Escitalopram: Beijing 30.3%, Shanghai 26.2%, Ningbo 37.4%, Harbin 25.7%; Paroxetine: Beijing 28.2%, Shanghai 1.2%, Ningbo 50.2%, Harbin 590.5%). The increase in the procurement volumes of antidepressants across cities was primarily driven by generic drugs (Escitalopram: Beijing 159.8%, Shanghai 75.0%, Ningbo 146.4%, Harbin 146.3%; Paroxetine: Beijing 67.3%, Shanghai 4.9%, Ningbo 58.0%, Harbin 15,758.3%). In the results on spatial inequality, we observed annual improvements across all cities, with more pronounced progress in economically underdeveloped regions (Escitalopram: Gini in Harbin decreased by 10.6%; Paroxetine: Gini in Harbin decreased by 32.6%). In Beijing, the substitution of generic escitalopram was found to be a partial mediating factor in the improvement of spatial inequality (ACME = -0.00, p-value = 0.01; ADE = -0.00, p-value = 0.02). In Harbin, the substitution of generic paroxetine was identified as a complete mediating factor for spatial inequality (ACME = -0.04, p-value = 0.01; ADE = 0.01, p-value = 0.14). Conclusions: This study found that the spatial accessibility and inequality of antidepressant medications gradually improved under the influence of the VBP policy. These improvements can be partially attributed to the substitution of generic drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental change is increasing worldwide and many animal species face anthropogenic threats, especially diet specialists. Yet the degree to which specialist species are currently impacted by environmental change remains poorly understood. We examine how anthropogenic pressures impact dietary specialist species. We calculated indices of diet specialization for mammal species, based on the Gini inequality coefficient, and combined these indices with human pressure data. We then used spatially explicit Mantel tests to examine global patterns in mammal diet specialization. We used a generalized linear mixed model to investigate correlations between the percentage of diet specialist species in mammal communities in an area and its total species richness, human pressure and protection status (mediated through an interaction with the continent). Findings revealed that areas with many diet specialists in mammal communities are also impacted by high human pressure. Additionally, we found that the global protected area system adequately covers habitat for many mammal diet specialists, but has lower effectiveness in South America, Oceania, North America and Europe compared with Africa and Asia. Finally, we identified potential reservoirs for specialist species—places containing many highly diet specialist species and that are subject to less human pressure—which may be important for conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes the measurement of income and wealth inequalities in samples with negative values. The Gini coefficient can exceed one when negative values represent a large share of the sample. A perfect concentration with non-negative values attains a Gini coefficient of one; thus, interpreting a Gini coefficient greater than one is difficult. Existing methods of deleting negative values or replacing them with zeros underestimate the inequality level. Alternative methods of normalizing the Gini coefficient to restrict it between zero and one cannot satisfy the basic requirements of an inequality index. Moreover, both methods distort inequality comparisons over time and across countries. This study analytically shows the theoretical drawbacks of extant methods and proposes measuring the standard Gini coefficient using an unadjusted sample, even when the sample contains negative values and the Gini coefficient exceeds one. This study also proposes generalizing the concentration such that it attains the same Gini coefficient value and is more severely concentrated than the perfect concentration with non-negative values. To facilitate the interpretation of a Gini coefficient greater than one, we can compare the generalized and perfect concentrations and infer the amount of transfer from one to the other. Finally, this study shows that the extant methods may cause a sizable distortion in inequality comparison over time for the U.S. net worth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As new-energy vehicles (NEVs) gradually gain public attention, their carbon-reduction issues have become a focal point in academia. This study evaluates the carbon-reduction efficiency of NEVs in 21 Chinese provinces using an improved three-stage DEA model, analyzes spatial disparities with the Dagum Gini coefficient, and decomposes carbon-emission factors using the LMDI method. Results show that the overall carbon-reduction efficiency is low, with an average value of only 0.266. Significant differences exist in production- and consumption-stage efficiencies across regions. Shanxi Province performed the best, with efficiency scores of 1 in both stages, while the carbon-reduction stage showed the lowest efficiency, ranging between 0.2 and 0.3 in most regions. The central region exhibited the highest carbon-reduction efficiency, followed by the western and eastern regions, primarily influenced by intra-regional disparities. Energy intensity significantly suppresses carbon emissions, followed by energy structure, while economic development and population size positively contribute to carbon emissions. This study provides theoretical support for regional governments to formulate policies related to the NEV industry and offers practical guidance for its further development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Objective] The aim of this study is to reveal the characteristics of multi-year runoff variation in different geomorphic areas in the Hekouzhen-longmen region, and to investigate responses of intra-annual runoff to soil and water conservation measures in these watersheds. [Methods] Three watersheds in different landform regions (Tuwei River, Sanchuan River, and Yan River) were selected, representing the sandy region, rocky mountain region, and loess cover region, respectively. The Gini coefficient and Lorentz asymmetry coefficient were constructed to quantify the evenness of intra-annual runoff using runoff observations during 1960 to 2019. [Results] (1) Runoff of Tuwei River, Sanchuan River, and Yan River decreased significantly during 1960 to 2019, with the decrease rate of-0.05 million m³/a,-0.03 million m³/a, and-0.02 million m³/a, respectively. (2) The Intra-annual runoff in different landform regions were different. The Gini coefficients of Tuwei River, Sanchuan River and Yan River were 0.2, 0.35 and 0.6, respectively. The intra-annual runoff in the aeolian sandy area showed the highest eveness, followed by the rocky mountain area, while the loess covered area displayed the most uneven distribution. (3) The Gini coefficient of runoff in the three landform regions showed the decreasing trend, and the concentration rate of intra-annual runoff also decreased during 1960 to 2019. (4) NDVI, terraced fields and silting dam construction had significant negative correlation with Gini coefficient of runoff in the three landform regions. [Conclusion] Soil and water conservation projects in the Hekouzhen-Longmen region played a positive role in regulating the intra-annual runoff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To address the contradiction among various sectors and the series of water challenges, the incorporation of information entropy and the Gini coefficient is proposed to depict the spatiotemporal evolution and untangle the influencing factors of the water use structure in Zhanghe Irrigation District, located in central Hubei province. Mutual information entropy was also used to characterize the interactions between water use processes. The results show that the overall water use structure becomes more reasonable over time, while the spatial fairness of regional water use declines. From 2012 to 2016, the Gini coefficient thresholds for industrial, agricultural and domestic water are [0.17,0.27], [0.10,0.12], and [0.13,0.15], respectively. The spatial equality of each sector, in descending order, is agricultural, domestic, and industrial water. Precipitation plays a crucial role in agricultural, domestic, and ecological water use, while socio-economic factors are more closely related to industrial, domestic and ecological water use. Ecological water use is correlated with the other three water use processes. These findings could provide valuable references for inter-departmental water resources dispatching and industrial layout adjustments in irrigated districts for local decision-makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In response to public health emergencies, the importance of resilient medical facilities—such as large exhibition centers and sports venues that can be rapidly converted into temporary emergency hospitals—has become increasingly evident. This study focuses on these potential medical resources within megacities, using Shanghai as a case study. Employing advanced analytical tools including the kernel density two-step floating catchment area method, Lorenz curves, and Gini coefficient, we systematically evaluated the spatial allocation of 36 resilient medical facilities in Shanghai. The findings indicate that Shanghai's resilient medical facilities ensure 4.5 emergency beds per thousand residents, with large exhibition centers and sports venues demonstrating exceptional conversion capabilities far surpassing those of ordinary public venues. However, the study also uncovers significant disparities in spatial allocation: these facilities are predominantly concentrated in the city center, leading to notable deficiencies in accessibility and equity for suburban areas. The opportunity for residents to access emergency medical services decreases progressively from the city center outward, a trend consistent across various travel time scenarios. The calculated Gini coefficient underscores an extremely uneven spatial configuration of resilient medical facilities, well beyond the warning threshold, suggesting substantial service disparities between different regions during emergencies, which poses potential risks to public health. Our research provides valuable insights for megacities aiming to more effectively address future public health challenges and enhance societal resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/Objectives: The uneven distribution of nurses in Albania is a major problem that compromises equitable access to health services. Rural and less developed regions suffer from a chronic shortage of nursing staff, while urban areas attract health professionals. This study aims to quantify the inequalities in the distribution of nurses in Albania, analyzing the nurse-to-population ratio and its impact on the quality of healthcare. The main objective of this study is to examine the distribution of the nursing workforce in Albania and assess regional disparities, using the Gini coefficient and the Human Development Index (HDI) to measure and compare inequalities between regions. Methods: This descriptive–analytical study was conducted in 2024. The data were collected from official sources, including the Albanian Ministry of Health and the World Health Organization (WHO). The Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve were used to analyze the distribution of nurses in relation to the population and HDI of the different regions. The analysis included data on the number of nurses, population, and regional socioeconomic conditions. Results: The average nurse-to-population ratio in Albania is 28 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants, with significant variations between regions. Tirana has the highest ratio (60 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants), while Kukës and Dibër have the lowest values (10 per 10,000 inhabitants). The calculated Gini coefficient is 0.0228, indicating a very low level of inequality in the distribution of the nursing workforce. Conclusions: Inequalities in the distribution of nurses in Albania require targeted policy interventions. Policies are needed that incentivize health workers to work in less developed regions, through economic incentives, infrastructure improvements, and lifelong learning programs. These interventions are essential to reduce disparities and ensure equitable access to health services across the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a high level of policy interest on the effect of trade liberalisation on inequality, especially in developing countries, because of their large vulnerable populations. India also initiated the process of liberalisation as a response to the severe balance of payments crisis of 1991. However, both rural and urban inequality has been increasing since the period 1993–1994, with urban inequality increasing at a higher rate. This study empirically examines the impact of trade openness on wage inequality using panel data for Indian states (separately for rural and urban areas). The results of this study indicate that trade openness does not lead to decrease in the wage inequality in the states and their rural areas. However, urban wage inequality is found to be increasing due to trade openness. These results are analysed and explained by various factors present in the Indian economy such as, skill biased technological changes; trade in intermediate goods; barriers to domestic labour mobility; and pattern and composition of India's exports. An interesting aspect emerging is that higher education levels lead to increase in wage inequality as returns to education and inequality are increasing and the increase is also attributed to liberalisation. JEL Codes: F16, O18, C23 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the critical role of urban green space (UGS) in fostering sustainable urban development, there is a growing focus on assessing levels and inequalities in urban green space exposure. However, the integration of UGS with urban development, particularly in the context of China's unique national conditions, remains underexplored. This study evaluates the adequacy and equity of urban green space provision in 140 Chinese cities (with built-up areas exceeding 100 km2) using metrics such as the percentage of green space, green space exposure, and the Gini coefficient. Additionally, the study investigates the interplay between natural, economic, and social factors and UGS variables, particularly examining the interrelation of urbanization and green sustainable development within the framework of China's distinctive land finance policy. The findings reveal that most large Chinese cities suffer from inadequate and inequitable green space provisions, with a clear connection between these deficiencies. The study highlights that factors such as favorable natural conditions, economic growth, urbanization, favorable living conditions, and the unique land finance and transfer system in China can enhance urban green space exposure and equality. This research offers valuable insights and evidence for Chinese central and local governments to devise effective and sustainable greening strategies, aiming to attain high-quality urban development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phenomenon of patient mobility is becoming increasingly frequent, altering the actual service ranges of hospitals across various cities. However, its impact on the spatial equity of healthcare services at the national scale has yet to be fully explored. This paper aims to reveal the impact of intercity patient mobility on healthcare equity in China. Using one million patient mobility records from online healthcare platforms, we construct the 2023 Cross-City Patient Mobility Network in China and identify the patterns of cross-city patient mobility. Furthermore, we employ the Dagum Gini coefficient to measure the spatial disparities in per capita healthcare services before and after patient mobility. The results show that: (1) cross-city patient mobility exhibits administrative boundary effects and reflects the administrative hierarchy system, yet megacities extend their healthcare service ranges beyond provincial and urban agglomeration boundaries; (2) patient mobility enhances the equity of per capita healthcare services at both intra-provincial and inter-provincial levels, with inter-provincial disparities contributing significantly more than intra-provincial disparities—a trend further reinforced by patient mobility. This study not only provides a methodological framework for understanding the impact of patient mobility on the healthcare system but also offers empirical support for public health policymaking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving urban resilience (UR) and enhancing urban anti-risk ability are important foundations for promoting the high-quality development of new urbanization. This research employs the time-varying entropy method to evaluate the resilience level of 138 cities within China's eight urban agglomerations (UAs) between 2005 and 2019. Additionally, the Dagum Gini coefficient and the kernel density estimation method are utilized to examine the spatial disparities and distribution dynamics of UR across the eight UAs. The results of this investigation indicate that (1) the collective UR performance of the eight UAs has experienced an upward trend. However, a notable spatial disparity exits, which is primarily attributed to the differences among the UAs. (2) The overall UR development of the eight UAs has a certain gradient effect, and the UR within each UA has different degrees of polarization characteristics. (3) For the eight UAs as a whole, per capita savings deposits, capitalization of foreign capital, and per capita fiscal expenditure are the three most important driving factors. Within each UA, there was heterogeneity in the main influencing factors. The interplay between any two factors amplifies their individual driving effects on the spatial differentiation of UR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although China's education development has made great progress, there are obvious regional differences in China's educational development. A systematic investigation of the regional inequality in China's educational development and its driving factors is of great significance for optimizing the allocation of educational resources and giving full play to the critical role of education in regional development. In addition, the research on the evolution and internal mechanism of educational development inequality in China can also provide experience and reference for the Global South. Therefore, we construct a comprehensive evaluation index system to measure the level of regional educational development, reveal the regional inequalities in China's educational development, and employ spatial econometric model to dissect the factors influencing the regional inequalities. The results show that China's educational development level continues to increasing from 2003 to 2020, but a significant decrease in its growth rate. In this process, regional differences in education inequality in China have gradually narrowed, which can be confirmed by changes in the Gini coefficient and Theil index. In terms of direct spillover effects, the per capita fiscal expenditure on education and urbanization rate have positive effects. In terms of indirect spillover effects, per capita GDP and per capita fiscal expenditure on education have negative effects, while population density and urbanization rate have positive effects. After replacing the weight matrix and removing the extreme values, the model also passes the robustness test. However, this mechanism is heterogeneous in different regions, therefore, we put forward the corresponding policies and measures according to the regional driving effects of influencing factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the panel data of 9 provinces (autonomous regions) of the Yellow River Basin from 2011 to 2022, the evaluation index system of farmers' income quality is constructed, and the entropy method, Dagum Gini coefficient, fixed effect model and other methods are used to measure the quality of farmers' income in the Yellow River Basin, explore the regional differences and further study the influencing factors. The study shows that, first, the quality of farmers' income in the nine provinces (autonomous regions) of the Yellow River Basin from 2011 to 2022 shows an overall fluctuating upward trend, with large inter-regional differences in the quality of farmers' income, obvious characteristics of the stage, and a widening gap between regions. Second, the overall difference in the quality of farmers' income in the Yellow River Basin is gradually narrowing, and the inter-regional differences are the main cause of the relative differences in the quality of farmers' income in the Yellow River Basin. Third, the level of economic development, social security, urbanisation and financial support for agriculture are conducive to improving the quality of farmers' income, while factors such as industrial structure and demographic structure are not conducive to improving the quality of farmers' income. Accordingly, policy suggestions are made, such as paying attention to the quality of farmers' income and promoting the growth of farmers' income; eliminating the shortcomings of farmers' income quality and improving the quality level of farmers' income; optimising the industrial structure and improving the rural social security system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to describe and explain the long-term evolution of wage inequality in imperial China, covering over two millennia from the Han dynasty to the Qing dynasty (202 BCE-1912 CE). Based on historical government records of official salaries, commodity prices, and agricultural productivity, we convert various forms of salaries to equivalent rice volumes and comparable salary benchmarks. Wage inequality is measured by salary ratios and (partial) Gini coefficients between official and peasant classes as well as within the official class. The inter-class wage inequality features an "inverted U-u" pattern—first rose before the Tang dynasty and then declined afterwards (the "inverted U" trends) with "inverted u" dynastic cycles. The intra-class wage inequality has a secular decline trend. We propose a unified framework incorporating technological, institutional, political, and social (TIPS) mechanisms to explain both long-term and short-term patterns. It is concluded that the technological mechanism dominated the rise of wage inequality, while the political mechanism (emperor-bureaucracy power tensions) drove the decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objective: Equitable distribution of health resources is important to achieving equity, guaranteeing access to healthcare services, and improving societies’ health status. This study aimed to examine equity in the distribution of health resources and its association with the mortality caused by COVID-19 in South Khorasan province, east Iran. Method: This was a secondary analysis of data from a cross-sectional study conducted in South Khorasan province in 2022. Data were drawn from an existing online database (Farabar) provided by the Public Health Department of the Ministry of Health in Iran. Data related to the number of hospital beds, medical specialists and practitioners, nurses, paramedical workers, health watch, community health workers (Behvarz), healthcare financial resources, and COVID-19 mortality rate were extracted from the Farabar system for each city separately. The equity in the distribution of resources was analyzed by calculating the Gini Coefficient index and using EXCEL software. The Gini Coefficient was used to measure the distribution of health resources and services (i.e. financial resources, human resources, hospital beds, ICU beds) against population size and geographic size. Data were analyzed using SPSS software, version 25. Results: The Gini Coefficient ranged between 0.006 and 0.320. The Gini Coefficient of health care system financial (0.006) resources distribution was more equitable, while that of hospital beds (0.229) and intensive care beds (0.320) was more inequitable. The Gini Coefficient of the distribution of human resources was estimated at less than 0.3, which is relatively equitable. The COVID-19 mortality rate per 100,000 population was estimated at 113.6, lower than the national average. After controlling the confounding variable (rural population (as % of the total population)), there was no significant correlation between COVID-19 mortality and the distribution of human resources, hospital beds, and healthcare financial resources. Conclusion: According to the results, the distribution of resources relative to the province’s population was relatively equitable, and there was no significant correlation between the COVID-19 mortality rate and the distribution of human resources, hospital beds, and healthcare financial resources. This can be due to the equitable distribution of health resources. Having a better and deeper understanding of the regions and populations disproportionately impacted by COVID-19 can help with intervention and resource allocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study empirically investigates the moderating effects of institutions interacted with economic growth as determinants of cross-country income inequality. For a sample of 43 advanced and developing countries in the OECD and Varieties of Capitalism (VoC) literature over the period of 1995–2019, we test the hypothesis that the income inequality-increasing effects of GDP growth are reduced by robust institutions through interactive terms between economic growth and labour market institutions, gender-based institutions, and governance-based institutions. We use correlated random effects, feasible generalised least squares, and systems-generalised method of moments for panel data analysis using the Gini coefficient for post-tax and post-transfer household disposable income inequality as the dependent variable. Across all models, we find consistently significant statistical evidence for contingency effects between greater GDP growth rates and robust institutions. More specifically, the positive or inequality-increasing effects of greater GDP growth are shown to be reduced by stronger employment protection legislation and greater gender parity in education. Policy implications on inclusive growth thereby call for labour market reforms in terms of employment protection and improved access to education for women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrating machine learning techniques within metaheuristics has shown promise for effectively solving combinatorial problems like the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP). However, key challenges remain in initializing metaheuristics to balance exploration and exploitation across vast search spaces. This paper introduces a novel clustering-driven technique for constructing high-quality initial solutions to Euclidean TSP instances. Our method uses hierarchical hybrid clustering with K-means, affinity propagation, and density peaks clustering to recursively partition cities into a compressed quadtree structure. A rigorous assessment using the Davies–Bouldin index and Gini coefficient optimizes intra- and inter-cluster quality and balance at each level. The multi-tiered decomposition strategically abstracts complex optimization landscapes into localized clusters that are solved efficiently in parallel within each using heuristics such as nearest neighbor and ant colony optimization. A genetic networking heuristic then interconnects independent intra-cluster solutions to construct unified inter-cluster routes. The clustering-guided initialization provides a diverse population of initialized tours that balance global exploration against localized exploitation. To validate our method, we conduct experiments using the generated solutions to seed a simulated annealing metaheuristic. This experimental evaluation will demonstrate this technique's ability to initialize metaheuristics for TSP instances closer to optimality compared to traditional methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brain development during childhood involves significant structural, functional, and connectivity changes, reflecting the interplay between modularity, information interaction, and functional segregation. This study aims to understand the dynamic properties of brain connectivity and their impact on cognitive development, focusing on temporal co-occurrence diversity patterns. We recruited 481 children aged 6 to 12 years from the Healthy Brain Network database. Functional MRI data were used to construct dynamic functional connectivity matrices with a sliding window approach. Modular structures were identified using multilayer network community detection, and the Dagum Gini coefficient decomposition technique, which uniquely allows for multi-faceted exploration of modular temporal co-occurrence diversities, quantified these diversities. Mediation analysis assessed the impact on small-world properties. Temporal co-occurrence diversity in brain networks increased with age, especially in the default mode, frontoparietal, and salience networks. These changes were driven by disparities within and between communities. The small-world coefficient increased with age, indicating improved information processing efficiency. To validate the impact of changes in spatiotemporal interaction disparities during childhood on information transmission within brain networks, we used mediation analysis to verify its effect on alterations in small-world properties. This study highlights the critical developmental changes in brain modularity and spatiotemporal interaction patterns during childhood, emphasizing their role in cognitive maturation. These insights into neural mechanisms can inform the diagnosis and intervention of developmental disorders. • Used multilayer networks to construct dynamic functional connectivity matrices from fMRI. • Dagum Gini coefficient explored brain network disparities, showing age-related increases. • Spatiotemporal interaction disparities increased within and between communities with age. • Mediation analysis showed spatiotemporal interaction mediates age and small-world properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study documents changes in consumption inequality in Ghana from 2005 to 2017. The focus is on the causal link from consumption inequality to household multidimensional poverty. We use three rounds of the Ghana Living Standards Survey, augmented with district level administrative data. Consumption inequality is measured using the Gini coefficient at the district level while multidimensional poverty is measured using the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative's index. The control function approach is employed to estimate the effect of consumption inequality on multidimensional poverty. The findings show an upward trend in consumption inequality at the national level between 2005 and 2017, which is consistent with the inequality trends for the Savannah and Forest ecological zones but not with the trends for the Coastal zone. The main result of the regression analysis is that inequality increases multidimensional poverty, a finding that is robust to alternative measures of inequality and poverty. Further, the association between inequality and poverty is more pronounced in rural areas and amongst male headed households. Neighbourhood unrest is an important channel through which inequality operates to increase multidimensional poverty. We suggest policies that the government can use to reduce both poverty and inequality in Ghana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid increase in urban population density driven by urban development has intensified inequity in urban green space distribution. Identifying the causes of changes in green equity and developing strategies to improve urban greening are crucial for optimizing resource allocation and alleviating social inequalities. However, the long-term spatio-temporal evolution of green visibility and equity remains underexplored. This study utilized the "Time Machine" feature to capture street view images from 2014, 2017, and 2021, analyzing changes in green visibility and its equity across residential communities in Wuhan. Deep learning techniques and statistical methods, including the Gini coefficient and location quotient (LQ), were employed to assess the distribution and spatial equity of street-level greenery. The results showed that overall green visibility in Wuhan increased by 4.18% between 2014 and 2021. However, this improvement did not translate into better spatial equity, as the Gini coefficient consistently ranged between 0.4 and 0.5. Among the seven municipal districts, only the Jiang'an District demonstrated relatively equitable green visibility in 2017 and 2021. Despite a gradual reduction in disparities in green visibility, a spatial mismatch persisted between UGS growth and population distribution, leading to uneven patterns in UGS equity. This study explores the factors driving inequities in green visibility and proposes strategies to enhance urban greening. Key recommendations include integrating the green visibility equity evaluation framework into urban planning to guide fair green space allocation, prioritizing greenery in low-income neighborhoods, and reducing hardscapes to support the planting and maintenance of tall canopy trees. These measures aim to enhance accessible and visible green resources and promote equitable access across communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the context of public health emergencies, the presence of medical and health talents (MHT) is critically important for support in any country or region. This study aims to analyze the spatial and temporal distributions and evolution of MHT in China and propose strategies and recommendations for promoting a balanced distribution. Methods: This research used data from 31 provinces in China to construct a multidimensional index system for measuring the agglomeration level of MHT. The indices include talent agglomeration density (TAD), talent agglomeration scale (TAS), talent agglomeration intensity (TAI), and talent agglomeration equilibrium (TAE). Using provincial data from the years 1982, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020, a spatiotemporal analysis of the MHT agglomeration levels was conducted. Furthermore, the regional dynamic distribution of MHT was analyzed using kernel density estimation diagrams. The spatial autocorrelation of MHT was assessed through global and local Moran's I, and the spatial gap and decomposition of MHT were analyzed using the Dagum Gini coefficient. Results: From the temporal level, the TAD and TAI of MHT showed an increasing trend over the studied period, whereas TAS decreased and TAE first increased and then decreased from 1982 to 2020. At the spatial level, the TAD, TAS, TAI, and TAE of MHT exhibited varied patterns among the eastern, central, and western regions of China, showing significant geographical disparities, generally demarcated by the Hu Huanyong Line. The regional dynamic distribution level of MHT in the country and the three regions were expanding. Spatial autocorrelation analysis using global and local Moran's I for TAD, TAS, TAI, and TAE demonstrated significant regional differences. The Dagum Gini coefficient of TAD, TAS, TAI, and TAE revealed divergent trends in regional disparities, with overall declines in disparities for TAD and TAI, a slight increase for TAS, and fluctuating patterns for TAE. Conclusions: From a temporal perspective, the overall number of MHT in China has been increasing annually at the national and provincial levels. From the spatial perspective, TAD, TAS, TAI, and TAE exhibit significant differences among the three regions. Kernel analysis reveals that the distribution differences are gradually expanding in national level and varying in regional level. Moreover, the global and local Moran's I indices reveal varying spatial autocorrelation for TAD, TAS, TAI, and TAE. The Dagum Gini coefficients of TAD, TAS, TAI, and TAE show different patterns of decomposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to develop an efficient model to predict the arrears behavior of electricity users by integrating multi-scale feature learning with a backpropagation (BP) neural network. The goal is to provide accurate early warning systems and enhanced risk management tools for power companies. The BP neural network algorithm adjusts weights to minimize prediction errors, while multi-scale feature learning captures the diversity and regularity of user behavior by extracting data from various time dimensions, such as daily, weekly, and monthly intervals. First, electricity usage and weather data from the UMass Smart Dataset are preprocessed, including steps such as data cleaning, standardization, and normalization. Next, features are extracted across three time scales—daily, weekly, and monthly. These features are then input into the BP neural network model using the multi-scale feature learning method. A hierarchical neural network structure is designed to address the characteristics of different scales in distinct layers. Key model parameters are optimized, and a sensitivity analysis is conducted. The experimental results demonstrate that the BP neural network model incorporating multi-scale features outperforms traditional BP neural network models and other control models in several evaluation metrics. Specifically, the Gini coefficient is 0.55, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic is 0.60, the Matthews correlation coefficient is 0.45, and specificity is 0.82. These results indicate that the proposed method offers significant improvements in capturing user behavior patterns and enhancing prediction accuracy. The study concludes that the effective fusion of multi-scale features not only enhances the model's prediction performance but also strengthens its generalization ability. This method provides an advanced risk management tool for power companies, helping to increase the operational efficiency of smart grids and encouraging further research toward greater intelligence in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measure the regional gaps in green total factor productivity (GTFP) growth by using the Dagum's Gini coefficient based on panel data for 306 cities from 1996 to 2017, then adopt a geographical detector to test the contribution of resource misallocation to the unbalanced growth in GTFP. The results show that Chinese agricultural GTFP continues to grow, but the overall growth gap has expanded year by year, mainly due to the inter-provincial gap. Compared with land, labor and machinery, fertilizer misallocation is the main factor driving the unbalanced growth in GTFP. Moreover, the interaction contribution of fertilizer misallocation with any one resource misallocation is higher than that in a single factor. Finally, resource misallocation also leads to unbalanced growth in technological progress and technical efficiency, but more so for the latter. Our research helps to provide a new solution to the "dilemma" of food security and ecological security from the perspective of optimizing resource allocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]