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In many languages, it is common to use masculine-only forms when all genders are meant or gender is irrelevant to the actual statement. This practice is criticized for making women and members of other genders, their achievements and interests, less visible. Gender-fair language is intended to represent all genders equally. Recently introduced forms such as the glottal stop and the gender star are intended to also represent people outside the male–female dichotomy on the linguistic surface. However, it is often argued that gender-fair language would make texts less comprehensible and less aesthetically appealing. The critics' assumptions were tested in an experiment with 272 participants. Subjects watched a screencast on self-regulated learning and were randomly assigned to either a version using masculine-only forms or a version using the glottal stop and the gender star. Subsequently, participants rated the comprehensibility and aesthetic appeal of the video they had watched. Structural equation models show no statistically significant influence of the use of gender-fair language on the comprehensibility (β = −0.13) or the aesthetic appeal (β = −0.16) of the videos. The critics' assumptions are therefore not supported. But further studies are needed, especially regarding the corresponding singular forms and with non-academic participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the assumption that language influences thinking, the present study investigated the effect of gender-fair language in German, a grammatically gendered language among primary school children. Specifically, in a single-study experiment, we compared 218 German third and fourth graders on the effects of the generic masculine (e.g., der Polizist; English: the policeman) and gender-fair language in terms of the feminine and masculine form (e.g., die Polizistin/der Polizist; English: the policewoman/the policeman) on the cognitive representation of women in stereotypically masculine occupations and occupational self-efficacy. General self-efficacy was examined as a moderator variable, assumed to influence the effect of gender-fair language on occupational self-efficacy. The results indicate that the gender-fair form led to a higher cognitive representation of women in stereotypically masculine occupations for girls and increased girls' occupational self-efficacy for stereotypically masculine occupations. In contrast, the use of gender-fair language did not significantly influence boys' cognitive representation of women and their occupational self-efficacy. General self-efficacy did not affect the effect of gender-fair language on occupational self-efficacy. Thus, even as early as in primary school, gender-fair language could help attracting girls to stereotypically masculine occupations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The masculine form in German is used to refer to male people specifically and to people of any gender generically. While behavioural research has demonstrated that this dual function leads to male-biased responses, the neural underpinnings of this bias are still underexplored. In the present EEG study, we investigated how the presentation of generically intended masculine role nouns (vs. role nouns in the feminine–masculine and masculine–feminine pair form) affected the neural processing of references to men and women. Referring to women after generic masculine role nouns induced difficulties during perceptual processing in the P200 range and, crucially, also during high-level reference resolution, as indicated by an enhanced P600 amplitude over posterior sites. In contrast, no significant processing conflicts were observed after the pair form. These findings illuminate the neural consequences of grammatical gender and support the notion that the generic masculine does not represent different genders equally well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the findings of a study on the use of gender-fair language in Polish parliamentary discourse. Utilizing the ParlaMint corpus, speeches from the Sejm and Senate between 2015 and 2022 were analyzed. The study examined language strategies of neutralization, feminization, and the trends associated with their use. The results provide insights into the frequency of selected nouns relating to professions, functions, and community affiliations, such as national identity, as well as the trends in their usage. The results indicate that neutralization is the preferred strategy in the Polish parliamentary discourse, which seems to be influenced by the generic nature of the masculine nouns, perceived prestige of the profession/function, and the noun form used in legal acts. The feminization of professions/functions does not seem to be a deciding factor in choosing the grammatical gender of the noun. These findings can serve as a basis for further analysis on gender-fair language and the application of feminization and neutralization, not only in a parliamentary context but also more broadly in institutional discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increased visibility of non-binary individuals has fostered discussions around language and inclusivity. Due to differences in grammatical structures and language-specific strategies to represent non-binary genders, translation from notional gender languages into grammatical gender languages is extremely challenging. Hence, I propose a case study in gender-fair translation from English into German. Six language professionals translated three different texts. For each text, participants were instructed to use a different approach to gender-fair language, namely gender-neutral rewording, gender-inclusive characters, and neosystems. The focus of the present study is not on translation quality but rather on the cognitive processes and ease of integrating gender-fair language in the translation process. Findings from screen recordings show clear differences in translation times among participants and only partially among strategies. Results from retrospective interviews, non-participant observation, and target text annotations show increased keyboard activity and perceived difficulty in neosystems as well as lower success in their application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nonbinary people face invisibility and misrecognition. This research investigated how the use of the Swedish gender-inclusive neopronoun hen influenced the gender categorization of faces beyond the binary. In a between-subjects design, participants (N = 368) were instructed to use the gender-inclusive neopronoun hen, the binary masculine pronoun han (he), or no pronoun in a writing task. Then, they categorized androgynous morphed faces by selecting one of four response options ("woman," "man," "nonbinary," or "I don't know"). Altogether, the results indicated that few participants responded "I don't know," indicating that categorizing gender by appearance is common. As expected, the use of the gender-inclusive pronoun increased nonbinary categorizations, whereas the use of the masculine pronoun did not increase man categorizations, documenting that gender-inclusive pronouns increase the visibility of nonbinary people. Gender binary beliefs were associated with less nonbinary categorization. The discussion outlines how these findings can inform social policymaking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the light of a study of the difference between political actors and ordinary citizens as language users, and based on three moral arguments (consequence-based, recognition-based, and complicity-based), we propose that democratic representatives have an imperfect duty to use gender-fair-language in their public communication.In the case of members of the executive, such as ministries, prime ministries, and presidents, such an imperfect duty could also be justified on democratic grounds. Their choice of using a gender-unfair language, we argue, can cast doubts on the fundamental democratic commitment to respect the agency of all present and future citizens as potential participants in the law-making process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many languages, it is common to use masculine-only forms when all genders are meant or gender is irrelevant to the actual statement. This practice is criticized for making women and members of other genders, their achievements and interests, less visible. Gender-fair language is intended to represent all genders equally. Recently introduced forms such as the glottal stop and the gender star are intended to also represent people outside the male–female dichotomy on the linguistic surface. However, it is often argued that gender-fair language would make texts less comprehensible and less aesthetically appealing. The critics’ assumptions were tested in an experiment with 272 participants. Subjects watched a screencast on self-regulated learning and were randomly assigned to either a version using masculine-only forms or a version using the glottal stop and the gender star. Subsequently, participants rated the comprehensibility and aesthetic appeal of the video they had watched. Structural equation models show no statistically significant influence of the use of gender-fair language on the comprehensibility (β = −0.13) or the aesthetic appeal (β = −0.16) of the videos. The critics’ assumptions are therefore not supported. But further studies are needed, especially regarding the corresponding singular forms and with non-academic participants.

This study investigates the utilisation of GFL by three English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers who serve as linguistic role models for their students at a Thai university. It challenges the belief that gender representation is limited to only males and females, highlighting the need for inclusive practices in applied linguistics and TESOL. Thus, it suggests using they as the default pronoun when preferences are unknown, promoting inclusivity and respect for all genders. Drawing upon Trans-Affirming Queer Inquiry-Based Pedagogies (TAQIBPs) as a conceptual framework and employing an exploratory qualitative approach, the research utilises classroom observations and individual interviews as data collection tools. The findings reveal that while the teachers acknowledged the importance of GFL in fostering inclusivity and respect, and eradicating gender biases, they still employed gendered language in certain instances. Notably, this occurred when providing specific examples during lessons and referring to or addressing individual students. The continued use of gendered language can be attributed to limited access to GFL-compliant teaching materials, a lack of grammatically acceptable alternatives within the English language, and a shortage of neutral terms to address students in the classroom. The implications of these findings are discussed, and recommendations are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, gender-fair language (GFL) has drawn considerable attention in educational settings. The field of English language teaching (ELT) likewise has contributed to this development, with gender issues receiving significant focus. The current study adds to this evolving conversation by investigating ELT practitioners' perspectives on using the third-person singular pronoun they in academic writing (AW). This area has received little attention in the literature on gender diversity in ELT, particularly in restrictive and conservative societies such as the Philippines. Using a survey with 64 English language teachers from Philippine universities, 15 of whom participated in follow-up email interviews, the study explores what these teachers think about using singular they in AW. The study likewise examines the ways these teachers include the use of singular they in their AW teaching practice. The findings demonstrate that the teachers have positive views on using singular they in AW and, in fact, find it necessary for promoting gender inclusivity and equality. However, some teachers also report their own traditional, conservative knowledge and beliefs, and possible resistance from stakeholders as challenges that need to be faced when integrating singular they in AW as a component of GFL practice. Sa nakalipas na mga dekada, ang 'gender-fair language' (GFL) ay nakakuha ng malaking atensyon sa mga espasyo ng pagtuturo. Nakapag-ambag din sa debelopment nito ang larang ng pagtuturo ng wikang Ingles o English language teaching (ELT), kung saan karamihan ay nagtuon sa isyu ng kasarian. Ang kasalukuyang pag-aaral ay paglahok sa nabanggit na yumayabong na talastasan, sa pamamagitan ng pagsiyasat sa perspektiba ng mga praktisyoner ng ELT sa paggamit ng panghalip pang-isahan na nasa ikatlong panauhan na they sa akademikong pagsulat o 'academic writing' (AW). Batay sa mga literatura hinggil sa 'gender diversity' sa ELT, kakaunti pa ang nagsagawa ng pag-aaral sa erya na ito, partikular na sa mga mahihigpit at konserbatibong lipunan tulad ng Pilipinas. Sa pagsasagawa ng sarbey sa 64 na guro ng wikang Ingles mula sa mga unibersidad sa Pilipinas, kung saan 15 sa kanila ay lumahok sa follow-up na interbyu sa email, sinisiyasat ng pag-aaral kung ano ang pagtingin ng mga guro sa paggamit ng pang-isahang they sa AW. Sinusuri din sa pag-aaral ang pamamaraan ng mga guro sa kung paano isinasama sa pagtuturo ng AW ang paggamit ng pang-isahang they. Natuklasan sa pag-aaral na mayroong positibong pananaw ang mga guro sa paggamit ng pang-isahang they sa AW at, sa katunayan, nakita nila ang pangangailangan nito sa pagsusulong ng 'gender inclusivity' at 'equality.' Gayunman, ilan sa mga guro ay ibinahagi rin ang kanilang sariling tradisyonal, konserbatibong kaalaman at mga paniniwala, at ang posibilidad ng resistans mula sa mga stakeholder bilang hamon na kailangan harapin kapag isinama ang pang-isahang they sa AW bilang bahagi ng praktika ng GFL. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY: Gender-fair language (GFL) has sparked interest in schools during the last few decades, and issues concerning the use of GFL have been emphasized in English language teaching (ELT). This study investigates ELT teachers' perspectives on utilizing the third-person singular pronoun they in academic writing (AW), an area in the literature that has received little attention, particularly in conservative countries such as the Philippines. The current study looks specifically at what these teachers believe about using singular they in AW and how they incorporate it into their AW teaching practice. The findings indicate that the teachers favor the use of singular they in AW to promote gender equality and inclusivity. When introducing singular they in AW as part of GFL practice, however, some teachers identify their own conservative knowledge and values, as well as stakeholder resistance, as barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In German, symmetrical treatment of women and men through gender-fair language is well established and the use of feminine forms is evaluated positively. In the present study (N = 331), we examined the mechanisms behind this positive evaluation. Female job applicants were evaluated as more linguistically competent and as more competent in general, which translated into more favorable hiring decisions when using a feminine (vs. a masculine) job title. These results illuminate positive effects of successful language reform for women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the relationship between gender-fair language usage and the extent of gender stereotype impressions among the faculty of Kalinga State University. Specifically, it determined the extent of gender-fair language usage and the extent of gender stereotype impressions among the respondents, and it also identified if there is a significant relationship between the extent of gender-fair language usage and the extent of gender stereotype impressions among the respondents. Significantly, the study revealed that the faculty are very sensitive to gender-fair language usage and very sensitive to their level of gender-stereotype impressions. It also revealed that there is a significant relationship between the extent of gender-fair language usage and the extent of gender stereotype impressions among the Kalinga State University faculty. Thus, it was concluded that there is a high regard for gender sensitivity among the faculty of Kalinga State University as a result of their very sensitive level of gender-fair language usage and very sensitive level of gender-stereotype impressions. Consequently, one’s perception of gender-fair language usage also affects one’s impression of gender stereotyping.

Research on gender‐fair language aims to identify language inclusive to a multitude of individuals, for example, increasing the visibility of women by using paired pronouns (he/she) instead of generic masculine forms (he). However, binary presentations like he/she might come with unwanted side effects and evoke what we label as normative gender bias. A normative gender bias is defined as when words lead to stronger associations with individuals with normative gender expressions than with individuals with non‐normative gender expressions, thus contributing to making non‐normative individuals invisible. In three experiments, we compared the extent to which the paired pronoun he/she (Swedish and English), the neo‐pronouns hen (Swedish), ze (English), and the generic pronoun singular they (English) evoked a normative gender bias. Swedish‐ (N = 219 and 268) and English‐ (N = 837, from the UK) speaking participants read about individuals referred to with the paired pronoun he/she or with hen, ze, or they. In Experiment 1 (Swedish), there was no main effect of condition on a normative bias, but in Experiment 2 (Swedish), the paired pronouns he/she evoked normative gender bias while hen did not. In Experiment 3 (English), both ze and singular they evoked normative gender bias, although normative associations were lower in these conditions compared to he/she. Furthermore, the normative bias was lower among participants who had knowledge about the use of ze as a nonbinary pronoun. Finally, neither ze nor they evoked a normative gender bias when their use was explicitly stated to be nonbinary. A potential explanation for why singular they did not generally result in less normative associations, despite almost all participants knowing about it, may include its more common use as a generic pronoun. Taken together, our results suggest that neo‐pronouns, but not paired pronouns, have the potential to evoke less normative associations, but that they must be both (1) actively created new words and (2) well‐known to language users as nonbinary pronouns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on new language data, the present paper attempts to answer the question of whether masculine generics are indeed fully inclusive and refer to the same extent to women and men. The author argues that this is not the case as proved in an examination of the hitherto uninvestigated phenomenon in Polish of the socalled slippage from the generic item to its masculine exemplifications (e.g. podatnik ‘taxpayer’ > Kowalski ‘male surname’). It is also shown through the results of an original questionnaire study with university student participants. The study inquired about the students’ male and female connotations with masculine generics denoting people involved in politics, sports, art and science (e.g. naukowiec ‘scholar, masc.’) in comparison to phrases with two genders (e.g. naukowiec ‘scholar’/ naukowczyni ‘female scholar’). The forms of the nouns were provided in two orders and the responses studied in relation to participants’ gender. The results are interpreted in terms of the cognitive prototype theory, according to which the prototypical human is male, as expressed by the androcentric rule ‘people = male’. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In languages such as German, French, or Hindi, plural forms of job occupations and societal roles are often in a generic-masculine form instead of a gender-inclusive form. Although meant as ‘generic,’ this generic-masculine form excludes women from everyday language. Specifically, listeners and readers are less likely to think of women when this form is used. Due to the societal relevance of gender-inclusive language, we directly replicated and extended a classic study by Stahlberg, Sczesny, and Braun (2001, Experiment 2) in a multi-lab setting and as a registered confirmatory report. We prompted participants from German-speaking countries to name up to three celebrities each in six categories (e.g., ‘Name three politicians’ or ‘(…) singers’). We then counted how often participants mentioned women. Participants were either prompted with the generic-masculine form, a neutralized control form or one out of three gender-inclusive forms. Our data from twelve labs and N = 2,697 participants replicated the original effect: when prompted with gender-inclusive forms participants mentioned more women than when the generic masculine and the control form were used. Moreover, the effect remained present in multilevel models and when controlling for participants’ sex and their perceived base rate in these celebrity categories (i.e., the expected proportion of women). Other variables, such as political orientation or preference for gender-inclusive language, did not show large effects, either. We discuss the differences between specific gender-inclusive forms (e.g., the internal-I vs. feminine-masculine forms), implications for regulations and guidelines, as well as implications for non-binary and gender-diverse people.

Gender-fair language challenges and dismantles prevailing societal gender preconceptions. Cosmetic advertisements have been criticized for unfair language choices that perpetuate gender stereotypes. This study is a morphosyntactic examination of gender-fair language in cosmetic advertisements. The social constructionist theory underpins the study. Thirty (30) product packages and labels for the Ghanaian market were used in this qualitative descriptive survey. Gendered terms were analyzed on the morphological level using Quirk et al.’s (1985) functional principle of word categorization. The data collected revealed that Gender-unfair language is prevalent in cosmetic advertisements. Product names, descriptions and claims often use gendered nouns, pronouns, adjectives, phrases of different types and imperative clauses. This reinforces the idea that certain beauty concerns and products are exclusively tailored to specific genders. Gender-unfair language in cosmetic advertisements results in a limited representation of beauty ideals and practices. The use of inclusive language and representations that challenge gender stereotypes and promote diversity was recommended for cosmetic advertisers. The paper provides insight into academic discourse and practical approaches in gender, communication and marketing studies.

Grammatical gender form influences readers' mental gender representations. Previous research demonstrates that the generic masculine form leads to male-biased representations, while some alternative forms lead to female-biased representations. The present research examines the recently introduced glottal stop form in spoken language in German, where a glottal stop (similar to a short pause), meant to represent all gender identities, is inserted before the gender-specific ending. In two experiments (total N = 1188), participants listened to sentences in the glottal stop, the generic masculine, or the generic feminine form and classified whether a second sentence about women or men was a sensible continuation. The generic feminine and the glottal stop led to female biases (fewer errors in sentences about women vs. men) and the generic masculine led to a male bias. The biases were smaller for the glottal stop and the generic masculine than for the generic feminine, indicating that the former two are more readily understood as representing both women and men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Letters to the editors of daily newspapers are often used to criticize linguistic phenomena. This paper presents an analysis of the language criticism in letters to the editors of three Austrian daily newspapers (Kronen Zeitung, Kleine Zeitung, and Die Presse), focusing on the argumentative topoi used in letters expressing negative attitudes towards the linguistic phenomena discussed. The analysis includes letters on two examples of natural language change (anglicisms, teutonisms) and on two cases of imposed language change (gender-fair language, political correctness). It is shown that while a number of topoi are used in both cases (mainly general topoi that consider any language change as bad), there are also a number of specific topoi especially in the case of imposed language change, typically claiming that most people are against those changes and that we have other, more important problems to worry about than making the language gender-fair or politically correct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article delves into language criticism in Austrian daily newspapers, specifically examining letters to the editor that express negative views on linguistic changes. It focuses on arguments surrounding natural and imposed language changes like anglicisms, teutonisms, gender-fair language, and political correctness. The analysis uncovers common themes such as language destruction, majority opposition, and the belief that gender-fair language is not a priority. Variations in these themes across newspapers highlight prevalent negative attitudes towards language changes in the letters studied. The study suggests the need for further exploration of positive perspectives on language change and the impact of gender in language criticism. [Extracted from the article]

This paper focuses on gender-fair language and the attitudes of teachers and students of German as a foreign language (DaF) towards its use in university teaching. In the context of the survey study presented here, gender is understood as a construct that is manifested in specific, changing language use variants, such as in personal names. The surveyed teachers and students of applied linguistics at the University are current and future DaF linguists and educators, who, due to social changes, will be increasingly confronted with the issues under study in their professional lives. The aim of the study is, firstly, to determine whether gender-fair language is addressed in the DaF courses under study, if so, in what form and to what extent, and secondly, to record and describe the attitudes of the studied groups towards it, in order to raise awareness of this important phenomenon of contemporary German language use. Consequently, the conducted survey provides information about the presence of gender issues in DaF courses and the attitudes of the two groups towards gender-fair language. The results of the study are discussed in terms of their contribution to the development of gender-sensitive didactics of German as a foreign and as a second language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionThe proliferation of gender-fair language as a medium of communication that represents all genders can be considered as an exciting development in today's rapidly changing world. In this context, the use of the gender asterisk has become especially prominent in German, it being a grammatical gender language. However, critics often argue that gender-fair language makes texts less comprehensible and decreases its aesthetic appeal. The present study tests this assumption for the German language and is the first one to test the influence of an academic background on the comprehensibility of gender-fair language.MethodA text, either written in gender-fair language using the gender star in its singular and plural form or a version using only masculine-only forms, was randomly assigned to 81 adults without an academic background and 82 adults with an academic background (77% women in both groups). Participants were asked to fill out a web-based questionnaire answering questions on text comprehensibility and on their attitudes toward gender-fair language.ResultsThe results show no statistically significant difference in comprehensibility ratings between participants who read a text in gender-fair language and those who read a text in masculine-only language. In addition, attitudes toward gender-fair language did not affect comprehensibility ratings in participants who read the text written in gender-fair language using the gender star. Further, the academic background had no effect on the assessment of gender-fair language.DiscussionTo conclude, the present study suggests that there is no evidence that gender-fair language reduces the comprehensibility of texts.

In many languages with grammatical gender, the use of masculine forms as a generic reference has been associated with a bias favoring masculine-specific representations. This article examines the efficiency of gender-fair forms, specifically gender-unmarked forms (neutralization strategy, e.g., "l'enfant") and contracted double forms (re-feminization strategy, e.g., "un·e enfant"), in reducing gender biases in language. Extensive empirical research has shown that gender-fair forms have the potential to promote more gender-balanced representations. However, the relative efficiency of these strategies remains a subject of debate in the scientific literature. In order to explore these questions, two experiments were conducted in French. We analyzed the response times and percent correct scores using a sentence evaluation paradigm, where the participants had to decide whether a second sentence starting with a gendered personal pronoun ("il" or "elle") was a sensible continuation of the first sentence written in a gender-fair form. Experiment 1 confirmed that gender-unmarked forms are not fully effective in neutralizing the masculine bias. In Experiment 2, a comparison was made between gender-unmarked forms and contracted double forms, to assess their respective abilities to generate more balanced representations. The findings indicated that contracted double forms are more effective in promoting gender balance compared to gender-unmarked forms. This study contributes to the existing scientific literature by shedding light on the relative efficiency of neutralization and re-feminization strategies in reducing gender biases in language. These results have implications for informing efforts to promote more inclusive and unbiased language practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author shows how various grammar topics relevant to personal reference can be presented and taught in GFL/GSL teaching in such a way that the role of grammatical gender in referring to sex and gender roles becomes clear. The aim of what is referred to as gender-sensitive grammar teaching is to introduce German learners to currently discussed aspects of gender-fair language and to enable them to develop their own strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the literature has recognized the successes and challenges resulting from the implementation of gender-fair language (GFL) policies in the school domain and beyond, students and teachers still struggle in engaging with topics concerning gender identity and expression, and in integrating the micro-aspects of gender-nonconforming vocabulary and topics related to gender and sexuality. In the Philippine English language teaching (ELT) context, research on how English language teachers navigate the difficult and ideologically laden terrains of GFL in the classroom has remained underexplored. Through a qualitative survey among 31 Filipino college teachers of English and follow-up email interviews, this paper analyzes the teacher-participants' insights about GFL and its place in ELT, and ways of integrating GFL into the classroom. Findings indicated that GFL ensures inclusivity and promotes visibility of genders, and challenges deep-seated norms of gender asymmetry. The teachers likewise reported that incorporating GFL in ELT helps develop students' social skills and fosters an inclusive learning space. Regarding ways in integrating GFL into ELT, they used GFL- and gender-themed instructional materials, and facilitated class interactions and activities that promote GFL and gender inclusivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many languages with grammatical gender, the use of masculine forms as a generic reference has been associated with a bias favoring masculine-specific representations. This article examines the efficiency of gender-fair forms, specifically gender-unmarked forms (neutralization strategy, e.g., “l'enfant”) and contracted double forms (re-feminization strategy, e.g., “un·e enfant”), in reducing gender biases in language. Extensive empirical research has shown that gender-fair forms have the potential to promote more gender-balanced representations. However, the relative efficiency of these strategies remains a subject of debate in the scientific literature. In order to explore these questions, two experiments were conducted in French. We analyzed the response times and percent correct scores using a sentence evaluation paradigm, where the participants had to decide whether a second sentence starting with a gendered personal pronoun (“il” or “elle”) was a sensible continuation of the first sentence written in a gender-fair form. Experiment 1 confirmed that gender-unmarked forms are not fully effective in neutralizing the masculine bias. In Experiment 2, a comparison was made between gender-unmarked forms and contracted double forms, to assess their respective abilities to generate more balanced representations. The findings indicated that contracted double forms are more effective in promoting gender balance compared to gender-unmarked forms. This study contributes to the existing scientific literature by shedding light on the relative efficiency of neutralization and re-feminization strategies in reducing gender biases in language. These results have implications for informing efforts to promote more inclusive and unbiased language practices.

In this paper we replicated two influential studies on gender-fair language that investigated how gender-fair language influences stereotype perception and recall of exemplars. We also updated the original studies to assess new forms of gender-fair language. A first set of studies replicated Gabriel et al. (2008) by eliciting gender proportion ratings for occupational nouns from adult German native speakers for word pairs, capital I forms and the asterisk. Results were mixed with effects mainly for female-biased nouns. Only the non-binary asterisk form (Lehrer*innen) showed an increase of women for male-biased nouns. A third study replicated Stahlberg and Sczesny’s (2001) naming study. Here, the number of women answers was higher than in the original study and increased when using gender-fair language with a larger increase for capital I forms (LehrerInnen) than for word pairs (Lehrer und Lehrerinnen). Overall, the effects of word pair forms were weaker than those of other forms of gender-fair language.

The present paper reports findings from a controlled large-scale (N = 1018) experimental study investigating how four different gender-fair forms influenced native French speakers' estimated percentage of women compared to the masculine form (interpretable as generic) in 22 non-stereotyped French role nouns. The findings show that the masculine form generated lower perceived percentages of women compared to all other tested forms. In addition, gender-neutral and double forms were found equally efficient in resolving the male bias induced by the masculine form. Since the role nouns were non-stereotyped in terms of gender, these results suggest that the actual form of a role noun has indeed a strong influence on how the gender ratio of that role noun will be perceived. Moreover, the direction of the questionnaire's response scale had a significant effect on the results, which entails methodological implications for future research. Finally, the provided ratios can be used for future studies investigating French role nouns in different gender-fair forms. In sum, our study suggests that gender-fair forms in French are an efficient tool for increasing the visibility of women, at least in nouns representing non-stereotypical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an ongoing debate about the linguistic gender forms that should be used to elicit fair mental representations of all genders. While most languages with grammatical gender traditionally use the masculine form to refer to people in a gender-independent way, numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that this form leads to a male bias in mental representations. In German, the so-called gender star form has been proposed as an alternative to the masculine form, aimed at better representing persons with nonmale gender identities. To provide empirical data on this claim, we compared the neural processing mechanisms elicited by the gender star form with those elicited by the generically intended masculine form during reference resolution. Participants in the present ERP study read sentence pairs in which a group of people was introduced with a role noun in one of the two gender forms and then revealed to be partly comprised of men or women. Following the masculine form, anaphoric references to women (vs. men) resulted in an increased ERP amplitude in the P600 range. In contrast, following the gender star form, the P600 amplitude was increased for references to men (vs. women), albeit in a slightly different spatio-temporal range. The present data thus indicate that the gender star form and the generically intended masculine form impose partially different demands on the syntactic operations performed by the brain during reference resolution but that, in the end, neither form elicits gender-balanced mental representations of men and women in German. • The P600 amplitude was assessed during gender-form-dependent reference resolution. • Generic masculine role nouns hindered the processing of references to women. • Role nouns in the gender star form hindered the processing of references to men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heated societal debates in various countries concern the use of gender-fair language, meant to replace the generic use of grammatically masculine forms. Advocates and opponents of gender-fair language disagree on – among other things – the question of whether masculine forms leave women underrepresented in people's minds. We investigated the influence of linguistic form on the mental representations of gender in French. Participants read a short text about a professional gathering and estimated the percentages of men and women present at the gathering. Results showed higher estimates of the percentage of women in response to two gender-fair forms relative to the masculine form. Comparisons with normed data on people's perception of real-world gender ratios additionally showed that the gender-fair forms removed or reduced a male bias for neutral- and female-stereotyped professions, respectively, yet induced a female bias for male-stereotyped professions. Thus, gender-fair language increases the prominence of women in the mind, but has varying effects on consistency, i.e., the match with default perceptions of real-world gender ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Societies that need to deal with diversity also need to deal with the ways in which their members use texts, conventions for different text types and, consequently, with the production of texts itself. As societies change and become more diverse, texts will have to reflect this change eventually. Yet, how exactly does this social diversity affect our minds? How does the awareness of diversity influence our texts and their production? In this article, I will examine - primarily on the basis of general observations in the press and the media - the current developments in changes in German society. I will discuss social diversity and illustrate the different ways in which these factors influence speakers of German when they produce texts. By using examples from three categories of texts - oral texts, forms of address, job advertisements - I will show changes in text types and their conventions. The result of this study will be that a mix of different denominations or labels can increase the number of people reached, that language can perform substantially more functions and be substantially less discriminatory than is usually assumed, and that at the end of the day, generic masculine forms almost always address male persons exclusively. We will see that text types and their conventions are subject to change, and that this change is still evolving. Where this evolution of text types and their conventions will lead, remains to be seen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender-fair language is a contested topic in contemporary Germany. Many reports on the introduction of language changes meant to reduce discrimination result in heated debates in print, online and social media. In this article, I qualitatively analyse a selected debate on gender-fair language on Twitter to find out how excessive the language use is and who makes use of what kind of excessive language. The time frame of analysis covers a critical discourse moment in 2018 during which the Council for German Orthography for the first time dealt with new gender-fair spelling variants. Since the Council, being the only official language planning institution for German, publishes the official regulations on orthography valid in schools and administrative bodies in Germany, its decision was highly anticipated and disputed. The analysed debate contained only a few argumentative exchanges on the topic. In general, it can be said that Twitter was mostly used to take a stance, not to engage in discussions. The overall style of the debate was polemic and exhibited many and various instances of excessive language use, mostly by opponents of gender-fair language. This group made use of vulgar language, pejoratives and in some cases direct insults. They especially questioned their adversaries’ mental health. Only a few proponents used excessive language when they insinuated a lack of mental capacity in their adversaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender-fair language makes women and other genders, their interests, and their achievements more visible and is particularly relevant to grammatical gender languages such as German, in which most nouns and personal pronouns are assigned to a specific gender. The present study tested the often repeated critical claims that gender-fair language impairs the comprehensibility and aesthetic appeal of videos. In an experiment with N = 105 students, participants watched a video on self-determination theory, either with masculine-only forms or using the glottal stop, a form of spoken gender-fair language that inserts an abrupt and sustained closure of the vocal cords in the larynx between the masculine form or the stem and the feminine ending of words (e.g. in German "Leserʔinnen", ∼feʔmale readers). Subsequently, participants completed a questionnaire regarding the video's comprehensibility. The results show no statistically significant impairment regarding the general subjective comprehensibility (partial η 2 <.01), the ease of ascribing meaning to the words (partial η 2 <.01), the ease of decoding the syntax of the sentences (partial η 2 =.03), or the aesthetic appeal of the videos (partial η 2 =.02). The critics' claims are therefore questioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates language policy formation through participatory and deliberative methods and, more concretely, the regulation of gender-neutral language in Barcelona City Council (Spain). Through an argumentative approach to policy, the paper examines a specific language policy idea, process and solution, and the accompanying discursive argumentation used by decision-makers. The paper (a) shows that linguistic preconceptions and power relations may constitute a potential barrier to effective deliberation on language, and (b) argues that if local modes of governance (as opposed to the centralised role assigned to language academies) are going to be used to prescribe language practices in institutional contexts, arrangements should be put in place to provide access to a full range of views about language, generate reflective judgments and promote a public exchange of arguments. The paper concludes with a discussion about the implications of this study for the inclusion of deliberation in language policy-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of gender-fair language remains rather controversial in France. Although some recent changes have taken place at institutional level, forms associated with inclusive writing are still discouraged in numerous legal settings. Inspired by the broader research framework of the Eurolect Observatory Project, 1 which focuses on the cross-language contact that derives from the multilingual drafting and translation of EU legislation, this paper investigates the possible dialogue between supranational and national legal varieties and the way(s) in which the topical issue of gender is addressed in French legal provisions. Based on qualitative and quantitative analysis of a corpus consisting of (i) EU directives, (ii) their implementing measures in the French national legal system, and (iii) French national laws, the study investigates different linguistic strategies for expressing gender, which can be categorised under the tripartite division of masculine, binary, or neutral forms. This contribution joins an existing body of recent literature on the discursive articulation of gender in legislative languages (Cavagnoli and Mori, 2019) and narrows down the focus to gender-related provisions in the French language. The analysis is guided by the following research questions: Can a potential intralinguistic dialogue be observed between supranational and national varieties in French legal discourse? And if so, can such a potential dialogue be said to be moving towards (more) gender-fair representation in the law? • Masculine forms in the law are a case of pragmatic indeterminacy. • The strategies used to represent gender in French legal discourse still lack convergence. • The inconsistent use of gender-fair strategies may result in male-biased inferences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Gender & Language is the property of University of Toronto Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Education aims to create equality and respect through its components. One of those components is the learning delivery of any subject matter wherein language is mainly utilized. The study aimed to determine the usage of the gender sensitive language in teaching basic education at Don Honorio Ventura State University. It specifically sought to answer on the level of familiarity of the teachers on the gender-fair language; the frequency on the teacher's usage of the gender-fair language; the common gender-fair terminologies used in motivation, discussion, performance tasks, assessments, and assignments; and the difficulties that the teachers encountered in using gender-fair language. The study used sequential explanatory type of research. It used questionnaires and interviews in gathering data. There are 65 participants who answered the survey and 11 of them participated in the focal group discussion. Based on the findings, the teachers are familiar with the gender-fair language but they sometimes use them in various areas of teaching such as in motivation, discussion, performance task, assessment, and assignment due to the topic pertinence and student ability. With those findings, the conduct of wide dissemination through capability building on the use of gender-fair language is still needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender stereotypes and related gender discrimination are encoded in and transmitted through language, contributing to gender inequality. In this article, we review research findings on subtle linguistic means of communicating gender stereotypes and gender hierarchies. Our goal is to provide a comprehensive repository of various instances of subtle linguistic biases potentially useful in creating a text analysis toolbox to quantify gender bias in language. Our focus is predominantly on those areas that have received less attention both in research and in policy making. As gender inequalities are communicated through linguistic practices, attempts to change social reality include changes in language. Therefore, we suggest possible interventions for practices of gender equality in language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Language is a powerful tool to communicate ideologies and build a society. Through language, we can see what kind of society we are living in; and apparently, we are living in a society where sexism flourishes without us realizing it. This type of sexism is called as subtle sexism, appearing to be unintentional and harmless because the unequal and unfair treatmeant of women is perceived to be normative. In Indonesia, subtle sexism can be found in EFL textbooks. As the main language input, textbooks can transfer cultural values and ideologies through the targeted language. Hence, subtle sexism is ‘softly’ hidden on the pages and readers – students in this case – are not aware that they are being indoctrinated. This study examined an Indonesian EFL textbook entitled Bahasa Inggris Kelas XII for the twelfth graders in Indonesia which was published by the Ministry of Education and Culture. By implementing content analysis, this research has two objectives, i.e. (1) to find out whether the book promotes subtle sexism, and (2) how teachers, as the last filters, can confront subtle sexism in the book and other EFL textbooks in general. The results show that even though the textbook does not reflect any signs of blatant and covert sexism, it still promotes subtle sexism that the writers might not aware of. Also, this study tries to propose some suggestions for teachers to confront subtle sexism in EFL textbooks, such as using a gender bias checklist, making changes or creating new original materials, fostering a critical class discussion by using the sexist textbooks, and teaching gender-fair language.

Recently, the gender asterisk ("Gendersternchen") has become more widespread in grammatical gender languages in order to represent all genders. Such gender-fair language is intended to help better address women and other genders and make their interests and achievements more visible. Critics often argue this would make the language less comprehensible and less aesthetically appealing. Two experiments examined the effects of the gender asterisk on text comprehensibility, aesthetic perception, and interest. N = 159 and N = 127 participants were randomly provided with a text in either masculine-only form or alternatively in gender-fair language with the gender asterisk. The results of the first experiment showed no impairment of comprehensibility and aesthetic evaluation of the texts by the gender asterisk and no effect on interest in the game, while the second experiment showed significant impairments of comprehensibility, aesthetic evaluation, and interest in the game by the gender asterisk. The proportion of singular forms is discussed as a possible explanation for the different results. Experiment 1 predominantly used plural forms like die Spieler*innen (∼"the fe*male players") and did not include forms such as der*die Spieler*in (∼"the*the fe*male player"), whereas Experiment 2 included many such more complex singular forms. We argue that this issue might be crucial, and that it deserves full attention in future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the gender asterisk (“Gendersternchen”) has become more widespread in grammatical gender languages in order to represent all genders. Such gender-fair language is intended to help better address women and other genders and make their interests and achievements more visible. Critics often argue this would make the language less comprehensible and less aesthetically appealing. Two experiments examined the effects of the gender asterisk on text comprehensibility, aesthetic perception, and interest. N = 159 and N = 127 participants were randomly provided with a text in either masculine-only form or alternatively in gender-fair language with the gender asterisk. The results of the first experiment showed no impairment of comprehensibility and aesthetic evaluation of the texts by the gender asterisk and no effect on interest in the game, while the second experiment showed significant impairments of comprehensibility, aesthetic evaluation, and interest in the game by the gender asterisk. The proportion of singular forms is discussed as a possible explanation for the different results. Experiment 1 predominantly used plural forms like die Spieler*innen (∼“the fe*male players”) and did not include forms such as der*die Spieler*in (∼“the*the fe*male player”), whereas Experiment 2 included many such more complex singular forms. We argue that this issue might be crucial, and that it deserves full attention in future studies.

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Language is one of the most powerful means through which sexism and gender discrimination are perpetrated and reproduced. Language subtly reproduces the societal asymmetries of status and power in favor of men, which are attached to the corresponding social roles (Menegatti and Rubini 2017). Gender stereotypes are reproduced in the language and mirrored in lexicographic works. Gender-fair language aims at reducing gender stereotyping and discrimination (Sczesny, Formanowicz and Moser 2016). The principle of gender equality and non-discrimination on gender grounds is firmly rooted in the legislation of the European Union (Gender-neutral Language in the European Parliament). However, the principles of gender neutrality in language require the use of different strategies in different languages depending on different language systems. English is a natural gender language in which personal nouns are mostly gender-neutral. Croatian on the other hand is a grammatical gender language in which all nouns are gender-specific as are personal and possessive pronouns, adjectives, and some verbal forms. Thus, it is impossible to use English gender-neutral strategies in Croatian. In the paper, the author analyzes the approach to Croatian feminine and masculine professional nouns and problems of Croatian word-formation connected with stereotypes and their implications for e-lexicography on the example of Jena and Mrežnik. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hen is a Swedish gender-neutral pronoun used for non-binary individuals and as a generic singular pronoun form. Hen was added to the Swedish Academy Glossary (SAOL) in 2015, and opponents of hen have argued that gender-neutral pronouns are difficult to process, and therefore should not be used. As of yet, this has not been empirically tested. This pre-registered study used eye-tracking to experimentally test if hen has a processing cost by measuring the process of understanding whom a pronoun refers to (i.e., pronoun resolution). Participants (N = 120) read 48 sentence pairs where the first sentence included a noun referring to a person (e.g., sister, hairdresser, person) and the second included a pronoun referring to the noun. The pronouns were either gendered (she and he) or gender-neutral (hen). The nouns were either neutral (e.g., person, colleague) or gendered, either by lexically referring to gender (e.g., sister, king), or by being associated with stereotypes based on occupational gender segregation (e.g., occupational titles like hairdresser, carpenter). We tested if hen had a greater processing cost than gendered pronouns, and whether the type of noun moderated this effect. The hypotheses were that hen referring to neutral nouns would lead to a smaller processing cost than hen referring to gendered nouns. Furthermore, we hypothesized that hen referring to lexically gendered nouns would lead to larger processing costs than stereotypically gendered role nouns. The processing cost of hen was measured by reading time spent on three regions of the sentence pairs; the pronoun, the spillover region (i.e., the words following the pronoun), and the noun. The only processing cost for hen occurred in the spillover region. The processing cost in this region was greater when hen referred to neutral nouns than when hen referred to a noun associated with gender. In contrast to the hypothesis, the type of gender information associated with the noun did not interact with these effects (i.e., the same reading time for hen following e.g., the queen or carpenter). Altogether, the results do not support that gender-neutral pronouns should be avoided because they are difficult to process.

The aim of the present article is to analyse the existing publications dealing with Czech gender linguistics, and attitudes of their authors. Firstly, the authors of the article present an overview of the development of the discipline, beginning with its rejection to today’s acceptance. They then deal with the various ways to label people with regard to gender, and consider the formation of nouns labelling women as one of the strategies to make women visible in the language. The authors also inform readers about the psycholinguistic testing of the “generic” masculine in the Czech language and about the possibilities of Czech gender-fair language. The authors discuss the proper names of persons from the perspective of gender and personal identities, while they briefly mention translatology publications which reflect the gender perspective. Additionally, the authors present a call for further research in certain areas.

Hen is a Swedish gender-neutral pronoun used for non-binary individuals and as a generic singular pronoun form. Hen was added to the Swedish Academy Glossary (SAOL) in 2015, and opponents of hen have argued that gender-neutral pronouns are difficult to process, and therefore should not be used. As of yet, this has not been empirically tested. This pre-registered study used eye-tracking to experimentally test if hen has a processing cost by measuring the process of understanding whom a pronoun refers to (i.e., pronoun resolution). Participants (N = 120) read 48 sentence pairs where the first sentence included a noun referring to a person (e.g., sister, hairdresser, person) and the second included a pronoun referring to the noun. The pronouns were either gendered (she and he) or gender-neutral (hen). The nouns were either neutral (e.g., person, colleague) or gendered, either by lexically referring to gender (e.g., sister, king), or by being associated with stereotypes based on occupational gender segregation (e.g., occupational titles like hairdresser, carpenter). We tested if hen had a greater processing cost than gendered pronouns, and whether the type of noun moderated this effect. The hypotheses were that hen referring to neutral nouns would lead to a smaller processing cost than hen referring to gendered nouns. Furthermore, we hypothesized that hen referring to lexically gendered nouns would lead to larger processing costs than stereotypically gendered role nouns. The processing cost of hen was measured by reading time spent on three regions of the sentence pairs; the pronoun, the spillover region (i.e., the words following the pronoun), and the noun. The only processing cost for hen occurred in the spillover region. The processing cost in this region was greater when hen referred to neutral nouns than when hen referred to a noun associated with gender. In contrast to the hypothesis, the type of gender information associated with the noun did not interact with these effects (i.e., the same reading time for hen following e.g., the queen or carpenter). Altogether, the results do not support that gender-neutral pronouns should be avoided because they are difficult to process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research articles in English are read and composed by individuals from many lingua-cultural backgrounds; this diversity in the users of English as an academic lingua franca is likely to increase further with the rise of open access (OA) publishing. In the light of this, a pertinent question is how gender is constructed in international research articles. This study examines OA articles (N = 1003) with respect to the use of epicene pronouns, third-person singular pronouns of indeterminate gender. The analysis of pronominal reference shows that the non-gendered singular they was the most common pronoun overall, closely followed by gendered he or she forms. The use of generic he also occurred with some frequency. Further, the study investigates what kinds of author guidelines OA journals have for the use of gender-fair language. The analysis reveals that specific guidelines were generally uncommon, and that there was no immediate correspondence between policy and practice in cases where journals provided guidelines. Taken together, the findings disclose a state of flux in the use of epicene pronouns in OA articles. A key issue in international publishing and journal editing is thus to raise awareness about gendered language through guidelines and submission checklists. • A corpus study was conducted to examine epicene pronouns in open access articles. • Epicene pronouns are third-person singular pronouns of indeterminate gender. • They was the most common pronoun (46.8%, N = 1,173), followed by he or she (38.5%). • The gender-biased 'generic' he was also still in use (14.7%). • Most journals did not provide any guidelines for the use of gendered language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyses the use of GFL in a corpus of 187 academic texts created by pre-service teachers. It reveals how participants reached a balance between the recommendations of GFL guides and the standard normative grammar included in the school curriculum. The study shows that although future teachers are aware of GFL and sensitive to discrimination, they used a combination of the generic masculine with GFL recommendations when deemed necessary. This has great pedagogical potential for the Spanish classroom, together with the potential to transform language and society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]