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In this study, we evaluated the isotopic niche dynamics in resident and migratory populations of facultative amphidromous fish Galaxias maculatus (Jenyns, 1842). We hypothesised that the isotopic niche space occupied by its populations differs between resident and migratory populations and among river ecosystems. To evaluate these hypotheses, we compared the isotopic niches of G. maculatus populations along the longitudinal gradient in five river systems in the central–southern Chile. Our results revealed differences among the isotopic niches of migratory and resident populations with greater diversity of carbon sources (wider isotopic niches) in amphidromous populations and narrower isotopic niche spaces in resident populations. Galaxias maculatus is a species with complex ecological characteristics that is frequently abundant in temperate river ecosystems of the Southern Hemisphere. The dynamics of its isotopic niches and carbon sources seems to strongly relate to life-history strategy employed by specific populations and mediates trophic structure and energy flow in river ecosystems where they are abundant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecological processes that are behind distributions of species that inhabit isolated localities, complex disjunct distributions, remain poorly understood. Traditionally, vicariance and dispersion have been proposed as explanatory mechanisms that drive such distributions. However, to date, our understanding of the ecological processes driving evolution of ecological niches associated with disjunct distributions remains rudimentary.Here, we propose a framework to deconstruct drivers of such distribution using World's most widespread freshwater fish Galaxias maculatus as a model and integrating marine and freshwater environments where its life cycle may occur. Specifically, we assessed ecological and historical factors (Gondwanan vicariance, marine dispersion) and potential dispersion (niche‐tracking) that explain its distribution in the Southern Hemisphere.Estimated distribution was consistent with previously reported distribution and mainly driven by temperature and topography in freshwater environments and by primary productivity and nitrate in marine environments. Niche dynamics of G. maculatus provided evidence of synergy between vicariance and marine dispersion as explanatory mechanisms of its disjunct distribution, suggesting that its ecological niche was conserved since approximately 30 Ma ago.This integrated assessment of ecological niche in marine and freshwater environments serves as a generic framework that may be applied to understand processes underpinning complex distributions of diadromous species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the importance of juvenile growth to lifetime fitness, high variability exists within many fish species where some individuals grow markedly faster than others. Here, we explored whether social context mediated growth performance in n = 35 Galaxias maculatus by manipulating the social environment after identifying different growth phenotypes. We found that initially fast-growing fish slowed their growth rate when pooled with similarly fast-growing individuals, whereas none of the initially slow-growing fish markedly improved their growth when pooled with other slow-growers. We examined for any metabolic underpinnings to the findings by measuring standard, routine, and maximum metabolic rates (SMR, RMR, and MMR) at two time points separated by ~4 months. SMR and RMR positively correlated with growth rates when the fish were pooled into growth phenotypes, but not when they were returned to their original (mixed) social groups. We highlight research directions to further elucidate how social context and metabolism interact to govern growth phenotype.

Poorly installed or undersized culverts at road crossings are one of the most frequently encountered barriers to fish movements, especially for small-bodied fish species. Although replacement with more 'fish friendly' culvert designs is the preferred solution, at many sites remediation will be required in the short to medium term. Consequently, there is a need for effective evidence-based fish passage solutions that can be deployed at scale. This study examined the passage efficiency of juvenile īnanga (Galaxias maculatus) past a perched culvert fitted with spat ropes and a flexible rubber ramp. Only four fish (0.79%) successfully passed the ramp, and no fish successfully passed the whole culvert by the conclusion of the trial. Deployment of flexible rubber ramps to remediate fish passage at perched culverts has recently become common practice in several regions of New Zealand, despite the absence of any evidence base to support their use. This study provides a strong preliminary indication that flexible rubber ramps are an ineffective fish passage solution for remediating perched culverts for non-climbing fishes. To overcome low head-migration barriers, there are alternative evidence-based fish ramp designs, which practitioners can have considerably greater confidence in for achieving restoration goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Passage efficiency is an important metric for quantifying the success of fish-passage remediation. Mark-recapture methods are typically employed to estimate fish-passage efficiency. Although biotelemetry methods have become a benchmark standard for such studies, they remain unfeasible for many small-bodies species because of the excessive size of electronic tags. Aims: This study compares two commonly deployed marking methods that are potentially suitable for estimating passage efficiency for small-bodied species, namely, visible implant elastomer (VIE) tagging and batch immersion staining with Rhodamine B. Methods: The critical swimming speeds and passage efficiency at a remediated culvert of Galaxias maculatus were compared for VIE-tagged, Rhodamine B-stained and control treatments. Key results Both critical swimming speeds and passage efficiency at the culvert were significantly lower in VIE-tagged Galaxias maculatus than in both control fish and fish stained with Rhodamine B. Conclusions Rhodamine B may be a suitable batch immersion stain for short-term (<4 day), non-destructive mark-recapture studies in small-bodied fishes, but VIE-tagging methods may result in underestimation of passage efficiency. Implications: It is important to evaluate the impact of marking techniques on the outcomes of mark-recapture studies to ensure that estimates of passage efficiency are accurate. Improving fish passage is essential for the recovery of freshwater biodiversity. Mark-recapture methods are often used to measure the effectiveness of efforts to restore river connectivity. This study shows that the method used to mark fish can significantly affect estimates of passage efficiency for a small-bodied fish that is distributed widely in the Southern Hemisphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inanga (Galaxias maculatus) are found in a range of freshwater habitats around much of the Southern Hemisphere. Although they are reasonably well studied within New Zealand, little is known about the populations found in coastal pond systems. This study focussed on inanga diet and population dynamics within a shallow pond complex in coastal Southland, investigating age, growth, distribution, and diet of juvenile inanga over a spring to autumn period. Otolith analysis indicated a three-month period (September to November) during which fish are hatching, with fish that hatched earlier growing more slowly than later fish. Inanga were found in only one location within the pond complex – a site featuring low water nutrient levels and less access by trout. Diet analysis showed high selectivity for chydorids and chironomid larvae, indicating a mixture of both benthic and pelagic foraging. Overall, this study has provided insight into inanga population dynamics in ponds, which have not previously been observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Despite the demonstrated benefits of marine protected areas, there has been relatively little dialogue about freshwater protected areas (FPAs) even though some have been established to protect freshwater species from recreational and commercial fishers. After populations recover from fishing pressure, abundances and densities of formerly fished species increase, and we should therefore expect changes in demographic traits compared to those in exploited populations. To test this, we used capture-markrecapture data for 10 Galaxias maculatus populations across a density gradient mediated by different degrees of fishery closure. We examined the extent to which density-dependent (DD) and density-independent (DI) effects interact to affect specific growth rates in post-recruit populations. We found that population density, stream temperature and individual size interact to affect growth rates. When population densities were high, compensatory responses of far slower growth rates were strongest, indicating that DD growth is a key mechanism regulating post-recruit populations of G. maculatus. This study emphasizes the importance of understanding DD and DI processes, their interactions, function and effectiveness for freshwater fisheries management. For FPAs to be effective, the extent and quality of target species' habitats must serve as key criteria for protection to alleviate competition for limited resources that underpins DD processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Galaxias maculatus aquaculture objectives is to produce millions of eggs. Wild females are small (2 g), have quick sexual maturity and low mean fecundity (500 eggs/female), requiring larger fishes with higher fecundity. This study aim is to evaluate experimentally the effect of the levels of protein, lipid and dietary energy on weight increases in adults. Five independent experiments were performed at different sequential time periods at the UCT hatchery, Chile. Specimens were obtained from a) Crystalline sea return specimen catches in the Tolten estuary (4 -6 cm, 0.3-0.4 g.). b) Hatchery cultured fish. Fish were fed by hand ad libitum. In experiments 1 to 4, pelleted diets were prepared with 3 to 5 levels of protein (treatments 27 up to 57%), crumble size, three 100 L fibre ponds replicates. In experiment 5 the effect of two lipid levels (8 and 21%) was evaluated with commercial extruded Salmon Nutra Starter isoproteic crumble 1 diet at 63%, replicated in 4 ponds. The results show: A tendency to increased weight in all sizes with an increased protein level in the pelleted diet.A maximal adult growth is obtained with a diet containing a minimum of 37% crude protein, with 40% the optimal value. A higher % protein in the diet or growth in weight lower feed conversion ratio. The feed conversion ratio in the extruded diet reaches up to 0.5 and in the pelleted vary from 0.7 to 1.5. Fish 0.6 g fed with 63% protein, extruded commercial diet with two different lipid levels (8 and 21%, 20.40 and 23.84 MJ kg-1, PE/TE 0.62 and 0.71) increased weight the first month 67 and 105% each. It has been established that high-energy diets with optimal levels of protein and lipid are a good short-term solution to obtain G. maculatus of higher weight.

As management tools, freshwater reserves are under‐represented in protected area networks for fisheries conservation and enhancement. This is surprising considering that freshwater ecosystems, and the biodiversity they support, are among the most threatened worldwide.We compared freshwater reserve types established to prevent overexploitation of migratory galaxiids (mostly īnanga Galaxias maculatus) from fishing and evaluated their performance as reproductive reservoirs. We studied 10 streams classified into three a priori types: (a) closed, (b) partially closed and (c) open streams.Closed streams had greater abundances, biomasses and egg production of G. maculatus despite having a greater proportion of smaller fish compared to partially closed and open streams. Community‐level analyses indicated differences in fish assemblages between closure types. Large, native, predatory fish (longfin eel Anguilla dieffenbachii, shortfin eel Anguilla australis and giant kōkopu Galaxias argenteus) were more common in closed streams.Overall, there were notable reserve effects related to closed streams. There was slight evidence that partially closed streams conferred some fisheries benefits compared to streams open to fishing. While the limited number of reserve streams warrants some caution in conclusions, partial closures may still be worthwhile as a management tool where complete closure to fishing is not feasible.Closures can be effective in increasing fish numbers, albeit at a cost of smaller sized individuals, most likely because of density‐dependent processes relating to food and habitat. Despite clear benefits in total egg production of populations in closed streams, it remains unclear how these benefits may translate across the full life history of the annual G. maculatus.Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate that freshwater reserves have many of the 'reserve effects' observed in more common marine reserves, but there are also important differences. Stream closure should be considered as one potential management tool that is unlikely to be effective unless stream habitats are returned to more pristine states. Our effort to evaluate the explicit effects of different reserve types across different spatial scales is the first we know of for migratory freshwater fishes, providing useful insights for adjusting the current reserve network and establishing new reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analysed the spatial–temporal abundance and distribution of exotic Chinook salmon (Onchorynchus tsawytscha) along the shore zone of the Lapataia River in relationship with the presence of non-native brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and brown trout (Salmo trutta), and native small puyen (Galaxias maculatus) during the four seasons of the year. These data were used to detect fish patchiness and spatial overlap and related to environmental characteristics to determine the habitat used by each species. Juvenile Chinook salmon was recorded only in spring and summer, showing a highly aggregated spatial distribution pattern. The native small puyen dominated fish assemblages all over the year, except in winter when brook trout showed the highest abundance. The highest overlap was detected between small puyen and Chinook salmon. Chinook salmon distribution was mainly explained by the occurrence of flood plains. Brown trout distribution was highly related to the presence of woody debris, while small puyen and brook trout showed no preferences for any environment. These results provide little evidence for habitat competition between Chinook salmon and the other native and non-native fish species. In contrast, species habitat preferences are likely shaping the current fish distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estuaries worldwide have been severely degraded and become reservoirs for many types of pollutants, such as heavy metals. This study investigated the levels of Cd, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in water and whole fish. We sampled 40 juvenile silversides Odontesthes regia and 41 juvenile puye Galaxias maculatus from the Valdivia River estuary, adjacent to the urban area in southern South America (Chile). Samples were analyzed using a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. In water samples, metals except Zn were mostly below the detection limits and all metals were below the maximum levels established by local guidelines in this estuary. In whole fish samples, concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, Mn, and Cd were significantly higher in puyes than in silversides. Additionally, Zn, Pb, and Mn were correlated to body length and weight in puyes, whereas Cd was correlated to body length in silversides. The mean concentration of heavy metals in silverside and puyes were higher than those reported in the literature. In silversides, all heavy metal levels were below the limits permitted by current legislation (FAO), whereas in puyes Pb and Cd levels were above the recommended maximum level established by international guidelines, therefore putting the human population at risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the evolutionary mechanisms that affect the genetic divergence between diadromous and resident populations across heterogeneous environments is a challenging task. While diadromy may promote gene flow leading to a lack of genetic differentiation among populations, resident populations tend to be affected by local adaptation and/or plasticity. Studies on these effects on genomic divergence in nonmodel amphidromous species are scarce. Galaxias maculatus, one of the most widespread fish species in the Southern Hemisphere, exhibits two life histories, an ancestral diadromous, specifically, amphidromous form, and a derived freshwater resident form. We examined the genetic diversity and divergence among 20 estuarine and resident populations across the Chilean distribution of G. maculatus and assessed the extent to which selection is involved in the differentiation among resident populations. We obtained nearly 4,400 SNP markers using a RADcap approach for 224 individuals. As expected, collections from estuarine locations typically consist of diadromous individuals. Diadromous populations are highly differentiated from their resident counterparts by both neutral and putative adaptive markers. While diadromous populations exhibit high gene flow and lack site fidelity, resident populations appear to be the product of different colonization events with relatively low genetic diversity and varying levels of gene flow. In particular, the northernmost resident populations were clearly genetically distinct and reproductively isolated from each other suggesting local adaptation. Our study provides insights into the role of life history differences in the maintenance of genetic diversity and the importance of genetic divergence in species evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Helminth infections within tissues tend to be subjected to a host response that can include encapsulation and melanization to isolate the parasite. The effectiveness of this response depends on the host species. During a survey of parasites of the native fish, Galaxias maculatus , we found conspicuous, strongly melanized exterior cysts located in the caudal peduncle of the fish. Dissection of these cysts exposed larval nematodes whose morphometrical features allowed their identification as Eustrongylides sp. Species of this genus are distributed worldwide. Galaxias maculatus was previously reported as second intermediate host to Eustrongylides sp. larvae, and the aquatic bird Podiceps major was cited as definitive host of Eustrongylides tubifex in Andean Patagonian lakes. The site of infection in the fish, and the host's response are unique among infections by larvae of Eustrongylides sp. in fishes, so the objective of this study was to describe the histological injury caused by larvae of the genus Eustrongylides parasitizing G. maculatus. Samples of fish were taken near the shore of Gutiérrez lake, in northwestern Patagonia. Some larval morphometric features were described to confirm the identity of larvae to generic level. Histopathological analysis (tissues sectioned at 5–7 μm, stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin, and Masson's Trichrome) of the caudal peduncle revealed almost complete disappearance of the epaxial musculature due to compressive atrophy and a chronic inflammatory response, associated mainly with a dense fibrotic capsule and an intense melanic deposit. This is the first description of the histopathology of an external cyst caused by Eustrongylides sp. larvae in fishes. Image 1 • The larva produces a conspicuous, melanized, external cyst in the caudal peduncle of Galaxias maculatus. • The localization and fish response are unique among infections by Eustrongylides sp. • The pathology includes an almost complete disappearance of the musculature. • The infection could compromise the survival of this prey fish. • The histopathology of an external cyst is described for the first time for Eustrongylides infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amphidromy is the most prevalent type of diadromous migration. Despite this, the conservation and management of amphidromous species is exceptionally challenging because this life history type, with larval development in a pelagic habitat (usually marine) and adult development in fresh water, is poorly resolved.The chronological properties of otoliths, together with a spatial and temporal analysis of post‐larval migration traits and adult reproductive traits, were used to reconstruct the life history of a widespread, yet declining amphidromous galaxiid, Galaxias maculatus, and to explore relationships between marine and freshwater life phases.A wide range of post‐larval migration traits were observed over the peak migratory period. Post‐larvae were smaller and younger at inward migration late in the migration season (November) and were derived from winter spawning events. Earlier migrants (September) were larger, older and derived from autumn spawning events.Age estimates confirmed that G. maculatus is largely an annual species, but back‐calculated hatch dates showed that spawning times are more extensive than previously known.Growth reconstructions revealed that winter‐hatched larvae were faster growing during marine and freshwater life and attained sexual maturity at a younger age than autumn‐hatched fish. However, no differences in body size or reproductive investment were detected between autumn‐ and winter‐hatched larvae.The first 50 days of marine growth were inter‐dependent, indicating that early larval growth may be the critical link to understanding intra‐ and inter‐annual recruitment variations of inward migrating post‐larvae. Furthermore, growth after 60 days of larval life propagated through to adult freshwater development, highlighting linkages between late marine and adult freshwater life.This study highlights the value of studying the marine and freshwater life phases of amphidromous species in tandem. This interconnected understanding must ultimately be achieved for the conservation and management of species with this poorly understood life history type. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Chemical mixtures represent environmentally-realistic exposures of contaminants to aquatic biota. However, there remains a limited understanding of how toxicant mixtures may impact biological function, relative to their individual components. In the current study, oxidative stress responses of the freshwater galaxiid fish inanga (Galaxias maculatus) were examined following exposure to the pro-oxidant trace metal cadmium (2 or 9 μg L−1), and the anti-oxidant pharmaceutical drug diclofenac (770 μg L−1), individually or in simple binary mixtures. Cadmium exposure in the absence of diclofenac significantly decreased renal catalase activity, increased hepatic catalase activity, decreased renal superoxide dismutase (SOD) and decreased glutathione-S-transferase activity, effects that are suggestive of anti-oxidant defense inhibition and/or generation of increased reactive oxygen species. Diclofenac exposure in the absence of cadmium resulted in a decreased renal lipid peroxidation, consistent with its known anti-oxidant properties. The presence of waterborne diclofenac altered the effects of cadmium on catalase activity in the liver, SOD activity in the gill, and lipid peroxidation in the liver. Co-exposure with cadmium modulated diclofenac effects on lipid peroxidation in the kidney. These data indicate the capacity of each of these toxicants to offset biological effects of the other when both co-occur in urban waters at specific concentrations. This study also demonstrates the complexity of outcomes in contaminant mixtures, even when these stressors are presented as simple binary combinations. Graphical abstract Image 1 Highlights • Cadmium (Cd) promoted oxidative stress in the freshwater fish, inanga. • Diclofenac exposure resulted in a decrease in renal lipid peroxidation. • In mixtures, diclofenac modified the pro-oxidant effects of Cd. • The presence of Cd prevented diclofenac's anti-oxidant effects. Contaminant mixtures of a pro-oxidant (cadmium) and an anti-oxidant (diclofenac) produce complex and unpredictable effects on oxidative stress endpoints in the freshwater fish, inanga. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The modification and utilization of rivers in regions where small-bodied diadromous fish are prevalent has largely occurred without fully understanding the migration behaviour of these species. As a result, existing in-stream structures often prevent or restrict migration. Current fish passage design guidance generally focuses on providing average hydrodynamic conditions within the range of known critical swimming velocities for target fish species. Considerable portions of discharge capacity must be sacrificed to achieve average cross-sectional water velocities that will allow passage of weak swimmers. Furthermore, because the hydrodynamic requirements for small-bodied species are poorly understood, successful passage is still not guaranteed even when average hydrodynamic design criteria are met. Ethohydraulic research is focused on how water flow influences fish behaviour and vice versa, by studying the interaction of fish with small-scale in-flow characteristics. We discuss how an ethohydraulic approach may improve fish passage design for small-bodied fish, such as țnanga/common galaxias (Galaxias maculatus), a widespread diadromous Southern Hemisphere species. The ethohydraulic approach is discussed in detail for culverts, a commonly found structure known to impede fish passage for many small-bodied species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estuaries worldwide have been severely degraded and become reservoirs for many types of pollutants, such as heavy metals. This study investigated the levels of Cd, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in water and whole fish. We sampled 40 juvenile silversides Odontesthes regia and 41 juvenile puye Galaxias maculatus from the Valdivia River estuary, adjacent to the urban area in southern South America (Chile). Samples were analyzed using a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. In water samples, metals except Zn were mostly below the detection limits and all metals were below the maximum levels established by local guidelines in this estuary. In whole fish samples, concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, Mn, and Cd were significantly higher in puyes than in silversides. Additionally, Zn, Pb, and Mn were correlated to body length and weight in puyes, whereas Cd was correlated to body length in silversides. The mean concentration of heavy metals in silverside and puyes were higher than those reported in the literature. In silversides, all heavy metal levels were below the limits permitted by current legislation (FAO), whereas in puyes Pb and Cd levels were above the recommended maximum level established by international guidelines, therefore putting the human population at risk.

Galaxias maculatus (puyen chico) es una especie de pez presa que tiene un rol importante en las redes tróficas de los lagos de la Patagonia. Estudios previos, a escala local, muestran que la riqueza y la composición de las comunidades componentes de parásitos metazoos de G. maculatus en un grupo de pequeños lagos someros en los alrededores del lago Nahuel Huapi, están afectadas por la composición del ensamble de peces nativos en cada lago. Los objetivos del presente estudio fueron: a) caracterizar la comunidad de helmintos de G. maculatus incluyendo datos de 28 lagos andinos de las provincias de Río Negro y Neuquén, y b) identificar los factores bióticos y abióticos de estos lagos que afectan la presencia y la prevalencia de las diferentes especies de helmintos que parasitan a este pez presa abundante y ampliamente distribuido en la Patagonia. El análisis indica que las comunidades de helmintos de las diferentes poblaciones de G. maculatus varían de acuerdo a la vertiente, al área lacustre, a la altitud y al ensamble de peces del lago.

Se evaluó e l efecto de la salinidad en la supervivencia embrionaria, período embrionario y período de eclosión de puye, Galaxias maculatus. Se utilizaron ocho tratamientos, con salinidades de 0, 4, 8, 12, 16 y 20 obteniéndose supervivencias embrionarias promedios respectivas de 84,9; 84,0; 85,5; 86,1; 82,6 y 75,8%, sin diferencias significativas entre ellas, mientras que con salinidad de 24 se obtuvo sobrevivencia de 10,4%, significativamente diferente al resto de los tratamientos y con salinidad de 28 causó 100% de mortalidad. A diferencia del estado juvenil y adulto, el embrión es incapaz de resistir la salinidad marina y su umbral de tolerancia se encuentra entre salinidades de 24 y 28. Las mayores supervivencias promedios larvales a 10 días de vida fueron con salinidades intermedias de 8, 12 y 16 de 79,3; 80,3 y 74,6% respectivamente, sin diferencias significativas entre ellas, demostrando alta viabilidad del embrión post-eclosión. Los períodos embrionarios promedios (50%) más breves fueron a bajas salinidades 0, 4, 8, 12 con 28,7; 28,0; 29,7 y 29,7 días y los más extensos en los tratamientos con salinidades de 16 y 20, con 34,0 y 34,3 días, sin diferencias significativas entre ellos. Los períodos de eclosión promedio (50%) con salinidades de 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 y 24 fueron de 5,0; 5,5; 7,5; 8,8; 13,0; 14,3 y 15,8 días respectivamente, sin diferencias significativas entre ellos.

Galaxias maculatus is a diadromous riparian-spawning fish that supports an important fishery. Eggs develop terrestrially as with several other teleost fishes. Spawning habitat occurs in specific locations near rivermouths and its protection is a conservation priority. However, quantifying the areas involved is hampered by high egg mortality rates on degraded waterway margins. We hypothesised that temporary artificial habitat would detect spawning in these situations producing a useful indicator for riparian management. We installed arrays of straw bales as artificial habitat in two independent experiments over consecutive years and assessed their impact using pairwise Before-After-Control-Impact (BACI) experimental designs. We tested degraded gaps within the distribution of known spawning sites and also areas further upstream and downstream. Nine spawning occurrences were recorded on artificial habitats in 2015, 22 in 2016, and two on paired controls. Both experiments produced a significant effect for artificial habitats deployed in degraded gaps within the known spawning site distribution (p = 0.0001) providing evidence that these locations should be regarded as actual or potential spawning sites. In 2016 the technique also produced a significant effect downstream of known sites in one of the study catchments (p = 0.0375). We believe the use of artificial habitats as a detection tool could be useful in a variety of management contexts. These include identifying areas for protection, as confirmation of site suitability prior to making restoration investments, and in investigations to support the migration of habitats to new locations under climate change, since these may currently be degraded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Terrestrial egg development is advantageous for the amphidromous fish Galaxias maculatus because it increases access to oxygen, increases incubation temperatures, and reduces aquatic predation. The characteristics of New Zealand's riparian vegetation have changed considerably since colonial times from native vegetation to exotic grasses, with potential effects on the spawning dynamics of fish. Here, we used a series of experiments to test preferences of G. maculatus for egg laying in combinations of a native sedge and rush, and two exotic grasses. In laboratory experiments, G. maculatus spawned in all available habitats with no preference for native over exotic vegetation. Egg survival did not differ between the vegetative habitats, but in a treatment where only river stones were available, eggs were laid but they dehydrated and died. In a field experiment, there was no evidence for a preference for spawning in native vegetation, and no association between a “key” feature of vegetation—tiller density—and the number of eggs laid. The microclimate beneath dense vegetation in experimental treatments was more constant than ambient conditions with few extreme temperatures and low humidities. Given the readiness of G. maculatus to spawn in exotic vegetation, there appears to be no benefit in restoring native vegetation to enhance egg laying or survival of these taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The population of Galaxias maculatus studied here, Arroyo Negro (54° S), is located at the southern extreme of the species distribution. This is the first work on growth and other life history traits of a Fueguian diadromous population based on otoliths study. This species is part of the native fish fauna of Patagonia. Furthermore, studies on the growth and reproduction of G. maculatus in South America mostly refer to freshwater populations of Andean-Patagonian lakes and rivers (about 41° S). Size cohorts were studied; age and growth parameters were estimated, the latter using the VBGM. Four size cohorts were established, and 3+ was determined as maximum age class. No differences were found in growth curves between males and females. The 1+ age class was by far not only the most numerous in the population but also the most represented in the reproductive population. The relation between mean TL and latitude was positive (r = 0.62) for South American populations; however, further studies are needed to determine whether it is this population’s life strategy, the local adaptation of a peripheral population or countergradient growth. The results are interpreted in the context of the information available for other populations, and provide important information about the plasticity in life history traits of this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Here, we describe a methodology for quantifying the spawning habitat of īnanga (Galaxias maculatus), a protected native fish species. Our approach is demonstrated with a survey of the Heathcote/Ōpāwaho following the Canterbury earthquakes that produced unexpected findings. Spawning habitat was detected over a 2.5 km reach and the area occupied by spawning sites (75m2) was much larger than in previous records (ca. 21m2). Sites dominated by the invasive Phalaris arundinaceae were found to support high egg numbers. Spawning has not previously been recorded on this species and it is identified in the literature as a threat to spawning habitat. Considerable spatio-temporal variation was also detected in the location of spawning sites and pattern of egg production. Together, these aspects illustrate the need for a comprehensive survey methodology to reliably quantify spawning habitat. The Heathcote/Ōpāwaho example shows the utility of our census approach for achieving this, and supporting habitat conservation objectives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to assess the frequency of use of marine resources in recruitment of Southern Hemisphere native riverine fish Galaxias maculatus from rivers across a latitudinal gradient. To do this, we analysed the concentrations of δ34S in vertebral column tissues from fish collected in ten Chilean river systems across latitudes 36°-47°S. The analyses of δ34S signatures in these rivers suggest that the use of marine resources by riverine populations of G. maculatus in large river systems in Chile is variable, with marine resources playing a limited role in more northern large rivers, characterised by warmer temperatures and predictable flow regimes and floodplain inundations. This is in contrast to life histories described for G. maculatus in rivers from New Zealand and Australia, where riverine populations are believed to be characterised by an obligatory recruitment phase in marine environments. Recruitment of G. maculatus in Chilean large rivers appears to depend on their freshwater productivity driven by climate as well as both longitudinal (headwaters lakes-estuary) and lateral (main channel-floodplains) hydrologic connectivities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Galaxias maculatus is a riparian spawning fish that supports an important recreational fishery in New Zealand, with spawning habitat requirements strongly structured by salinity gradients at river mouths. This study reports changes to the spawning habitat following a series of large earthquakes that resulted in the widespread deformation of ground surfaces in the vicinity of waterways. Assessments of habitat recovery focused on two river systems, the Avon and Heathcote, with pre‐disturbance data available over a 20‐year period. Recovery dynamics were assessed by field survey and mapping of spawning habitat prior to and on seven occasions after the disturbance event. Riparian land‐use and management patterns were mapped and analysed using overlay methods in a geographical information system (GIS). Habitat migration of up to 2 km occurred in comparison with all previous records, and several anthropogenic land uses have become threats because of changed patterns of co‐occurrence. Incompatible activities now affect more than half of the spawning habitat in both rivers, particularly in areas managed for flood control purposes and recreational use. The results are an example of landscape‐scale responses to salinity and water‐level changes driven by tectonic dynamics. These dynamics are not the source of the stress per se; rather, they have increased the exposure of the species to pre‐existing stressors. The case illustrates important principles for managing subtle, yet widespread, change. Adaptive conservation methods and investments in information are priorities for avoiding management failure following environmental change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The freshwater fish Galaxias maculatus (inanga) is a widespread Southern hemisphere species, but despite its habitation of lowland near-coastal waters with a high potential for cadmium contamination, nothing is known regarding its sensitivity to this toxic trace metal. Acute (96 h) exposures were therefore performed to determine sublethal responses of inanga to waterborne cadmium at a regulatory trigger value (nominally 0.2 μg L −1 ; measured 1 μg L −1 ), an environmental level (measured at 2.5 μg L −1 ), and an effect level (measured at 10 μg L −1 ). Whole body (tissue remaining following excision of kidney and liver) cadmium burden remained constant up until an exposure concentration of 10 μg L −1 , at which point cadmium concentration increased significantly. A transient effect of cadmium on metabolic rate was observed, with an impaired oxygen consumption noted at 2.5, but not 1 or 10, μg L −1 . Cadmium did not impair influx rates of either sodium or calcium, and no effects of cadmium on oxidative stress parameters (catalase activity, lipid peroxidation) were noted in the kidney. However, at cadmium concentrations of 2.5 and 10 μg L −1 , lipid peroxidation in the liver increased, concomitant with a decline in hepatic catalase activity. These data indicate that there are significant differences in the mechanisms of cadmium toxicity in inanga, relative to better-studied Northern hemisphere species, especially with respect to ionoregulatory impacts. However, effects were induced at cadmium concentrations unlikely to be encountered in any but the most highly contaminated waterways, and thus our data suggest that current trigger values for cadmium concentrations in Australian and New Zealand waters are likely to be protective of inanga. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of growing concern in aquatic environments worldwide; nevertheless, knowledge of its effects on aquatic biota is restricted to a few model species with limited information regarding its mechanisms of impact. In the present study, diclofenac accumulation, its effects on metabolic rate, ionoregulation, and oxidative stress were examined at environmentally relevant (0.17 µg L−1) and elevated (763 µg L−1) concentrations in a culturally and economically important galaxiid fish, inanga ( Galaxias maculatus), from the Southern Hemisphere. This species is among the most widespread freshwater fish in the world but its sensitivity to emerging contaminants is unknown. Following an acute 96-h exposure, bioconcentration of diclofenac was measured in the inanga whole-body, resulting in an estimated bioconcentration factor of 87 for the 0.17-µg L−1 exposure concentration, approaching values where transfer through the food chain should be considered. Lipid peroxidation in the liver was significantly elevated at both 0.17- and 763-µg L−1 exposure concentrations but lipid peroxidation in the kidney and gill decreased after diclofenac exposure. Catalase activity was also elevated in the liver of inanga but activity decreased in the gill. There were no effects of diclofenac on metabolic rate or ion (sodium and calcium) influx rates. These data indicate that toxicologically relevant adverse outcomes and bioconcentration of diclofenac at environmentally relevant levels warrant additional study in this important fish. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:224-235. © 2017 SETAC [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding migratory life histories is critical for the effective management and conservation of migratory species. However, amphidromous migrations (fish hatch in streams, immediately migrate to the sea for a feeding period and return to fresh water as juveniles) remain understudied owing to the difficulties of tracking tiny larval fish. Despite this, it has widely been assumed that amphidromous fish have open, resilient populations, with marine-rearing larvae dispersing widely during their pelagic phase. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that when an alternative freshwater pelagic habitat is available, non-diadromous recruitment will be the dominant process in sustaining amphidromous fish populations, with implications for their connectivity and resilience. Otolith microchemical analyses of five species (three Galaxias (Galaxiidae), two Gobiomorphus (Eleotridae)) from paired systems on the South Island of New Zealand indicated that when a suitable freshwater pelagic habitat existed downstream, non-diadromous recruitment was the primary population-sustaining process, typically contributing>90% of recruits. In addition, not all species recruited from all lakes, indicating the importance of the largely unstudied role of species-specific amphidromous larval requirements. The results of the present study emphasise the need to better understand the dynamics of individual populations of amphidromous fish, and highlight the importance of understanding species-specific early life history requirements to fully understand their distributions and management needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Body mass and temperature are primary determinants of metabolic rate in ectothermic animals. Oxygen consumption of post-larvalGalaxias maculatuswas measured in respirometry trials under different temperatures (5–21 °C) and varying body masses (0.1–>1.5 g) spanning a relevant range of thermal conditions and sizes. Specific respiration rates (Rin g O2g−1d−1) declined as a power function of body mass and increased exponentially with temperature and was expressed as:R = 0.0007 *W−0.31*e0.13 * T. The ability of this model to predict specific respiration rate was evaluated by comparing observed values with those predicted by the model. Our findings suggest that the respiration rate ofG. maculatusis the result of multiple interactive processes (intrinsic and extrinsic factors) that modulate each other in ‘meta-mechanistic’ ways; this would help to explain the species’ ability to undergo the complex ontogenetic habitat shifts observed in the lakes of the Andean Patagonic range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Movement through streams is critical for the maintenance of diadromous fish populations. Numerous fish passage improvement techniques exist, and knowledge of their effectiveness is required to conserve target species. An existing 70-m pipe culvert was considered a barrier to the passage success of young-of-year (YOY) Galaxias spp. as a result of high water velocity (0.9 m/s). Water velocity in the pipe culvert was reduced by installing a concrete weir downstream of the culvert. A lateral ridge rock-ramp fishway was installed to provide for the passage of fish over the weir, and baffles were installed in the upstream portion of the culvert to provide refuge from higher water velocity at this location. A BACI design was used to determine whether passage success, measured using a mark-recapture technique, improved as a result of the remediation works. The probability of successful passage of YOY Galaxias spp. through the culvert increased from 0.03 to 0.41 following remediation works and was similar to levels observed at a control site (0.33). The success of the fishway and baffles at this culvert provides an important case study for managers to adopt this technique to improve fish passage on a broader scale and range of other sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The puyen Galaxias maculatus is a fast-growing species, and the studied population at the southernmost extreme of the species' distribution (54°S) has the shortest growing season among the South American populations (least daylight hours and lowest temperatures), as well as the largest size. Thus, it offers an opportunity to study the effects of strong seasonal variation. The energy allocation pattern on a diadromous population of the species and the influence of ‘Winter’ (4 °C, light:dark photoperiod of 7:17) and ‘Summer’ (10 °C, light:dark photoperiod of 17:7) experimental conditions on the bioenergetics of the species were studied using both physiological and biochemical indicators. Somatic growth, energy density, food consumption, oxidative metabolism and oxygen consumption were measured. In wild conditions, summer and winter were the more ‘energy demanding’ seasons, leading to the lowest energy density of individuals. Same levels of food consumption were found both in wild and ‘Summer’ and ‘Winter’ experimental conditions. Moreover, basal metabolism did not differ under experimental conditions, however, under ‘Winter’ experimental conditions individuals did not grow and diminished their somatic condition and energy reserves. Therefore, during winter this population would not lower energy demands (as expected by temperature) with no changes in metabolic rates, but with the consequent lower gross conversion efficiency, the complete absence of growth in length, mass and muscle, and the depletion of energy reserves. These findings suggest a mechanism for metabolic demands, i.e. postprandial increase in O 2 consumption (SDA) independent of the amount of ingested food, relocating energy reserves to fuel winter costs in G. maculatus. These results provide evidence of different energy allocation strategies for winter and summer. A higher proportion of energy could be directed to growth and reproduction in summer, and to activity support in winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Se evaluó el efecto de seis temperaturas constantes en la sobrevivencia embrionaria, periodo embrionario y periodo de eclosión de Galaxias maculatus de 7 a 22°C, en condiciones de laboratorio. Los resultados de la sobrevivencia embrionaria fueron: 90,6 ± 2,0; 88,7 ± 8,6; 87,7 ± 0,7; 89,7 ± 4,2; 70,0 ± 5,6 y 49,5 ± 7,4% a temperaturas de 7, 10, 13, 16, 19 y 22°C. Exceptuando la temperatura de 22°C, no hay diferencias significativas entre ellas (P > 0,05). Estos resultados caracterizan al embrión como euritérmico independientemente de ser una especie de aguas subantárticas. En relación al periodo embrionario (tH50%), los resultados fueron de 40,8 ± 0,6; 27,0 ± 0,0; 17,3 ± 0,6; 16,3 ± 0,6 y 13,3 ± 0,6 días a temperaturas de 7, 10, 13, 16 y 19°C respectivamente, con diferencias significativas entre ellas (P < 0,05), y en el caso del periodo de eclosión (tH50%), fue de 8,3 ± 0,6; 6,3 ± 1,5; 5,0 ± 0,0; 6,3 ± 0,6; 5,0 ± 1,0 y 4,3 ± 0,6 días a temperaturas de 7, 10, 13, 16, 19 y 22°C respectivamente, con diferencias significativas entre ellas (P < 0,05). Los resultados sugieren que el rango de temperaturas entre 10 y 16°C es óptimo para la incubación de ovas de G. maculatus, ya que se obtienen combinadamente altos porcentajes de sobrevivencia embrionaria >87,7%, periodos embrionarios

Despite the well known importance of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in marine and freshwater fish larvae, there are few studies on how essential fatty acid requirements and composition on whole body can be altered by changes in water salinity. The present study aimed to determine the effect of salinity on ω-3 PUFA requirements, larval growth survival and fatty acid composition of Galaxias maculatus larvae cultured at two different salinities (0 and 15 g L-1) for 20 days while fed rotifers containing two different levels of ω-3 PUFA (1.87 and 3.16%). The results denoted a marked difference in ω-3 PUFA requirements and in the pattern of fatty acid deposition in the whole body of larvae reared at different salinities, depending of ω-3 PUFA in diets. Thus, to improve growth and survival larvae of G. maculatus reared at 0 g L-1 require higher levels of ω-3 PUFA, principally 18:3 ω-3. Larvae reared at salinities of 15 g L-1 require low levels of ω-3 PUFA for optimal survival, especially 18:3 ω-3. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid content in the whole body of larvae was also affected by water salinity.

Galaxias maculatus (Jenyns, 1842) es un pez gourmet de importancia comercial cuyas pesquerías están sobre-explotadas, siendo esencial el estudio de su biología para desarrollar su tecnología de cultivo (galaxicultura), que se encuentra en etapa piloto. Los objetivos de éste trabajo son: 1) entregar una síntesis de la información de la literatura sobre la biología de la especie, y 2) identificar la carencia de conocimiento científico y puntos críticos para el desarrollo de su tecnología de cultivo comercial. G. maculatus es un pequeño pez carnívoro, con poblaciones eurihalinas diferenciadas en diadrómicas y dulceacuícolas. Las poblaciones diadrómicas desovan en los estuarios y la larva migra al mar, retornando a la edad de seis meses para metamorfosearse en adulto. Son escasos los estudios de su sistemática, poblaciones y estado larvario en aguas chilenas, pero los correspondientes a alimentación, reproducción y enfermedades son más numerosos. Las hembras de un año desovan, aproximadamente, 1.200 huevos adhesivos pero un número importante muere después del primer desove (40%). La especie tiene un crecimiento rápido (1,1% dia-1) y alto metabolismo, con un promedio de vida de dos años. Se puede cultivar en cautividad, desovar, incubar sus huevos y obtener larvas; los adultos comen starter pelletizado de salmón y crecen en estanques. El protozoo ciliado Ichtyophthirius multifilis (ich) produce altas mortalidades, en ejemplares en cautiverio, que pueden ser controladas con baños de sal. Los problemas de investigación a resolver para una futura piscicultura comercial son: identificar y seleccionar las poblaciones adecuadas para cultivo, aumentar el número de huevos desovados por hembra, desarrollar alimentos para larvas y reproductores, y controlar las enfermedades ectoparasitarias. El punto crítico es la masificación de la producción mediante el mejoramiento de las técnicas de reproducción y larvicultura.

The nuclear DNA content (2C value) was determined in the commercial fish Galaxias maculatus (Galaxiidae) was determined by microdensitometry of erythrocyte nuclei after Feulgen staining; rainbow trout erythrocytes with a known 2C value were used as a standard. The 2C value of G. maculatus was 2.21 ± 0.12 pg and its C value was equivalent to 1.105 pg (1,082.9 Mbp). This C value is within the range recorded for other osmeriform species (0.62-3.2 pg). The average sperm head diameter of G. maculatus is lower than the average sperm head diameter of rainbow trout (used as a standard), which coincides with the differences observed in the nuclear DNA content of both species. This information increases the genome data available for G. maculatus and might be useful in future programs dealing with its genetic manipulation.El contenido de ADN nuclear (valor 2C) fue determinado en el pez comercial Galaxias maculatus (Galaxiidae) usando microdensitometría de núcleos de eritrocitos sometidos a tinción de Feulgen, utilizando como estándar eritrocitos de trucha arco iris con un valor 2C conocido. El valor 2C de G. maculatus fue 2,21 ± 0,12 pg y su valor C es equivalente a 1,105 pg (1.082,9 pMb). Este valor C está dentro del rango registrado para otras especies de osmeriformes (0,62-3,2 pg). El diámetro promedio de la cabeza del espermatozoide de G. maculatus es menor al promedio descrito para la trucha arco iris utilizado como estándar, lo que coincide con las diferencias observadas en el contenido de ADN nuclear entre ambas especies. Estos datos contribuyen a ampliar los antecedentes genómicos disponibles para G. maculatus y podrían ser útiles en futuros programas tendientes a su manipulación genética.

Forty-five specimens of Inanga, Galaxias maculatus, were collected during December 2013 and January 2014 from the Lingue River in southern Chile and examined for eukaryotic parasites. Thirty-seven (82.2%) of the fish were infected with 1 to 4 taxa with a mean of 1.7 taxa per host. All parasites detected in G. maculatus were recorded for the first time in the Lingue River, and cysts of Gordiids were determined for the first time in this host species. Also recorded for the first time in Chile were Stephanoprora uruguayense metacercariae and Diplodon chilensis glochidia on host gills, as well as plasmodia of Myxobolus sp. in the intestinal wall, stomach, and liver of G. maculatus. Other parasites recorded were Trichodina sp., Myxobolus magellanicus, Contracaecum sp., and Acanthocephalus tumescens. The prevalence (53.3%) and mean intensity (31.1 ± SD 95.9 cyst/host) of infection by cysts of Gordiids were the highest among the identified parasites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of antifungals was assessed to improve embryo survival of Galaxias maculatus. Three treatments using formalin dose of 250 ppm, iodine dose of 100 ppm, and sea salt in doses of 30 ups were designed, and a control treatment under 10 of salinity water. For each treatment and control, 15 replicates were used, with 100 embryos in each replicate. Embryos were immersed into each treatment solution for one hour every two days. Larval survival after 15 days old was assessed. Higher embryonic and larval survival was obtained in sea salt treatment improving by 27.4 and 11.6% (P < 0.05) respectively over control results. Formalin treatment resulted in embryonic and larval survival of 9.8 and 4.0% respectively more than control (P < 0.05) and in the case of iodine embryonic survival, 2.6% more than control (P > 0.05) and larval survival of 16.4% lower than the control (P < 0.05). In conclusion, sea salt shows greater effectiveness as a prophylactic treatment to improve the embryonic survival of G. maculatus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Marine species have colonized extreme environments during evolution such as freshwater habitats. The amphidromous teleost fish, Galaxias maculatus is found mainly migrating between estuaries and rivers, but some landlocked populations have been described in lakes formed during the last deglaciation process in the Andes. In the present study we use mtDNA sequences to reconstruct the historical scenario of colonization of such a lake and evaluated the osmoregulatory shift associated to changes in habitat and life cycle between amphidromous and landlocked populations. Results: Standard diversity indices including the average number of nucleotide differences (Π) and the haplotype diversity index (H) indicated that both populations were, as expected, genetically distinctive, being the landlocked population less diverse than the diadromous one. Similarly, pairwise GST and NST comparison detected statistically significant differences between both populations, while genealogy of haplotypes evidenced a recent founder effect from the diadromous stock, followed by an expansion process in the lake. To test for physiological differences, individuals of both populations were challenged with a range of salinities from 0 to 30 ppt for 8 days following a period of progressive acclimation. The results showed that the landlocked population had a surprisingly wider tolerance to salinity, as landlocked fish survival was 100% from 0 to 20 ppt, whereas diadromous fish survival was 100% only from 10 to 15 ppt. The activity of ATPase enzymes, including Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA), and H+-ATPase (HA) was measured in gills and intestine. Activity differences were detected between the populations at the lowest salinities, including differences in ATPases other than NKA and HA. Population differences in mortality are not reflected in enzyme activity differences, suggesting divergence in other processes. Conclusions: These results clearly demonstrate the striking adaptive changes of G. maculatus osmoregulatory system, especially at hyposmotic environments, associated to a drastic shift in habitat and life cycle at a scale of a few thousand years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The euryhaline galaxiid fish, inanga ( Galaxias maculatus ) is widely spread throughout the Southern hemisphere occupying near-coastal streams that may be elevated in trace elements such as copper (Cu). Despite this, nothing is known regarding their sensitivity to Cu contamination. The mechanisms of Cu toxicity in inanga, and the ameliorating role of salinity, were investigated by acclimating fish to freshwater (FW), 50% seawater (SW), or 100% SW and exposing them to a graded series of Cu concentrations (0–200 μg L −1 ) for 48 h. Mortality, whole body Cu accumulation, measures of ionoregulatory disturbance (whole body ions, sodium (Na) influx, sodium/potassium ATPase activity) and ammonia excretion were monitored. Toxicity of Cu was greatest in FW, with mortality likely resulting from impaired Na influx. In both FW and 100% SW, ammonia excretion was significantly elevated, an effect opposite to that observed in previous studies, suggesting fundamental differences in the effect of Cu in this species relative to other studied fish. Salinity was protective against Cu toxicity, and physiology seemed to play a more important role than water chemistry in this protection. Inanga are sensitive to waterborne Cu through a conserved impairment of Na ion homeostasis, but some effects of Cu exposure in this species are distinct. Based on effect concentrations, current regulatory tools and limits are likely protective of this species in New Zealand waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses articles in the issue on topics including the fish fauna of the two European rivers, species in South America's wetlands to different climatic scenarios, and use of marine resources by riverine populations of Galaxias maculatus in Chile.