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In this article we rely on accent evaluation to test the 'intersectional invisibility hypothesis'1 that social cognition about men (but not women) is overrepresented in group-level beliefs.2 As a case in point, we investigate the evaluation of male and female Moroccan accents to gain insight into impression formation of Muslims in the Netherlands, and to find out whether stereotypical qualities associated with Moroccan-Dutch people, such as aggressive, macho, and criminal, are in fact associated with Moroccan-Dutch men. Two matched-guise experiments featuring regional and ethnic accents of Dutch (one with male speakers, one with female speakers) confirm the intersectional invisibility hypothesis, but the inclusion of traditional and modern prestige measures in accent evaluation research results in arguably richer stereotype and prejudice accounts, and in this sense, the present investigation adds nuance and shade to Gloria Wekker's (2016) pessimistic account of racism in Dutch society. Male Moroccan-Dutch speech is strongly deprecated and is always deemed inferior to indigenous speech; at the same time it is also found to be the most dynamically prestigious of all accents. Female Moroccan-Dutch speech does not engender extreme reactions, but it is not regarded as dynamic either and a long way from being accepted as indigenous speech. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two studies examined the relationship between explicit stereotyping and prejudice by investigating how stereotyping of minority men and women may be differentially related to prejudice. Based on research and theory related to the intersectional invisibility hypothesis (Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008), we hypothesized that stereotyping of minority men would be more strongly related to prejudice than stereotyping of minority women. Supporting our hypothesis, in both the United Kingdom (Study 1) and the United States (Study 2), when stereotyping of Black men and women were entered into the same regression model, only stereotyping of Black men predicted prejudice. Results were inconsistent in regard to South Asians and East Asians. Results are discussed in terms of the intersectional invisibility hypothesis (Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008) and the gendered nature of the relationship between stereotyping and attitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social identities are inherently intersectional, and some of these intersections bias social perception. For example, overlapping stereotypes about race and gender categories enable perceivers to efficiently judge Black targets as male and Asian targets as female. Here, we extend these intersections to a third fundamental social category dimension—age. Two studies revealed that facial cues to race and gender interactively guide age judgments, such that Black targets are judged to be masculine and therefore older whereas Asian targets judged to be feminine and therefore younger than age-matched White controls. These effects were most pronounced for male targets, which is consistent with affordance theories proposing that intersecting race, gender, and age cues are particularly salient for men due to stereotypical associations with threat. Collectively, the present findings provide new theoretical information and highlight future research directions related to intersectional categories in social perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic stress stemming from social inequity has long been recognized as a risk factor for poor physical and psychological health, yet challenges remain in uncovering the mechanisms through which such exposures affect health outcomes and lead to racial and gender health disparities. Examination of sociocultural influences on group identity, coping, and the expression of stress may yield relevant insight into potential pathways of inequity's effect on risk for chronic disease. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between chronic stress as measured by allostatic load (AL) and depression by gendered race group. Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2010 data, we included Black and White U.S. adults aged 18-64 years (n = 6,431). AL was calculated using 9 biomarkers; scores ≥4 indicated high risk. Depression was assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9; scores ≥10 indicated likely clinical depression. Logistic models estimated odds of depression as a function of AL for each gendered race group adjusting for age and family poverty-to-income ratio. Effect modification was assessed by analysis of variance and relative excess risk due to the interaction. We observed modification on the multiplicative scale. High AL was more strongly associated with depression among White women and Black men than among Black women or White men. In conclusion, a potential manifestation of high chronic stress burden, depression, differs across gendered race groups. These disparities may be due to group-specific coping strategies that are shaped by unequal social contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This commentary offers additional considerations for better understanding and studying how women of color detect and respond to prejudice in the United States. Building on the thoughts raised by Remedios and Snyder (), we highlight the importance of considering the socio-cultural and historic factors that differentially impact how sub-groups of women of color are perceived. Rather than generalizing work on stigma and discrimination across the diverse group of women of color, we discuss the importance and benefits of examining subgroups individually. In this commentary therefore, we pose research questions about three additional bodies of literature that add to Remedios and Snyder's () ideas regarding experiencing stigma. First, we examine how stereotypes of subgroups of women of color differ. Next, we introduce other work in the field of intersectionality, e.g. gendered race, to argue that differences in the ways women of color are perceived may affect how they experience identity centrality, discrimination, and other identity-related processes. Finally, we provide empirical evidence highlighting the concept of intersectional invisibility as an additional form of felt discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research from the perspective of gendered race theory has demonstrated that stereotypes about race often contain a gendered component, whereby certain racial and ethnic groups are stereotyped as more masculine or feminine. In particular, in North American contexts, Blacks tend to be associated with masculinity, while Asians tend to be associated with femininity. In this paper we present the hypothesis that Asian men and Black women are deemed less prototypical of their overarching racial groups due to the mismatch between their identities and gendered race stereotypes. First, we show evidence demonstrating that Asian men face invisibility at the cognitive level, consistent with previous theory and research related to Black women (Study 1). Second, we present direct evidence that participants are more likely to imagine a man when thinking of a Black individual and less likely to think of a man when imagining an Asian individual, relative to the frequency of Whites (Study 2). Overall, our results support the hypothesis that Asian men and Black women are viewed as less prototypical of their race categories. We discuss implications and future directions for work on intersectionality and gendered race theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Using data from black and white adults enrolled in a community-based, multi-city cohort assembled in the mid-1980s, we examined whether reported experiences of interpersonal racial and gender discrimination differentially impacted on future cardiovascular health (CVH) depending on gendered race and the setting in which the interactions were reported to have occurred., Methods: Discrimination in eight possible settings was assessed using the Experiences of Discrimination scale at year 7; CVH two decades later was examined using a modified Life's Simple 7 score, with higher scores indicating better health. Separate multivariable linear regressions evaluated the associations between reports of racial and gender discrimination and CVH score in each possible setting stratified by gendered race., Results: Mean (SD) CVH scores at year 30 were 7.8(1.9), 8.1(1.8), 8.9(2. 0), and 8.8(1.8) among black women, black men, white women, and white men, respectively. For black women, reporting both racial and gender discrimination while receiving medical care was associated with lower CVH score. Among black men, reporting both forms of discrimination while getting a job, at work, at school, and receiving medical care was associated with lower CVH score. Among whites, reported discrimination while obtaining housing and by the police or courts (women), and in public and at work (men), was associated with a lower CVH score., Conclusions: The setting in which discrimination is reported may be an important indicator of whether discriminatory experiences are negatively associated with CVH, providing insight on distinct effect pathways among black and white women and men.

Testing hypotheses from the emerging Identity Pathology (IP) framework, we assessed race-gender differences in the effects of reporting experiences of racial and gender discrimination simultaneously compared with racial or gender discrimination alone, or no discrimination, on future cardiovascular health (CVH). Data were from a sample of 3758 black or white adults in CARDIA, a community-based cohort recruited in Birmingham, AL; Chicago, IL; Minneapolis, MN, and Oakland, CA in 1985-6 (year 0). Racial and gender discrimination were assessed using the Experiences of Discrimination scale. CVH was evaluated using a 12-point composite outcome modified from the Life's Simple 7, with higher scores indicating better health. Multivariable linear regressions were used to evaluate the associations between different perceptions of discrimination and CVH scores two decades later by race and gender simultaneously. Reporting racial and gender discrimination in ≥2 settings were 48% of black women, 42% of black men, 10% of white women, and 5% of white men. Year 30 CVH scores (mean, SD) were 7.9(1.4), 8.1(1.6), 8.8(1.6), and 8.7(1.3), respectively. Compared with those of their race-gender groups reporting no discrimination, white women reporting only gender-based discrimination saw an adjusted score difference of +0.3 (95% CI: 0.0,0.6), whereas white men reporting only racial discrimination had on average a 0.4 (95% CI: 0.1,0.8) higher score, and scores among white men reporting both racial and gender discrimination were on average 0.6 (95% CI: 1.1,-0.1) lower than those of their group reporting no discrimination. Consistent with predictions of the IP model, the associations of reported racial and gender discrimination with future CVH were different for different racially-defined gender groups. More research is needed to understand why reported racial and gender discrimination might better predict deterioration in CVH for whites than blacks, and what additional factors associated with gender and race contribute variability to CVH among these groups.