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Refugee women face significant challenges when seeking employment in Western host countries. To advance gender-sensitive perspectives within migration and refugee research, this study examines differences in employment outcomes between refugee women and men. Specifically, this study provides a nuanced picture of six indicators of employment outcomes, including pay, fixed-term versus permanent employment contract, overqualification, career prospects, an at-home feeling in the workplace and the ability to talk to colleagues about personal problems. The study also shows that individuals' occupational status plays a role in gender disparities. Our findings, based on a recent survey of refugees working in Austria, reveal several gender gaps, with an especially significant gap regarding fixed-term employment contracts. Refugee women, who are more likely to be disadvantaged in employment outcomes, benefit disproportionately from working in high-skill jobs. The findings underscore the complex nature of gendered patterns in labour market integration of refugees and imply specific policies addressing gender inequality in this setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the gender pay gap within Portugal's informal economies, analyzing data spanning the years 2005 to 2020 using Vector Error Correction Models (VECM). The study focuses on four key variables: employers (total), wage and salaried workers (female), wage and salaried workers (male), and educational attainment by way of completing a minimum of upper secondary schooling among a population of age 25+. The findings reveal nuanced relationships among these variables: educational attainment (EA) positively impacts the total number of employers within Portugal's informal economies. A significant correlation exists between EA and wage and salaried workers (female), albeit with complex dynamics. Similarly, EA correlates with wage and salaried workers (male), though the influence is less pronounced. EA also demonstrates a significant association with educational attainment through completing upper secondary schooling among a population of age 25+. These results underscore the multifaceted nature of the gender pay gap within informal economies, influenced by a variety of factors beyond education. Policymakers and stakeholders should consider these findings when designing strategies to promote gender equality in this critical sector, recognizing the need for comprehensive and context-specific approaches. Further research is encouraged to deepen our understanding of this issue and inform evidence-based interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present research aims to reveal the characteristics of the gender pay gap phenomenon in domestic external trade in goods as a gap-filling analysis. Relying on the data between 2019 and 2022, we point out that the basic international trends can also be observed in the case of companies involved in domestic external trade in goods, i.e. with the increase in the size of the company and the higher the position, the gender wage gap clearly increases. The presence of the glass ceiling can also be easily identified in the case of entities dealing with external trade in goods, so female managers are typically pushed out of the management of companies with more than 50 employees. However, when examining the results side, companies managed by men contribute to the development of the external trade in goods turnover in Hungary with an average of five times greater per capita import performance and almost eight times greater per capita export performance, i.e. between the average income of women and men in the field of external trade in goods, as well as their contribution to external trade in goods a positive relationship can be identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the effects of eliminating Gender Pay Gap on income and poverty. Drawing upon the European Statistics on Income and Living Conditions for Portugal, we use econometric tools to estimate the counterfactual earnings. The results obtained over the period under study (2014, 2017 and 2019) show that the average hourly income of women would increase by around 38%; the average annual income of households with women in the labor market would be around 22% higher; the poverty indicators would fall by 5% points; single female households and Madeira region would show a more significant decline in poverty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung: DIW-Wochenbericht is the property of DIW Berlin and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

We examine the plausibility of using prejudice-based discrimination to explain the wage differences among young men and women in eleven European countries. Utilizing a sample of over 20,000 individuals and estimating a series of country-specific regression models that adjust for ability and selection bias, we find evidence that leads to a good possibility of prejudice-based discrimination in Greece, Italy, Spain, Czechia, Hungary, and the UK. In the UK, this possibility of discrimination is mitigated to an extent by gender differences in credentials. In Austria, Germany, Denmark, and Switzerland, we find no evidence for prejudice-based discrimination. Oaxaca decompositions reveal that if women's own human capital characteristics were rewarded at the same level as men's in the former (six) countries, they would expect a wage gain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Men and women are well aware of the gender pay gap. The present study involved four experiments (N = 341, student sample, N = 203 general population sample) in which we indirectly measured empathy by asking participants to rate the non-complex and complex emotions they felt when reading a scenario in which a woman described her pay situation. Experiments 1 (equal pay vs. unequal pay) and 2, 3 & 4 (angry vs. depressed reaction to pay inequality) investigate differences in empathy arousal between men and women by assessing their emotions. Globally, both men and women identified correctly emotions expressed by the women victim of pay inequity. On complex emotions, women express more other suffering emotions than men, only in Experiment 4. Coupled with expression of guilt/shame for men only, these results are discussed in the perspective of future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender inequality affects the labour market of any territory. Despite government measures to eradicate it, it continues to cause discrimination. In this article, the gender inequality in the European labour market between 2002 and 2021 is analysed to advance the knowledge of this complex phenomenon. After reviewing the main theoretical contributions, the most suitable indicators are defined. The results reveal that the gender pay gap has increased in the European labour market, despite indicators such as the Gender Equality Index, employment rates, or levels of occupational segregation showing favourable progress. Therefore, governments must design efficient policies, mainly on pay equity, to achieve equal conditions in the European labour market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use a database composed of 2,545 Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) worldwide for the period 2008–18 to explore the effect of a larger share of women's workforce on both staff wages and overall monetary compensation within MFIs. MFIs are different from other industries, as they are traditionally women‐centered, i.e. they have a significant share of women employees at every level of the corporate hierarchy and mostly serve women clients. Applying both traditional estimation methodology and techniques aimed at accounting for possible endogeneity among the main variables, we find that a higher proportion of women on staff significantly increases the average expense per worker (which also includes the incentive components of remuneration) while the effects are considerably smoothed (or not significant) on the base salary. This leads us to conclude that, unlike what is seen in other sectors of the economy, MFIs do not pay women less. Yet, significant positive effects of women in the workforce, especially on average overall monetary compensation, suggest that women are likely to exploit their superior skills and/or gender affinity advantages with customers of the same gender to enhance MFIs' efficiency and profitability, thereby achieving higher incentive compensation, mostly in the form of bonuses and other benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the effects of low-skilled immigration inflows on the motherhood gaps in wages among high-skilled women. Applying IV methods to U.S. census and ACS data, this paper first confirms previous findings in the literature that mothers are less willing to increase their work hours than childless women with inflows of low-skilled immigrants. However, the main contribution of the paper is showing that as the low-skilled labor supply increases, high-skilled mothers achieve more wage improvement than otherwise identical nonmothers. The findings in this paper imply that an increase in the low-skilled labor supply reduces the gender pay gap among high-skilled native workers, and most importantly, it is driven by women with children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The optimal contract theory posits that an effective compensation plan should be based on performance. Globally, legislators are concerned about the gender pay gap due to stereotypes against women in line with congruity theory. Despite the plethora of gender-related studies, empirical evidence on the gender pay gap at the upper-echelon management level is limited, especially in Africa. Hence, the study examines the effect of CEO gender on CEO compensation in the Nigerian deposit money banks using a longitudinal research design. The study employed the ordinary least square (OLS), fixed effect method, and random effect method to analyze the 144 firm-year observations collected from the Nigerian Exchange Group (NGX) factbooks and the financial reports of 12 banks during 2011–2022. The Hausman Test (chi sq = 3.623, P = 0.003) and Redundant Fixed Effect Test (chi sq = 8.159, P = 0.000) indicated that the appropriate method of reporting is the fixed effect method. The association between CEO gender and CEO compensation (coeff = –8.690 and t = –10.31) is statistically negatively related. The study concluded a gender pay gap in favor of men among Nigerian Nigerian deposit money banks’ CEOs. These findings align with the congruity theory. The study recommends a mandatory gender pay parity plan in line with the optimal contract theory to reduce gender pay inequality.

We argue that women in the care workforce face a wage penalty because care work is perceived as something that people, especially women, are meant to do out of love (and for free). We focus on care labor, which is aligned with stereotypes about women's natural abilities as caregivers, to show that low wages cannot be explained by counter-stereotypic behavior alone. Instead, low wages in care labor can be explained by a perceived love versus money tradeoff. This tradeoff exists not only because of intrinsic rewards and fears of commodifying care but because of the idea that trading love for money amounts to trading the sacred for the profane. In other words, care workers are underpaid because many people, either implicitly or explicitly, perceive the very act of making money as counter to care, a stereotypically-feminine form of work. This stereotypical association contributes to the gender pay gap more generally because it implies that the work women are suited for is work that should be done for free. We expand on this idea with future directions and practice implications, which include building communal spaces for care workers to facilitate communication and organizing around higher pay and better working conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global economy is currently facing many challenges, some old and persistent, and some new, in various forms. Gender inequality in the labour market is an older problem that has a global dimension and affects women both in terms of labour force participation and pay. For equal work and similar responsibilities, women earn on average significantly less than men. This paper aims to address gender pay inequalities as a problem of the global economy. The aim of the paper is to review theoretical approaches and explore the extent to which these theories can explain the gender pay gap. The first part of the paper argues for the ethical dimension of the problem studied. Attention is then focused on the main myths that cast doubt on the reality of gender pay discrimination. In the final part, human capital theory, game theory and the theory of labour's contribution to productivity are discussed. Our thesis is that these theories, at a particular level, offer only partial, unsatisfactory explanations. Taken together they provide detail and offer richer explanations of the gender wage gap.

Music composers exemplify precarious work: they historically have been freelancers and have relied on multiple jobs to subsidize their creative work. We focus here on the gender pay gap amidst such precariousness—heeding their income earned solely from composition and from the totality of jobs recently held. There is no gender pay gap when it comes to income earned from composition but there is a significant gap for income earned from all jobs, showing that women composers face relative disadvantage in subsidizing their creative work. We also find that men and women composers experience different and racialized returns to their capitals and career positioning when navigating precarious work. These findings have lessons for multiple literatures—including those on the new sociology of work and on creative careers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Sexuality, Gender & Policy Journal is the property of Wiley-Blackwell and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Drawing upon contemporary research, this paper examines whether there is a relationship of STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths) bachelor and master graduates to the gender pay gap (GPG) in the 27 EU Member states in 2013–2020 using a novel cross‐sectional data set based on the 2013 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). International panel data were analysed with the dynamic modelling fixed effects method and compared with the results received from the cross‐sectional analysis executed with the help of Bayesian model averaging methods. Our findings suggest that STEM education plays a significant role in forming the GPG. We can see a negative, robust and statistically significant effect of bachelor‐ and master‐level female STEM graduates on the GPG and a positive statistically significant effect of bachelor‐ and master‐level male STEM graduates on the GPG. The permanently lower women‐to‐men ratio in STEM education and those employed in high‐end sectors of science and technology can be one of the drivers of the persistent GPG in developed countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine how the gender of business owners is related to the wages paid to female relative to male employees working in their firms. Using Finnish register data and employing firm fixed effects, we find that the gender pay gap is—starting from a gender pay gap of 11 to 12%—two to three percentage points lower for hourly wages in female-owned firms than in male-owned firms. Results are robust to how the wage is measured, as well as to various further robustness checks. More importantly, we find substantial differences between industries. While, for instance, in the manufacturing sector, the gender of the owner plays no role in the gender pay gap, in several service sector industries, like ICT or business services, no or a negligible gender pay gap can be found, but only when firms are led by female business owners. Businesses with male ownership maintain a gender pay gap of around 10% also in the latter industries. With increasing firm size, the influence of the gender of the owner, however, fades. In large firms, it seems that others—firm managers—determine wages and no differences in the pay gap are observed between male- and female-owned firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gender pay gap or gender gap is a relative disparity between women and men which is reflected in a variety of sectors in many societies. This difference exists in many countries and industries and is often related to factors such as occupational segregation, and differences in education and experience. The gender gap must also be considered in the context of gender inequality. The focus of this paper is to analyse the gender pay gap and gender inequality in participation in the labour market in Albanian society. Albanian society is committed to and has made significant progress towards gender equality policies. However, the gender gap is still present. The paper aims to analyse and interpret indicators of the Albanian gender pay gap in the context of culture of gender roles. Cultural values and socio-cultural conditions of one's society significantly impact the gender gap. The paper will highlight the sources of the gender gap in Albania as cultural and socio-economic. Understanding the gender inequality in Albanian society requires a complex analysis that examines the impact of socialisation, cultural norms and values, the division of gender roles, access to public life and the social privileges that gendering creates asymmetrically for men and women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The gender pay gap is a well-documented phenomenon in labor economics. Based on the 2018 Structure of Earnings Survey (SES), the authors estimate the impact of observable characteristics on the gender pay gap in Visegrad Group countries and provide policy recommendations on reducing the gender pay gap. Design/methodology/approach: The Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition is applied to estimate the values of explained and unexplained parts of the gender pay gap. Gender pay gap in unadjusted as well as adjusted form is estimated using data on the individual level. Findings: The results show that unadjusted gender pay gap proved to be stable at more than 20%. The authors found evidence that education widens gender pay gap implying that men have higher returns on education than women. Tertiary education proved to be the highest contributor to widening of gender pay gap. Results also show that there is strong sectoral and occupational segregation. Decomposition proved that only 21% of gender pay gap could be explained by observed characteristics. The unexplained part showed negative values, meaning women would have higher wages, if they had characteristics like men. Research limitations/implications: Structure of Earnings Survey data are published every four years; therefore the authors' dataset from year 2018 might not completely reflect today's reality. Unfortunately, newer data are note available yet. Second, Structure of Earning Survey data do not contain variables representing social factors of respondents like marital status, number of children or labour market absence due to birth or childcare. Third, data used for this study do not contain firms that have less than 10 employees; therefore, considerable portion of the labour market is omitted. Originality/value: Results of this study will help policymakers understand the roots and causes of the gender pay gap in Visegrad Group countries but addressing this issue requires further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Employees' perceived fairness of their pay is critical for their satisfaction, commitment and job engagement. Women comprise nearly 50 per cent of the modern workforce; therefore, their satisfaction with their pay is crucial for organizations. However, statistics show that the gender pay gap is still persistent all around the world, and has even widened post the Covid-19 pandemic. To move ahead, taking a few steps backwards sometimes becomes imperative. This paper is a stepping stone in that direction as it argues that the widening of the 'gender pay gap' is deeply rooted in the institutionalization of 'gendered notions' in organizations. To efficiently tackle gender-related power imbalance in organizations, it is important to understand how a 'gendered organization' came into being and its effects cascaded over the decades. Moreover, this area of research has numerous scholarly contributions that span more than a hundred years. This wide gamut of research not only intimidates new scholars but also makes it extremely difficult for them to extract relevant information. To bridge this gap, the main objective of this study is to present a crisp review on the evolution and institutionalization of 'Gendered Organizations' and discuss their impact on gender-related issues, particularly, the 'Gender Pay Gap'. Drawing on Institutional, Human Capital and Feminist Theories, this paper sheds light on the seminal work by gender scholars and illustrates how gender pay gap is a consequence of institutionalized gendered norms and occupational sex segregation. This review enhances the comprehensive contemplation of gender-related issues in organizations and encourages practitioners to devise concrete means to battle its social impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors argue that paid providers of care services in the United States (in health, education, and social service industries) are less able than providers of business services to capture value-added or to extract rents because limited consumer sovereignty, incomplete information regarding quality, and large positive externalities reduce their relative market power. In addition, many care jobs enforce normative responsibility for others and require specific skills that limit cross-industry mobility. Analysis of Current Population Survey data for 2014 to 2019 reveals significant pay penalties in care services relative to business services, controlling for factors such as gender, education, occupation, and public or private employment. Women's concentration in care services explains a significant proportion of the gender wage gap and raises the possibility of significant potential benefits from industry-level bargaining strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gender pay gap, a global issue, reflects the persistent inequality between men and women in the workforce. India, despite progress in various aspects, still grapples with significant disparities in earnings between genders. This article explores the multifaceted nature of the gender pay gap in India, examining its causes and potential solutions. It also highlights India’s achievements in narrowing the gap in fields such as health care, education, and creative industries. Government initiatives and policies, like the Gender Budget, play a crucial role in addressing this issue, but challenges like unconscious biases and occupational segregation remain. While India has taken the first few steps toward gender pay parity, there is much work to be done to ensure equal opportunities and compensation for all.

This paper aims to investigate the patterns of gender inequalities in the Information and Communication (ICT) sector in European Union (EU) countries. Based on secondary data from Eurostat, a cluster analysis has been conducted to identify clusters of EU countries with various patterns of dependencies among the gender pay gap, female entrepreneurship, and employment in the ICT sector. Three clusters of EU countries have been identified with different patterns of the situation as regards women in this sector. In countries belonging to the first cluster, a higher level of gender pay gap coexists with the lowest share of female participation in the ICT sector and features the choice of entrepreneurship rather than employment. In countries of the second cluster, the lowest gender pay gap is observed together with an increase in female employment in the ICT sector as compared to the countries in the first cluster, and a higher share of employed women than entrepreneurs. In the countries of the third cluster, the moderate gender pay gap found therein is associated with the highest share of female ICT entrepreneurs, and is higher than the share of employed professionals. The discovery of the various patterns of the co-existence of the gender pay gap and women’s participation in the ICT sector reveal that the pay gap is rather the factor preventing women from entering this sector, as there is limited potential to push them towards entrepreneurship instead of paid employment. The authors’ results contribute to the theory of entrepreneurship and gender studies by investigating gender gaps in entrepreneurship and wages in the ICT sector as a primary sector.

Prior research suggests that gender differences in hours worked play an important role in the gender pay gap. Yet common estimates of the wage returns to hours worked are close to zero, implying that hours differences explain little of the gender wage gap, even though men work more hours than women on average. However, while the wage returns to hours worked within occupations are small, the authors document that the wage returns to average hours worked across occupations are large. They develop a conceptual framework that reconciles these facts. Findings show that, under some assumptions, gender differences in hours worked can account for a substantial portion of the gender wage gap and that increases in the returns to hours worked over the past four decades slowed progress in reducing the gender pay gap. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The increased emphasis on reimbursement, diversity, and burnout in hip and knee arthroplasty necessitates a foundational understanding of the surgeon workforce. The purpose of the study was to cross sectionally survey a representative sample of the AAHKS surgeon membership on the subject of salary, practice patterns, and demographic factors to establish a baseline framework for future advocacy efforts and initiatives. Methods: An online survey was sent to AAHKS members between December 20, 2022 and January 19, 2023. Surgeon demographic data, experience, practice geography and type, and annual case volume were solicited. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to describe the association of respondent characteristics with reported salary directly from patient care, as well as indirect revenue streams. Results: A total of 730 AAHKS members responded to the survey. The largest proportion of surgeons performed 251-400 cases annually (36%); 81% (n = 592) and 93% (n = 679) of respondents identified as white and male, respectively. Case volume was the primary determinant for surgeon salary, followed by practice type, years in practice, and gender. After controlling for confounding variables, multivariate analyses revealed the direct salary of women surgeons was 14.4% less than men [95% confidence interval, 0.4%-28.3%]. When considering indirect revenue, the gender pay gap widened. Salary was not associated with reported hours worked per week, geographic location, or ethnicity. Conclusions: Salary is an important but underdiscussed subject that reflects the realities of our culture and value system in medicine. A direct relationship between salary and modifiable variables like case volume is clear. However, after controlling for confounders, women arthroplasty surgeons still earn 86 cents on the dollar compared to their male colleagues from direct surgical revenue.

Uptake of Shared Parental Leave (SPL) in the UK remains poor, with fewer than 2% of eligible fathers utilising the policy since its introduction in 2015. With limited extant research addressing the policy, reasons behind the low level of uptake remain unclear. Specifically, the role of work (family supportive organisation perceptions [FSOP]) and gender-related factors (perceived social identity threat and traditional gender role orientation) in men’s attitudes towards SPL have been largely overlooked. This study sought to identify the extent to which work and gender-related factors influenced employed men’s attitudes towards SPL, utilising social role theory to understand the mechanisms underpinning these relationships. A survey of 120 employed men captured attitudes towards SPL, traditional gender role orientation, perceived social identity threat, and FSOP. Results showed that perceived social identity threat was positively associated with traditional gender role orientation, which was, in turn, the mechanism through which FSOP and perceived social identity threat affected attitudes towards SPL. At low levels, FSOP moderated the relationship between perceived social identity threat and traditional gender role orientation, but did not moderate the indirect effect between perceived threat and attitudes towards SPL. Theoretical contributions and recommendations for organisations to improve workplace gender equality are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyzed gender pay gap in academia using detailed performance data of all faculty members at the Beedie School of Business, Simon Fraser University, during 2012–2022. Although we initially observed a small average pay gap in favor of male academics, we found that female academics received higher remuneration compared to their male counterparts, once we controlled for research and teaching productivity, prior education and work experience, ethnicity, and various academic appointments. Our results provide an insight into possible sources of gender bias and highlight the need to control for teaching and research performance when investigating gender pay gaps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this interview article, we embark on a fascinating journey through time alongside the winners of the 2023 DRUID Best Paper Award. DRUID, an annual research conference renowned as the hub of cutting-edge research on innovation and the dynamics of structural, institutional, and geographic change, bestows this award on the most innovative and exceptional conference submission. As longstanding allies of DRUID, Industry and Innovation offers an exclusive peek behind the curtains, unveiling the untold stories that underlie award-winning research. In 2023, this coveted DRUID prize was awarded to a paper by Ljubica Nedelkoska, Shreyas Gadgin Matha, James McNerney, Andre Assumpcao, Dario Diodato, and Frank Neffke. Their work stands out through an impressive data collection effort and the exploration of a compelling and urgent research question – how technological change has impacted the gender pay gap. Throughout this interview, the author team takes us down memory lane, retelling the story behind their research project. On this journey through time, we trace the genesis of the authors' innovative ideas and the intricate pathways they navigated in their quest to understand the past as a means of unravelling the future of work and its implications for gender inequality in the labour market. This journey not only takes us back in time but also points to potential avenues for future research and open questions that lie ahead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The gender pay gap among firms' upper echelons is a prominent issue not only because it concerns equality in the workplace, but also because it may impact firms' culture and performance. Responding to calls to better understand how stakeholder expectations and pressures might influence the gender pay gap, this study examines the role of a key stakeholder group, i.e., financial analysts, in curbing the executive gender pay gap. Drawing on the stakeholder and attention-based views of the firm, we contend that analyst coverage may counter the pay gap by: (a) raising other stakeholders' attention on discriminatory pay-setting practices; and (b) reducing information asymmetries in the executive labor market. Both firm- and individual-level econometric analyses on a sample of 38,211 executives working in 3,473 firms support our hypothesis: an increase in analyst firm coverage helps to reduce the gender pay gap among the top executives of S&P 1500 firms between 1992 and 2016. Post-hoc analyses—that use the closure of brokerage houses as an exogeneous shock—lend further support to our claims. Our results advance the literature at the nexus of the stakeholder theory and attention-based view of the firm by unveiling the role of intermediaries in channeling the limited stakeholder attention to certain firms, contributing to the development of a stakeholder-based theory of executive pay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores the application to Italy of Goldin's hypothesis that the unexplained gender pay gap is crucially linked to firms' incentive to disproportionately reward individuals who work long and particular hours. The study draws mainly on Italian responses to the 2014 European Structure of Earnings Survey for data on earnings and the individual characteristics of employees and their employer, but also uses data from the Occupational Information Network and the Italian Sample Survey on Professions to measure characteristics reflecting the work context within occupations. For graduate and non-graduate workers, the results reveal a positive relationship between various measures of the unexplained gender pay gap and the elasticity of earnings with respect to work hours. For graduate workers, in accordance with Goldin's hypothesis, both these variables are correlated with the occupational characteristics that impose earnings penalties on workers seeking more workplace flexibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much of the gender pay gap is generated within workplaces, making it paramount to understand which workplace policies effectively address gaps. Our article asks when policies limit gender pay gaps across employee tenure to identify potential temporal weak points. We analyze a representative panel of 10,000 establishments with over 850,000 employees using the 2005–19 waves of German-linked employer–employee data (LIAB). Two key findings emerge. First, a temporal perspective on workplace policies reveals that no policy under study—formalization, identity-based career programs, and child care assistance—reduces gender pay gaps at hire. Instead, policies only address additional disparities that accumulate after hire. Second, only identity-based career programs narrow gender disparities for all women. In contrast, seemingly gender-neutral formalization is insufficient, while providing employer-sponsored child care has mixed effects depending on employees' education. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings for organizational policy and future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine to what extent the gender pay gap at top executive level is linked to gender stereotypes, i.e. to societal beliefs about the attributes women and men possess and the roles they ought to perform. We theorize that, even at the highest hierarchical level of an organization, executive functions are gender stereotyped: some (such as IT) are considered typically 'masculine', while others (such as human resources) are considered typically 'feminine'. We argue gender stereotyping at the executive level to be related to pay such that masculine functions are paid more than feminine ones. Referring to role congruity theory, we further argue that women are paid better when they hold less masculine and therefore more role congruous functions. We find supportive evidence for both predictions when studying large European companies across the years 2014 to 2018. Pay data for 353 executives were linked to results of a survey in which participants were asked to rate the masculinity of the areas of responsibility of different executive functions. We find an empirical pattern that reflects a Catch 22 situation in which women executives appear unable to increase their pay by switching to more masculine functions that are, on average, better paid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the existence of a number of studies analysing the gender pay gap in the job market as a whole, less is known about this issue in cultural and creative markets, in which the employment conditions lack stability, and many of the jobs are "hidden" because of part-time, unpaid, and/or portfolio work conditions. These characteristics are expected to be exacerbated in the early stages of careers so that, in this case, the gender pay gap might display specific singularities. This paper specifically investigates this issue by analysing data from the "Young People Making a Living in the Creative Industries" research project, a survey conducted from April to September 2016 in Canada. The results confirm the existence of a gender pay gap, but in a totally unexpected way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender pay gaps in earnings are well-documented in the literature. However, new factors contributing to women’s lower earnings have emerged and remain under-researched. Educational choices are among them. We use a rich administrative dataset from Poland, a Central Eastern European country with high tertiary education enrolment and high female employment rates among young women, to study gender pay gaps among tertiary education graduates with degrees in different fields of study while paying particular attention to STEM fields graduates (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). We find that already in the first year after graduation, women earn over 20% less than men. This gap widens over time. We also find significant variation across different STEM fields both in the size of the gender pay gap and in how it changes over time. The gap is the largest among mathematics graduates, at over 25%; while it does not exceed 3% among chemical and Earth sciences graduates. As these differences narrow only slightly within the first four years of graduates’ working careers, policymakers’ efforts to increase the number of women earning STEM degrees may not be enough to achieve gender pay equality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The UK enacted its first legal measure to address gender pay inequity, the Equal Pay Act 1970, more than 50 years ago. Yet, in 2021, the gender pay gap (GPG) still stood at 15.4%. Departing from the remedial and individual approach that characterises equal pay legislation, the 2017 Gender Pay Gap Information Regulations (the Regulations) require private and voluntary sector organisations with 250+ employees to annually publish pay data broken down by gender. The long-term aspiration of the Regulations is to contribute to closing the GPG within a generation. It is also hoped that they will encourage the public disclosure of pay data and changes in workplace policies to reduce organisational GPGs (immediate aims) and improve employers' accountability (underlying aim). This paper considers whether the Regulations have what it takes to meet those immediate and underlying aims. Our assessment framework is built on the premise that for public disclosure to be useful and for employers to tackle the causes of the GPG, the information reported must be of sufficient quality, meaningful and relevant. The paper draws on both doctrinal analysis and empirical data reported by FTSE 100 Index companies to assess the Regulations and determine whether they hold the potential to meet those aims. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses how pay inequality among Swedish municipal employers is justified in their mandatory pay audit reports. Critical discourse analysis was used to examine the overarching message that there are no unjust salary differences between women and men, since the differences found have justifiable explanations. Normative critique for reproducing gender salary gaps can be addressed to the reports, since salary differences between individual men and women doing similar work were justified by reference to men's experience or special tasks and the organizational policy of individual salaries. Salary differences between groups of men and women were explained by men's experience and their special and demanding tasks. Market explanations for salary differences were frequently used as a justification of men's higher salaries. The normative critique can be supplemented by an explanatory critique, as overarching societal discourses, such as employers being held responsible for gender pay gaps in the labour market and technical areas having more value than care areas were identified in the texts. We argue that through pay audit reports inequality regimes in regard to pay are discursively reproduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progress towards pay equity between men and women in the Australian economy stalled during the COVID‐19 pandemic, highlighting once again the gendered impact of the pandemic. However, little is known about the impact of the pandemic on the gender pay gap in the platform economy. Drawing on data from an Australian survey of platform workers (n = 947) during the early months of the pandemic (2020), this research investigates how the pandemic impacted the gender pay gap across different platform types—care, delivery and driving, microwork, and marketplace—and the platform economy overall. The findings show that the gendered segregated nature of platform work compounded by the uneven impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on particular types of platform work increased the pay gap between men and women. This research also sought to examine the mechanisms behind the gender pay gap, finding that human capital differences and platform gender segregation largely explain the gender pay gap on platforms in Australia. There was an association between parenthood and earnings, but this is moderated by human capital and platform type, suggesting that differences in earnings amongst parents are explained by these factors. The research finds that the gender gap across the platform economy increased by five percentage points, indicating that the gendered impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic also affected the platform economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The historical period between the Italian Liberal era (1865-1919) and the Fascist dictatorship offers a unique perspective for dissecting the argumentative processes and legal frameworks underlying gender pay gap. It is within this timeframe, extending from the decades following National unification to the onset of dictatorship that most disparities in gender-based wage differentials originate. The persistence of these patterns of inequality, particularly in wages, validates the comparison between the contemporary era and the past, by affirmatively addressing two important questions: Do the strategies of inequality used in the past to pay women less reappear in contemporary times? What role has technology played in this resurgence, especially regarding the retribution of flexible labor?

The authors investigate what determines differences in change in pay between men and women executives who move to new employers. Using proprietary data of 2,034 executive placements from a global search firm, the authors observe narrower pay differences between men and women after job moves. The unconditional gap shrinks from 21.5% in the prior employer to 15% in the new employer. After controlling for typical explanatory factors, the residual gap falls by almost 30%, from 8.5% at the prior employer to 6.1% in the new placement. This change reflects a relative increase in performance-based compensation for women and a lower level of unexplained pay inequality generally in external placements. Controlling for individual fixed effects, observed women have higher pay raises than do men. Finally, the authors find suggestive evidence that pay differences may also be moderated by differences in the supply and demand for women executives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]