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Background: Four sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor (S1PR) modulators are currently available in the USA for treating relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis (MS). These S1PR modulators have similar efficacy. Clinicians may therefore consider other factors, such as clinical management considerations, when distinguishing among treatments. This study estimated which S1PR modulator clinicians would choose on the basis of a treatment's clinical management and quantified how individual aspects of clinical management might drive this choice. Methods: A multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) was conducted on the basis of clinical management preferences elicited in a discrete choice experiment (DCE) and real-world clinical management profiles of the S1PR modulators currently available to treat relapsing forms of MS (fingolimod, ozanimod, ponesimod, siponimod). The DCE was completed by neurologists in the USA experienced in treating MS and included eight clinical management attributes: first-dose observations, genotyping, liver function tests, eye exams, drug–drug interactions, interactions with antidepressants, interactions with foods high in tyramine, and immune system recovery time. Attribute levels were selected on the basis of S1PR modulator product labels. In the MCDA, partial MCDA scores were created for each attribute and summed to produce an overall MCDA score for each S1PR modulator. Results: The DCE was completed by 200 neurologists. The overall MCDA score was highest for ponesimod (4.78 points), followed by siponimod (4.10 points), fingolimod (3.61 points), and ozanimod (2.38 points). Having fewer drug–drug interactions contributed most to the overall scores (up to 1.56 points), followed by having no first-dose observations (0.95 points), the shortest immune system recovery time (0.94 points), and not interacting with foods high in tyramine (0.86 points). Conclusion: When considering clinical management convenience, the average US-based neurologist treating MS is likely to choose ponesimod over siponimod, fingolimod, or ozanimod. The strongest driver of preferences was the number of drug–drug interactions. This information can help inform recommendations for the treatment of MS and facilitate shared decision-making between clinicians and patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Inflammatory environments induce the generation of dysfunctional IFNγ+T‐bet+FOXP3+ Th1‐like Tregs, which show defective function and are found in autoimmune conditions including multiple sclerosis (MS). The pathways that control the generation of Th1‐like Tregs are not well understood. Sphingosine‐1‐phosphate (S1P) signalling molecules are upregulated in Th1‐like Tregs, and in vivo S1P inhibition with Fingolimod (FTY720) inhibits the expression of genes responsible for Treg plasticity in MS patients. However, the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Here we show that S1P signalling inhibition by FTY720 inhibits the generation of Th1‐like Tregs and rescues their suppressive function. These effects are mediated by a decrease in mTORC1 signalling and reversal of the mitochondrial uncoupling that Tregs undergo during their reprogramming into Th1‐like Tregs in vitro. Finally, these results are validated in in vivo‐generated Th1‐like Tregs, as Tregs from MS patients treated with FTY720 display decreased Th1‐like Treg frequency, increased suppressive function and mitochondrial metabolism rebalance. These results highlight the involvement of mitochondrial uncoupling in Treg reprogramming and identify S1P signalling inhibition as a target to suppress the generation of dysfunctional Th1‐like Tregs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Fingolimod (FTY720; FT), a structural analog of sphingosine, has potential ocular applications. The goal of this study was to develop an FT-loaded nanoemulsion (NE; FT-NE) formulation for the efficient and prolonged delivery of FT to the posterior segment of the eye through the topical route. Methods: FT-NE formulations were prepared using homogenization followed by the probe sonication method. The lead FT-NE formulations (0.15% and 0.3% w/v loading), comprising soybean oil as oil and Tween® 80 and Poloxamer 188 as surfactants, were further evaluated for in vitro release, surface morphology, filtration sterilization, and stability at refrigerated temperature. Ocular bioavailability following topical application of FT-NE (0.3%) was examined in Sprague-Dawley rats. Results: The formulation, at both dose levels, showed desirable physicochemical characteristics, a nearly spherical shape with homogenous nanometric size distribution, and was stable for 180 days (last time point checked) at refrigerated temperature postfiltration through a polyethersulfone (0.22 µm) membrane. In vitro release studies showed prolonged release over 24 h, compared with the control FT solution (FT-S). In vivo studies revealed that effective concentrations of FT were achieved in the vitreous humor and retina following topical application of FT-NE. Conclusions: The results from these studies demonstrate that the FT-NE formulation can serve as a viable platform for the ocular delivery of FT through the topical route. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pediatric-onset Multiple Sclerosis (POMS) patients show more inflammatory disease compared with adult-onset MS. However, highly effective treatments are limited with only fingolimod being approved in Italy and natalizumab prescribed as off-label treatment. Objectives: to compare the efficacy of natalizumab versus fingolimod in POMS. Methods: This is an observational longitudinal multicentre study including natalizumab- and fingolimod-treated POMS patients (N-POMS and F-POMS, respectively). We collected Annual Relapse Rate (ARR), Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), Symbol Digit Modality Test (SDMT), and MRI activity at baseline (T0), 12–18 months (T1), and last available observation (T2). Results: We enrolled 57 N-POMS and 27 F-POMS patients from six Italian MS Centres. At T0, N-POMS patients showed higher ARR (p = 0.03), higher EDSS (p = 0.003) and lower SDMT (p = 0.04) at baseline compared with F-POMS. Between T0 and T1 ARR improved for both N-POMS and F-POMS (p < 0.001), while EDSS (p < 0.001) and SDMT (p = 0.03) improved only for N-POMS. At T2 (66.1 ± 55.4 months) we collected data from 42 out of 57 N-POMS patients showing no further ARR decrease. Conclusion: Both natalizumab and fingolimod showed high and sustained efficacy in controlling relapses and natalizumab also associated to a disability decrease in POMS. This latter effect might be partly mediated by the high inflammatory activity at baseline in N-POMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders pose a significant global health burden, highlighting the need for innovative therapeutic approaches. Fingolimod (FTY720), a common drug to treat multiple sclerosis, has shown promising efficacy against various neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders. Fingolimod exerts its neuroprotective effects by targeting multiple cellular and molecular processes, such as apoptosis, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and autophagy. By modulating Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Receptor activity, a key regulator of immune cell trafficking and neuronal function, it also affects synaptic activity and strengthens memory formation. In the hippocampus, fingolimod decreases glutamate levels and increases GABA levels, suggesting a potential role in modulating synaptic transmission and neuronal excitability. Taken together, fingolimod has emerged as a promising neuroprotective agent for neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders. Its broad spectrum of cellular and molecular effects, including the modulation of apoptosis, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, autophagy, and synaptic plasticity, provides a comprehensive therapeutic approach for these debilitating conditions. Further research is warranted to fully elucidate the mechanisms of action of fingolimod and optimize its use in the treatment of neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective Methods Results Conclusion Fingolimod is the first oral sphingosine‐1‐phosphate receptor modulator approved in Japan for multiple sclerosis (MS). A large Japanese observational study of fingolimod in patients with MS was carried out to support its safety and effectiveness in a real‐world setting.This 2‐year, prospective, multicenter, single‐cohort, observational study included all Japanese patients with MS who initiated fingolimod (0.5 mg/day). Safety endpoints included adverse events and adverse drug reactions. Effectiveness endpoints included the annualized relapse rate, Kurtzke's Expanded Disability Status Scale score and physician clinical global impression. All endpoints were analyzed in fingolimod‐naïve patients.Of the 1792 patients who started fingolimod between 28 November 2011 and 31 May 2013, 1624 and 1623 fingolimod‐naïve patients were included in the safety and effectiveness analysis sets, respectively. The most common MS type was relapsing–remitting MS (89.47%). Adverse events, adverse events leading to discontinuation of fingolimod, adverse drug reactions and serious adverse drug reaction incidences were 64.10%, 15.33%, 57.88% and 23.46%, respectively. No new/unexpected safety signals were identified. The annualized relapse rate was 0.97 during the 1 year before baseline, and decreased to 0.22 after treatment. The mean Expanded Disability Status Scale score remained stable throughout treatment, irrespective of the baseline Expanded Disability Status Scale score (≥3 or <3). Physician clinical global impression was classified as ‘effective’ in the majority of patients (70.3%–90.1%) throughout the treatment period.Fingolimod was well tolerated and no new safety concerns were identified in this Japanese 2‐year post‐marketing study. Additionally, fingolimod was effective in preventing MS relapse and physical disability progression in this real‐world population comprising mainly relapsing–remitting MS patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

FTY720 or fingolimod is a known functional antagonist of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), and it is effective in treating multiple sclerosis and preventing inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Evidence shows that its use in mice can increase the susceptibility to mucosal infections. Despite the significant contribution of S1P to barrier function, the effect of the administration of FTY720 on the mucosal barrier has never been investigated. In this study, we looked into how FTY720 therapy affected the function of the gut barrier susceptibility. Administration of FTY720 to C57BL/6 mice enhances the claudin-2 expression and reduces the expression of claudin-4 and occludin, as studied by qPCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence. FTY720 inhibits the Akt-mTOR pathway to decrease occludin and claudin-4 expression and increase claudin-2 expression. FTY720 treatment induced increased colonic inflammation, with notably greater immune cell infiltration, colon histopathology, and increased production of TNF-α, IFN-γ, CXCL-1, and CXCL-2 than that in control mice. Taking into account the close association of "the leaky gut" and gut dysbiosis among the major diseases, we therefore can infer that the vigilance of gut pathology should be maintained, where FTY720 is used as a treatment option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Fingolimod is approved in Turkey or the treatment of cases of multiple sclerosis (MS) which cannot be controlled with first-line treatments. There is limited information about its efficacy and safety in clinical practice in Turkey. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of fingolimod treatment in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis who were prescribed fingolimod by the Multiple Sclerosis specialists of Bursa Uludağ University Department of Neurology. Methods: This is a single-center observational study evaluating 142 patients using fingolimod who were followed up for at least 12 months in our center between April 2015 and October 2022. Efficacy results were evaluated in terms of mean number of attacks, annualized relapse rate, relapse-free patient rate, disease progression, clinical and radiological disease activity, and no evidence of disease activity (NEDA-3). The safety outcomes are the rates of treatment-related severe adverse events and patients' continuation rates. Results: Over 12 months of treatment with fingolimod, the average number of attacks decreased by 94.6%, the annual relapse rate decreased by 87%, and most patients did not relapse (83.1%). Alongside this, in 76.4% of cases, there was no disability progression and in 83.3% of cases, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) activation was not observed. Excluding replacement due to ineffectiveness, 89.4% of patients continued fingolimod therapy. Cardiac events, treatment-related infections and a decreased lymphocyte count were observed as side effects. Conclusion: In our center, switching from first-line treatments to fingolimod was effective in reducing disease activity in patients with multiple sclerosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and objectives: In multiple sclerosis (MS), MRI markers can measure the potential neuroprotective effects of fingolimod beyond its anti-inflammatory activity. In this study we aimed to comprehensively explore, in the real-word setting, whether fingolimod not only reduces clinical/MRI inflammatory activity, but also influences the progression of irreversible focal and whole brain damage in relapsing–remitting [RR] MS patients. Methods: The "EVOLUTION" study, a 24-month observational, prospective, single-arm, multicenter study, enrolled 261 RRMS patients who started fingolimod at 32 Italian MS centers and underwent biannual neurological assessments and annual MRI evaluations. Study outcomes included the proportions of evaluable RRMS patients achieving at 24 months: (1) no new/enlarging T2-hyperintense white matter (WM) lesions and/or clinical relapses; (2) a modified classification of "No Evidence of Disease Activity 4" ("modified NEDA-4") defined as no new/enlarging T2-hyperintense WM lesions, clinical relapses, and 6-month confirmed disability progression, and a yearly percentage lateral ventricular volume change on T2-FLAIR images < 2%; (3) less than 40% of active lesions at baseline and month 12 evolving to permanent black holes (PBHs). Results: At month 24, 76/160 (47.5%; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 39.8%;55.2%) RRMS patients had no clinical/MRI activity. Thirty-nine of 170 RRMS patients (22.9%; 95% CI = 16.6%;29.3%) achieved "modified NEDA-4" status. Forty-four of 72 RRMS patients (61.1%; 95% CI = 49.8%;72.4%) had less than 40% of active WM lesions evolving to PBHs. The study confirmed the established safety and tolerability profile of fingolimod. Discussion: By comparing our results with those from the literature, the EVOLUTION study seems to indicate a neuroprotective effect of fingolimod, limiting inflammatory activity, brain atrophy and PBH development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fingolimod is an oral drug for the escalation of treatment of relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis in patients with persistent disease activity on first‐line drugs or in patients with rapidly progressive severe relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis. An ultra‐high‐performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method for determining the concentrations of fingolimod and its active metabolite fingolimod phosphate in whole blood has been developed and validated. The advantages of this method are the easy, fast and cheap sample preparation using protein precipitation from blood with a mixture of acetonitrile–methanol (40:60, v/v). Chromatographic separation was performed on a ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography BEH C18 1.7 μm (100 × 2.1 mm) column. Two modes of ionization, electrospray ionization and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, were tested and compared. For validation, the electrospray ionization mode was chosen. As internal standard, isotopically labeled fingolimod‐D4 was used to quantify the analytes. The method was validated according to the rules of the European Medicines Agency. The coefficients of variation for fingolimod were in the range of 1.13–11.88%, and the recovery was 98.80–106.00%. The coefficients of variation for fingolimod phosphate were in the range of 2.73–9.31%, and the recovery was 90.08–107.00%. The method is quite easy and fast and can be used for routine analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jan Hillert,1 Helmut Butzkueven,2,3 Melinda Magyari,4 Stig Wergeland,5,6 Nicholas Moore,7 Merja Soilu-Hänninen,8 Tjalf Ziemssen,9 Jens Kuhle,10 Luigi Pontieri,11 Lars Forsberg,1 Jan Harald Aarseth,5 Chao Zhu,2 Nicholas Sicignano,12 Vasili Mushnikov,13 Irene Bezemer,14 Meritxell Sabidó15 1Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; 2Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; 3The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; 4Danish Multiple Sclerosis Center and Danish Multiple Sclerosis Registry, Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark; 5Norwegian MS Registry and Biobank, Department of Neurology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway; 6Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; 7Bordeaux PharmacoEpi (BPE), Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France; 8Turku University Hospital Neurocenter and Division of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; 9Center of Clinical Neuroscience, Department of Neurology, University Clinic Carl Gustav Carus, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany; 10MS Centre and Research Center for Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neuroscience Basel (RC2NB), Departments of Neurology, Biomedicine and Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; 11Danish Multiple Sclerosis Registry, Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark; 12Health ResearchTx LLC, Trevose, PA, USA; 13IQVIA, Helsinki, Finland; 14IQVIA, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; 15Merck Healthcare KGaA, Darmstadt, GermanyCorrespondence: Meritxell Sabidó, Merck Healthcare KGaA, Frankfurter Str. 250, Darmstadt, 64293, Germany, Email meritxell.sabido-espin@merckgroup.comPurpose: Understanding the long-term safety of disease-modifying therapies for multiple sclerosis (MS) in routine clinical practice can be undertaken through registry-based studies. However, variability of data quality across such sources poses the challenge of data fit for regulatory decision-making. CLARION, a non-interventional cohort safety study of cladribine tablets, combines aggregated data from MS registries/data sources, except in Germany (which utilizes primary data collection). We describe the application of key data quality indicators (DQIs) within CLARION to evaluate data quality over time, as recommended by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) guideline on registry-based studies.Methods: DQIs were defined with participating registries/sources; they were used to assess data quality according to the EMA Data Quality Framework, addressing consistency, accuracy, completeness, and study representativeness. DQIs were associated with potential remedial measures if data quality was not met. DQIs were summarized overall and for individual MS registries/data sources to November 1, 2022.Results: A total of 28 DQIs were analyzed using data from 5069 patients arising from eight MS registries/data sources and 14 countries. The Representativeness DQIs showed that 72.0% of patients were female, median age at MS diagnosis was 29.0 to 43.3 years, and 93.5% had relapsing-remitting MS. Consistency DQIs showed a total of 2899 patients had achieved at least two years of follow-up; 6.9% did not have any recorded visits during this timeframe. Discrepant values were assessed as part of Accuracy DQIs, and improvements over time were noted for recorded dates of MS onset and diagnosis. Regarding Completeness DQIs, 191/5069 (3.8%) patients were lost to follow-up.Conclusion: The application of 28 DQIs within the CLARION study has helped with understanding, not only intrinsic and question-specific determinants of data quality, but also tracking the quality of post-authorization safety data obtained from MS registries/data sources, thereby providing a foundation for the regulatory decision-making process.Keywords: cladribine tablets, multiple sclerosis, safety, fingolimod

Background: Clinically, ischemic reperfusion injury is the main cause of stroke injury. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of fingolimod in suppressing inflammation caused by ischemic brain injury and explore its pharmacological mechanisms. Methods: In total, 75 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly and equally assigned to five distinct groups: sham, middle cerebral artery occlusion/ reperfusion (MCAO/R) surgery, fingolimod low-dose (F-L), fingolimod medium-dose (F-M), and fingolimod high-dose (F-H). Neurobehavioral tests, 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining, and the brain tissue drying-wet method were conducted to evaluate neurological impairment, cerebral infarction size, and brain water content. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was employed to quantify pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) protein levels. Western blotting and immunohistochemical staining were performed to assess high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and nuclear factor kappa-B p65 (NF-κBp65) levels. Results: Rats in the F-L, F-M, and F-H groups exhibited lower Longa scores, reduced infarction volumes, and decreased brain edema than those in the MCAO/R group. Additionally, the F-L, F-M, and F-H groups exhibited lower serum levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α than those of the MCAO/R group. Additionally, F-L, F-M, and F-H treatments resulted in decreased HMGB1, TLR4, and NF-κBp65 protein expression levels in the hippocampus of MCAO/R rats. Conclusions: Fingolimod was found to reduce ischemic brain injury in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, it was also found to alleviate inflammation following ischemic brain injury via the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is one of the inevitable complications of surgery. The evidence shows that fingolimod, with its anti-inflammatory effects, can play a protective role in renal IRI. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the role of fingolimod against renal IRI in the heart tissue. Methods. Twenty-four male Wistar rats (220±20g) were treated with a single dose of fingolimod (1mg/kg) by intraperitoneal injection before the induction of kidney IRI. At the end of the reperfusion period, the oxidative stress biomarker (malondialdehyde) and antioxidant biomarkers (catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, and total antioxidant capacity) were evaluated in the heart tissue. Results. Fingolimod pretreatment could increase cardiac glutathione enzyme activity in the fingolimod+IR group compared to the IR group, which was not statistically significant (P>0.05). The level of total antioxidant capacity in the heart tissue was also significantly increased in the fingolimod+IR group in comparison to the IR group (P

The central nervous system (CNS) is one of the most complex physiological systems, and treatment of CNS disorders represents an area of major medical need. One critical aspect of the CNS is its lack of regeneration, such that damage is often permanent. The damage often leads to neurodegeneration, and so strategies for neuroprotection could lead to major medical advances. The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family is one of the major receptor classes, and they have been successfully targeted clinically. One class of GPCRs is those activated by bioactive lysophospholipids as ligands, especially sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). Research has been increasingly demonstrating the important roles that S1P and LPA, and their receptors, play in physiology and disease. In this review, I describe the role of S1P and LPA receptors in neurodegeneration and potential roles in neuroprotection. Much of our understanding of the role of S1P receptors has been through pharmacological tools. One such tool, fingolimod (also known as FTY720), which is a S1P receptor agonist but a functional antagonist in the immune system, is clinically efficacious in multiple sclerosis by producing a lymphopenia to reduce autoimmune attacks; however, there is evidence that fingolimod is also neuroprotective. Furthermore, fingolimod is neuroprotective in many other neuropathologies, including stroke, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Rett syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease, and others that are discussed here. LPA receptors also appear to be involved, being upregulated in a variety of neuropathologies. Antagonists or mutations of LPA receptors, especially LPA1, are neuroprotective in a variety of conditions, including cortical development, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, stroke and others discussed here. Finally, LPA receptors may interact with other receptors, including a functional interaction with plasticity related genes.

Abstract Up to 10 years ago the most common approach to the treatment of pediatric MS (ped-MS) was to start with IFNB or GA (so-called first-line therapies or moderate-efficacy disease-modifying therapies [ME-DMTs]) and to switch to more aggressive treatments (or high-efficacy disease-modifying therapies [HE-DMTs]) in non-responder patients. The use of HE-DMTs as first choice was recommended in selected cases with an active, aggressive form of MS. Indications for the treatment of ped-MS were essentially derived from data of observational studies. Recently, results of three randomized clinical trials have been published as well as data from many observational studies evaluating the effect of new and more active DMTs, with clear evidence that HE-DMTs are more effective than ME-DMTs. Therefore, the paradigm of treatment for patients with MS onset before 18 years of age should be changed, offering treatment with HE-DMTs as first option, because of their superior effectiveness to prevent relapses and disease progression. HE-DMTs present an overall reassuring safety profile and obtain better adherence to treatment.

Abstract The mechanism by which subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) leads to chronic neurologic deficits is unclear. One possibility is that blood activates microglia to drive inflammation that leads to synaptic loss and impaired brain function. Using the endovascular perforation model of SAH in rats, we investigated short-term effects on microglia together with long-term effects on EEG and neurologic function for up to 3 months. Within the first week, microglia were increased both at the site of injury and diffusely across the cortex (2.5-fold increase in SAH compared to controls, p = 0.012). Concomitantly, EEGs from SAH animals showed focal increases in slow wave activity and diffuse reduction in fast activity. When expressed as a fast-slow spectral ratio, there were significant interactions between group and time (p

Background: Comparisons between cladribine and other potent immunotherapies for multiple sclerosis (MS) are lacking. Objectives: To compare the effectiveness of cladribine against fingolimod, natalizumab, ocrelizumab and alemtuzumab in relapsing-remitting MS. Methods: Patients with relapsing-remitting MS treated with cladribine, fingolimod, natalizumab, ocrelizumab or alemtuzumab were identified in the global MSBase cohort and two additional UK centres. Patients were followed for ⩾6/12 and had ⩾3 in-person disability assessments. Patients were matched using propensity score. Four pairwise analyses compared annualised relapse rates (ARRs) and disability outcomes. Results: The eligible cohorts consisted of 853 (fingolimod), 464 (natalizumab), 1131 (ocrelizumab), 123 (alemtuzumab) or 493 (cladribine) patients. Cladribine was associated with a lower ARR than fingolimod (0.07 vs. 0.12, p = 0.006) and a higher ARR than natalizumab (0.10 vs. 0.06, p = 0.03), ocrelizumab (0.09 vs. 0.05, p = 0.008) and alemtuzumab (0.17 vs. 0.04, p < 0.001). Compared to cladribine, the risk of disability worsening did not differ in patients treated with fingolimod (hazard ratio (HR) 1.08, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.47–2.47) or alemtuzumab (HR 0.73, 95% CI 0.26–2.07), but was lower for patients treated with natalizumab (HR 0.35, 95% CI 0.13–0.94) and ocrelizumab (HR 0.45, 95% CI 0.26–0.78). There was no evidence for a difference in disability improvement. Conclusion: Cladribine is an effective therapy that can be viewed as a step up in effectiveness from fingolimod, but is less effective than the most potent intravenous MS therapies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Obesity induces neuroinflammatory effects on the central nervous system (CNS) through dysregulation of energy metabolism, inflammation, and immune responses. Obesity is associated with poor clinical response of multiple sclerosis (MS) to immune mediator drugs. We aimed to assess IL-17 serum and mRNA levels in MS patients and to explore the association of obesity with DMT response and IL-17 serum and mRNA levels in patients with MS. Methods: we examined 40 patients with MS, the diagnosis was according to the latest 2017 McDoland criteria, and 40 subjects as a control group. IL-17 mRNA and serum levels of IL-17 were determined by ELISA. Results: 40 patients with MS were included, of whom 15 (37.5%) were obese, and 25(62.5%) patients were lean. IL-17 mRNA level was significantly higher in the obese MS group (3.4±1.24) compared to the lean MS group (2.5±1.11) and control group (0.9±0.09), P <0 .001. Also, IL-17 level was significantly high in the obese group (46.75±12.2) compared to the lean group (36.23±9.2) and the control group (23.1±5.7), P <0 .001. MS patients treated with fingolimod had statistically significant lower levels of IL-17 mRNA and serum IL-17 compared to patients treated with Interferon beta-1a and b. These markers were associated with BMI, number of relapses in the last 2 years, Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), ESR, and hs-CRP. Conclusions: IL-17 serum and mRNA levels were upregulated in MS patients, particularly obese patients. MS patients treated with fingolimod had statistically significant lower levels of IL-17 mRNA and serum IL-17 compared to other patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key Clinical Message: A report of Balo's concentric sclerosis developed alongside with fingolimod use in a patient with previously diagnosed multiple sclerosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Up to 10 years ago the most common approach to the treatment of pediatric MS (ped-MS) was to start with IFNB or GA (so-called first-line therapies or moderate-efficacy disease-modifying therapies [ME-DMTs]) and to switch to more aggressive treatments (or high-efficacy disease-modifying therapies [HE-DMTs]) in non-responder patients. The use of HE-DMTs as first choice was recommended in selected cases with an active, aggressive form of MS. Indications for the treatment of ped-MS were essentially derived from data of observational studies. Recently, results of three randomized clinical trials have been published as well as data from many observational studies evaluating the effect of new and more active DMTs, with clear evidence that HE-DMTs are more effective than ME-DMTs. Therefore, the paradigm of treatment for patients with MS onset before 18 years of age should be changed, offering treatment with HE-DMTs as first option, because of their superior effectiveness to prevent relapses and disease progression. HE-DMTs present an overall reassuring safety profile and obtain better adherence to treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) have been shown to improve disease outcomes in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. They may also impair the immune response to vaccines, including the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. However, available data on both the intrinsic immune effects of DMTs and their influence on cellular response to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine are still incomplete. Methods: Here, we evaluated the immune cell effects of 3 DMTs on the response to mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccination by comparing MS patients treated with one specific therapy (fingolimod, dimethyl fumarate, or natalizumab) with both healthy controls and untreated patients. We profiled 23 B-cell traits, 57 T-cell traits, and 10 cytokines, both at basal level and after stimulation with a pool of SARS-CoV-2 spike peptides, in 79 MS patients, treated with DMTs or untreated, and 32 healthy controls. Measurements were made before vaccination and at three time points after immunization. Results and Discussion: MS patients treated with fingolimod showed the strongest immune cell dysregulation characterized by a reduction in all measured lymphocyte cell classes; the patients also had increased immune cell activation at baseline, accompanied by reduced specific immune cell response to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. Also, anti-spike specific B cells progressively increased over the three time points after vaccination, even when antibodies measured from the same samples instead showed a decline. Our findings demonstrate that repeated booster vaccinations in MS patients are crucial to overcoming the immune cell impairment caused by DMTs and achieving an immune response to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine comparable to that of healthy controls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) infected mice have been often used as an animal model for Multiple sclerosis (MS) due to their similar pathology in the central nervous system (CNS). So far, there has been no effective treatment or medicine to cure MS completely. The drugs used in the clinic can only reduce the symptoms of MS, delay its recurrence, and increase the interval between relapses. MS can be caused by many factors, and clinically MS drugs are used to treat MS regardless of what factors are caused rather than MS caused by a specific factor. This can lead to inappropriate medicine, which may be one of the reasons why MS has not been completely cured. Therefore, this review summarized the drugs investigated in the TMEV-induced disease (TMEV-IDD) model of MS, so as to provide medication guidance and theoretical basis for the treatment of virus-induced MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is uncommon in China and the standard of care is underdeveloped, with limited utilization of disease-modifying treatment (DMT). An understanding of real-world disease burden (including direct medical, non-medical, and indirect costs, such as loss of productivity), is currently lacking in this population. To investigate the overall burden of managing patients with MS in China, a cross-sectional survey of physicians and their consulting patients with MS was conducted in 2021. Physicians provided information on healthcare resource utilization (HCRU; consultations, hospitalizations, tests, medication) and associated costs. Patients provided data on changes in their life, productivity, and impairment of daily activities due to MS. Results were stratified by disease severity using generalized linear models, with a p value < 0.05 considered statistically significant. Patients with more severe disease had greater HCRU, including hospitalizations, consultations and tests/scans, and incurred higher direct and indirect costs and productivity loss, compared with those with milder disease. However, the use of DMT was higher in patients with mild disease severity. With the low uptake and limited efficacy of non-DMT drugs, Chinese patients with MS experience a high disease burden and significant unmet needs. Therapeutic interventions could help save downstream costs and lessen societal burden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: One strategy to mitigate progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) risk is to switch to other highly effective disease-modifying therapies (DMTs). However, the optimal switch DMT following natalizumab (NTZ) discontinuation is yet to be determined. Objective: The objective of the study is to determine the most effective and tolerable DMTs to switch to following NTZ discontinuation due to John Cunningham virus (JCV) antibody positivity. Methods: This is a multicenter observational cohort study that included all stable relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS) patients who were treated with NTZ for at least 6 months before switching therapy due to JCV antibody positivity. Results: Of 321 patients, 255 switched from NTZ to rituximab/ocrelizumab, 52 to fingolimod, and 14 to alemtuzumab, with higher annualized relapse rate (ARR) in fingolimod switchers (0.193) compared with rituximab/ocrelizumab or alemtuzumab (0.028 and 0.032, respectively). Fingolimod switchers also had increased disability progression (p = 0.014) and a higher proportion developed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) lesions compared with rituximab/ocrelizumab (62.9% vs. 13.0%, p < 0.001, and 66.6% vs. 24.0%, p < 0.001, respectively). Mean drug survival favored rituximab/ocrelizumab or alemtuzumab over fingolimod (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Our study shows superior effectiveness of rituximab/ocrelizumab and alemtuzumab compared with fingolimod in stable patients switching from NTZ due to JC virus antibody positivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To assess clinicians' adherence to fingolimod's effective use according to the prescribed recommendations to reduce safety risk, identify the consequences, and highlight areas for improvement to policy makers for the benefit of both patient and care-giver. Methods: A retrospective observational study conducted at a tertiary hospital targeting multiple sclerosis patients on fingolimod from January 2017 to December 2021. The physicians' adherence to the manufacturer's instructions was assessed and categorized into good, moderate, and poor based on adherence to fingolimod instructions and monitoring measures. Four monitoring measures were assessed: bradycardia observation, ophthalmic examination, liver enzymes, and infections. In addition, the impact of adherence on patient safety was also assessed. Results: A total of 140 patients were included. Seventy-two patients (51.4%) had physician with poor adherence followed only one instruction or none). Sixty-five patients (46.4%) had 2-3 manufacture recommendations where physician's adherence was moderate. Three patients (2.10%) had all manufacturer's recommendations. In terms of fingolimod complications, 18 patients found to have bradycardia after the first does, macular oedema and infections was reported in 4 patients, and the elevation in hepatic enzymes was reported in 6 patients. Poor physician's adherence has resulted in treatment incompleteness and highest fingolimod discontinuation or switching to other treatment options. Conclusion: Adherence to fingolimod instructions was poor among physicians which resulted in highest drug switching or discontinuing rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a nosocomial pathogen, has strong biofilm capabilities, representing the main source of infection in the human body. Repurposing existing drugs has been explored as an alternative strategy to combat emerging antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Fingolimod hydrochloride (FTY720), an immunomodulatory drug for multiple sclerosis, has shown promising antimicrobial effects against some ESKAPE pathogens. Therefore, the effects of FTY720 on the biofilm capabilities of Pseudomonas aeruginosa were investigated in this study. It was determined that FTY720 inhibited the growth of P. aeruginosa PAO1 at 100 µM. The significant reduction in PAO1 cell viability was observed to be dose-dependent. Additional cytotoxicity analysis on human cell lines showed that FTY720 significantly reduced viabilities at sub-inhibitory concentrations of 25–50 µM. Microtiter assays and confocal analysis confirmed reductions in biofilm mass and thickness and the cell survivability ratio in the presence of FTY720. Similarly, virulence production and biofilm-related gene expression (rhlA, rhlB, pilA, pilI, fliC, fliD and algR) were determined. The results demonstrate that pigment production was affected and quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed a variable degree of reduced gene expression in response to FTY720 at 12.5–50 µM. These findings suggest that FTY720 could be repurposed as an alternative antibiofilm agent against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although fingolimod, a sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor agonist, has shown to be an effective treatment reducing relapse rate and also slowing down the disability progression in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) patients, it is important to quickly identify those suboptimal responders. Objective: The main objective was to assess different clinical, radiological, genetic and environmental factors as possible early predictors of response in MS patients treated with fingolimod for 24 months. The secondary objective was to analyze the possible contribution of the environmental factors analyzed to the progression and activity of the disease along the 2-years of follow-up. Methods: A retrospective study with 151 patients diagnosed with MS, under fingolimod treatment for 24 months, with serum samples at initiation and six months later, and with clinical and radiological data at initiation and 24 months later, were included in the study. Clinical and radiological variables were collected to establish NEDA-3 (no evidence of disease activity: patients without relapses, disability progression and new T2 lesions or Gd+ lesions) and EDA (evidence of disease activity: patients with relapses and/or progression and/or new T2 lesions or gadolinium-positive [Gd+] lesions) conditions. Human leukocyte antigen II (HLA-II), EBNA-1 IgG and VCA IgG from Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and antibody titers against Human herpesvirus 6A/B (HHV-6A/B) were also analyzed. Results: A total of 151 MS patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria: 27.8% was NEDA-3 (37.5% among those previously treated with high efficacy therapies >24 months). The following early predictors were statistically significantly associated with NEDA-3 condition: sex (male; p=0.002), age at baseline (older; p=0.009), relapses 2-years before fingolimod initiation ≤1 (p=0.010), and absence of Gd+ lesions at baseline (p=0.006). Regarding the possible contribution of the environmental factors included in the study to the activity or the progression of the disease, we only found that EBNA-1 IgG titers decreased in 20.0% of PIRA (progression independent from relapse activity) patients vs. 73.3% of RAW (relapse-associated worsening) patients (p=0.006; O.R. = 11.0). Conclusion: MS patients that are male, older, and with a low clinical and radiological activity at fingolimod initiation have a greater probability to reach NEDA-3 condition after two years with this therapy. An intriguing association of EBV with the progression of the disease has also been described, but it should be further study in a larger cohort to confirm these results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mechanism by which subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) leads to chronic neurologic deficits is unclear. One possibility is that blood activates microglia to drive inflammation that leads to synaptic loss and impaired brain function. Using the endovascular perforation model of SAH in rats, we investigated short-term effects on microglia together with long-term effects on EEG and neurologic function for up to 3 months. Within the first week, microglia were increased both at the site of injury and diffusely across the cortex (2.5-fold increase in SAH compared to controls, p = 0.012). Concomitantly, EEGs from SAH animals showed focal increases in slow wave activity and diffuse reduction in fast activity. When expressed as a fast-slow spectral ratio, there were significant interactions between group and time (p < 0.001) with less ipsilateral recovery over time. EEG changes were most pronounced during the first week and correlated with neurobehavioral impairment. In vitro, the blood product hemin was sufficient to increase microglia phagocytosis nearly six-fold (p = 0.032). Immunomodulatory treatment with fingolimod after SAH reduced microglia, improved neurological function, and increased survival. These findings, which parallel many of the EEG changes seen in patients, suggest that targeting neuroinflammation could reduce long-term neurologic dysfunction following SAH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) infection and the rapid spread of multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria pose a serious threat to global healthcare. Polymyxin E (colistin), a group of cationic antimicrobial polypeptides, is currently one of the last resort treatment options against carbapenem-resistant Gramnegative pathogens. The effectiveness of colistin has been compromised due to its intensive use. This study found that fingolimod (FLD), a natural product derivative, exhibited a significant synergistic bactericidal effect on K. pneumoniae when combined with colistin, both in vitro and in vivo. The checkerboard method was employed to assess the in vitro synergistic effect of FLD with colistin. FLD enhanced the susceptibility of bacteria to colistin and lowered effectively minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) when compared to colistin MIC, and the fractional inhibitory concentrations (FIC) value was less than 0.3. The timekill curve demonstrated that the combination treatment of FLD and colistin had significant bactericidal efficacy. The in vitro concurrent administration of colistin and FLD resulted in heightening membrane permeability, compromising cell integrity, diminishing membrane fluidity, and perturbing membrane homeostasis. They also induced alterations in membrane potential, levels of reactive oxygen species, and adenosine triphosphate synthesis, ultimately culminating in bacterial death. Moreover, the combination of FLD with colistin significantly influenced fatty acid metabolism. In the mouse infection model, the survival rate of mice injected with K. pneumoniae was significantly improved to 67% and pathological damage was significantly relieved with combination treatment of FLD and colistin when compared with colistin treatment. This study highlights the potential of FLD in combining with colistin for treating infections caused by MDR isolates of K. pneumoniae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several oral disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). In the absence of head-to-head randomized data, matching-adjusted indirect comparisons (MAICs) can evaluate the comparative effectiveness and safety of ozanimod versus other oral DMTs in RRMS. Objectives: To synthesize results from the published MAICs of ozanimod and other oral DMTs for 2-year outcomes in RRMS. Methods: Published MAICs involving ozanimod for the treatment of RRMS were identified. Extracted data elements included efficacy [annualized relapse rate (ARR), confirmed disability progression (CDP), and brain volume loss] and safety [adverse events (AEs), serious AEs (SAEs), AEs leading to discontinuation, and infection] outcomes. Results: The four MAIC studies identified compared ozanimod with fingolimod, teriflunomide, dimethyl fumarate (DMF), and ponesimod. All comparisons were adjusted for differences in age, sex, relapses within the previous year, Expanded Disability Status Scale score, and percentage of patients with prior DMTs. Outcomes at 2 years were analyzed based on comparisons that lacked a common comparator arm. Ozanimod was associated with significantly lower ARR versus teriflunomide [ARR ratio (95% CI) 0.73 (0.62, 0.84) and DMF 0.80 (0.67, 0.97)], with no significant difference versus fingolimod or ponesimod. The proportions of patients treated with ozanimod or fingolimod had similar 3- and 6-month CDP. Compared with teriflunomide and DMF, ozanimod was associated with a significantly lower risk of 3-month CDP; 6-month CDP was comparable. Ozanimod was associated with significantly lower rates of any AE and AEs leading to discontinuation compared with the other oral DMTs evaluated. Ozanimod also had significantly lower rates of SAEs versus teriflunomide and DMF and lower rates of reported infection outcomes versus fingolimod and ponesimod. Conclusion: Compared with the other oral DMTs evaluated in MAICs, ozanimod was associated with a favorable safety profile and improved or comparable efficacy outcomes. Plain language summary: An indirect comparison of ozanimod vs other oral treatments in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis The many treatment options available for relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) make treatment decisions difficult. While direct head-to-head treatment comparisons provide useful information, these studies are not available for every pair of treatments. Indirect comparisons of published study results can help fill that evidence gap. A technique called matching-adjusted indirect comparison (MAIC) offers a statistically robust way to compare safety/efficacy outcomes from different studies by accounting for important differences across the studies. We collected data from four MAIC studies that compared 2-year treatment outcomes in patients treated with ozanimod versus those treated with fingolimod, teriflunomide, dimethyl fumarate (DMF), or ponesimod. Each study accounted for differences in age, sex, relapses within the previous year, disability status, and previous therapy use. We found ozanimod was either better than or similar to other treatments based on the outcomes measured. The annual rate of RRMS relapse was lower for patients treated with ozanimod than for patients treated with teriflunomide or DMF and similar for patients treated with ponesimod or fingolimod. Ozanimod-treated patients saw their RRMS progress at rates similar to those treated with fingolimod at 3 and 6 months and teriflunomide and DMF at 6 months; RRMS was more likely to progress at 3 months in patients treated with teriflunomide and DMF versus those treated with ozanimod. Our analyses also found that patients treated with ozanimod had lower rates of side effects, including those serious enough to cause treatment discontinuation, compared with patients receiving other treatments. By comparing findings from existing MAIC studies, we found that patients with RRMS treated with ozanimod had fewer side effects and better or similar efficacy outcomes compared with patients who received other treatments for RRMS. These findings can potentially inform treatment decisions for patients with RRMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a pathological condition characterized by the demyelination of nerve fibers, primarily attributed to the destruction of oligodendrocytes and subsequent motor neuron impairment. Ethidium bromide (EB) is a neurotoxic compound that induces neuronal degeneration, resulting in demyelination and symptoms resembling those observed in experimental animal models of multiple sclerosis (MS). The neurotoxic effects induced by EB in multiple sclerosis (MS) are distinguished by the death of oligodendrocytes, degradation of myelin basic protein (MBP), and deterioration of axons. Neurological complications related to MS have been linked to alterations in the signaling pathway known as smo-shh. Purmorphine (PUR) is a semi-synthetic compound that exhibits potent Smo-shh agonistic activity. It possesses various pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and neuromodulatory effects. Hence, the current investigation was conducted to assess the neuroprotective efficacy of PUR (at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally) both individually and in conjunction with Fingolimod (FING) (at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally) in the experimental model of MS induced by EB. The administration of EB was conducted via the intracerebropeduncle route (ICP) over a period of seven days in the brain of rats. The Wistar rats were allocated into six groups using randomization, each consisting of eight rats (n = 8 per group). The experimental groups in this study were categorized as follows: (I) Sham Control, (II) Vehicle Control, (III) PUR per se, (IV) EB, (V) EB + PUR5, (VI) EB + PUR10, (VII) EB + FING 0.5, and (VIII) EB + PUR10 + FING 0.5. On the final day of the experimental timeline, all animal subjects were euthanized, and subsequent neurochemical estimations were conducted on cerebrospinal fluid, blood plasma, and brain tissue samples. In addition, we conducted neurofilament (NFL) analysis and histopathological examination. We utilized the luxol myelin stain to understand better the degeneration associated with MS and its associated neurological complications. The findings of our study indicate that the activation of SMO-Shh by PUR has a mitigating effect on neurobehavioral impairments induced by EB, as well as a restorative effect on cellular and neurotransmitter abnormalities in an experimental model of MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Neurocardiogenic injury is common after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) despite low prevalence of preexisting cardiac disease. Potential mechanisms include autonomic dysregulation due to excess catecholamines as well as systemic inflammation. Understanding how inflammation contributes to cardiac dysfunction may aid in identifying novel therapeutic strategies. Here, we investigated serum leukocytes as predictors of left ventricular systolic dysfunction in patients with aSAH. We also investigated increased cardiac macrophages in an animal model of SAH and whether immunomodulatory treatment could attenuate this inflammatory response. Methods: We retrospectively analyzed 256 patients with aSAH admitted to University of Illinois Hospital between 2013 and 2019. Our inclusion criteria included patients with aSAH receiving an echocardiogram within 72 h of admission. Our primary outcome was echocardiographic evidence of systolic dysfunction. We performed multinomial regression and receiver operating curve analysis. We also used the endovascular perforation model of SAH in male Sprague–Dawley rats to assess for myocardial inflammation. Two days after surgery, hearts were collected and stained for the macrophage marker Iba-1. We compared the presence and morphology of macrophages in cardiac tissue isolated from SAH animals and sham controls treated with and without the immunomodulatory agent fingolimod. Results: Of 256 patients with aSAH, 233 (91.0%) underwent echocardiography within 72 h of admission. Of 233, 81 (34.7%) had systolic dysfunction. Patients had baseline differences in the presence of hypertension, alcohol use, and admission Glasgow Coma Scale and Hunt-Hess score. On multivariable analysis, total leukocytes (odds ratio 1.312, p < 0.001), neutrophils (odds ratio 1.242, p = 0.012), and monocytes (odds ratio 6.112, p = 0.008) were independent predictors of reduced systolic function, whereas only monocytes (odds ratio 28.014, p = 0.030) predicted hyperdynamic function. Within the rodent heart, there were increased macrophages after SAH relative to controls, and this was attenuated by fingolimod treatment (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: Increased serum leukocytes are associated with abnormal left ventricular systolic function following aSAH. The strongest independent predictor of both reduced and hyperdynamic systolic function was increased monocytes. Increased cardiac macrophages after experimental SAH can also be targeted by using immunomodulatory drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small‐molecule drug, FTY720 (fingolimod), is a synthetic sphingosine 1‐phosphate (S1P) analogue currently used to treat relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis in both adults and children. FTY720 can cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and, over time, accumulate in lipid‐rich areas of the central nervous system (CNS) by incorporating into phospholipid membranes. FTY720 has been shown to enhance cell membrane fluidity, which can modulate the functions of glial cells and neuronal populations involved in regulating behaviour. Moreover, direct modulation of S1P receptor‐mediated lipid signalling by FTY720 can impact homeostatic CNS physiology, including neurotransmitter release probability, the biophysical properties of synaptic membranes, ion channel and transmembrane receptor kinetics, and synaptic plasticity mechanisms. The aim of this study was to investigate how chronic FTY720 treatment alters the lipid composition of CNS tissue in adolescent mice at a key stage of brain maturation. We focused on the hippocampus, a brain region known to be important for learning, memory, and the processing of sensory and emotional stimuli. Using mass spectrometry‐based lipidomics, we discovered that FTY720 increases the fatty acid chain length of hydroxy‐phosphatidylcholine (PCOH) lipids in the mouse hippocampus. It also decreases PCOH monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and increases PCOH polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). A total of 99 lipid species were up‐regulated in the mouse hippocampus following 3 weeks of oral FTY720 exposure, whereas only 3 lipid species were down‐regulated. FTY720 also modulated anxiety‐like behaviours in young mice but did not affect spatial learning or memory formation. Our study presents a comprehensive overview of the lipid classes and lipid species that are altered in the hippocampus following chronic FTY720 exposure and provides novel insight into cellular and molecular mechanisms that may underlie the therapeutic or adverse effects of FTY720 in the central nervous system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drug release plays a crucial role in drug delivery. While current formulation approaches are capable of coarse-tuning the release profile, their precision and reproducibility are limited by the physicochemical properties of the excipients and active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). Innovative and advanced approaches are urgently needed, especially for site-specific targeting of drugs and to address their pharmacological requirements for optimal therapy. The 5 × 5 × 0.6 mm3 piezoelectric micropump developed by Fraunhofer EMFT was designed to enable precise drug delivery in a low volume format. In this study, we investigated the ability of the micropump to deliver solutions of highly soluble APIs using a wide range of customized pump profiles. Additionally, we examined the ability of the micropump to deliver suspensions containing various defined particle sizes. While results for suspensions indicate that pumping performance is highly dependent on the size and concentration of the suspended particles, results with API solutions demonstrate high precision and reproducibility of release, coupled with maximum flexibility in the release profile of the API. The piezoelectric micropump thus lays the cornerstone in the development of a wide range of innovative drug delivery profiles, enabling customized release profiles to be programmed and thus paving the way to fully personalized medicine. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fingolimod is approved in Italy as a second-line therapy for relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). Discontinuation of fingolimod may elevate the risk of relapses, typically manifesting after a relatively prolonged drug-free interval and often necessitating high doses of intravenous steroids for management. Similar to other viruses, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) can act as a trigger for MS relapses. In this context, we present a case of rebound following fingolimod discontinuation during a SARS-CoV-2 infection. Notably, the rebound occurred shortly after stopping the medication and responded effectively to low doses of oral steroids. Our case is discussed in light of existing literature, with speculation on potential mechanisms governing this unconventional disease course rebound. We also consider the possibility that SARS-CoV-2 infection might have contributed to or even triggered the MS relapse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lafora disease (LD; OMIM#254780) is a rare, devastating, and fatal form of progressive myoclonus epilepsy that affects young adolescents and has no treatment yet. One of the hallmarks of the disease is the accumulation of aberrant poorly branched forms of glycogen (polyglucosans, PGs) in the brain and peripheral tissues. The current hypothesis is that this accumulation is causative of the pathophysiology of the disease. Another hallmark of LD is the presence of neuroinflammation. We have recently reported the presence of reactive glia-derived neuroinflammation in LD mouse models and defined the main inflammatory pathways that operate in these mice, mainly TNF and IL-6 signaling pathways. In addition, we described the presence of infiltration of peripheral immune cells in the brain parenchyma, which could cooperate and aggravate the neuroinflammatory landscape of LD. In this work, we have checked the beneficial effect of two compounds with the capacity to ameliorate neuroinflammation and reduce leukocyte infiltration into the brain, namely fingolimod and dimethyl fumarate. Our results indicate a beneficial effect of fingolimod in reducing reactive astrogliosis-derived neuroinflammation and T-lymphocyte infiltration, which correlated with the improved behavioral performance of the treated Epm2b-/- mice. On the contrary, dimethyl fumarate, although it was able to reduce reactive astrogliosis, was less effective in preventing neuroinflammation and T-lymphocyte infiltration and in modifying behavioral tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Multiple sclerosis (MS) has a multi-factorial etiology involving genetic factors. Fingolimod (Gilenya ®,FTY720) modulates the G-protein-coupled sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptors, S1PR1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Variationin the human S1PR1 coding sequence results in heterogeneity in the function of the receptor. Interleukin-17, producingCD4+ T cells, tends to be increased after treatment with Fingolimod. The aim of the study was to investigate single-nucleotidepolymorphisms (SNPs) in the S1PR1 gene or interleukin-17 (IL-17) levels in a small group of Iranian relapsing-remittingMS patients treated with Fingolimod.Materials and Methods: In this case-control study, the genomic DNA of 94 MS patients treated with Fingolimod wasextracted and Sanger sequencing was performed on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products to detect variants inthe S1PR1 gene. Quantification of IL-17 from the serum of the patients was performed using a commercially availableenzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).Results: Among 94 relapsing-remitting MS patients treated with Fingolimod, 69 (73.4%) were responders and 25(26.6%) were non-responders. There were four novel and five common SNPs in the S1PR1 gene and no significantassociation between SNP genotype and drug response was detected. In a subset of 34 patients, there was no significantdifference in IL-17 serum concentrations before or after treatment and no association with S1PR1 polymorphisms wasdetermined.Conclusion: This study is the first in Iran to investigate association between SNPs of the S1PR1 gene or IL-17 levelswith fingolimod response in a small group of Iranian relapsing remitting MS patients. There was no association withS1PR1 gene SNPs or IL-17 levels before or after treatment.

Suppression of immune functions can be elicited by behavioural conditioning using drugs such as cyclosporin A or rapamycin. Nevertheless, little is known about the underlying mechanisms and generalisability of this phenomenon. Against this background, the present study investigated whether the pharmacological properties of fingolimod (FTY720), an immunosuppressive drug widely applied to treat multiple sclerosis, can be conditioned in rats by means of taste-immune associative learning. For this purpose, a conditioned taste avoidance paradigm was used, pairing the presentation of a novel sweet drinking solution (saccharin or sucrose) as conditioned stimulus (CS) with therapeutically effective doses of FTY720 as unconditioned stimulus (US). Subsequent re-exposure to the CS at a later time point revealed that conditioning with FTY720 induced a mild conditioned taste avoidance only when saccharin was employed as CS. However, on an immunological level, neither re-exposure with saccharin nor sucrose altered blood immune cell subsets or splenic cytokine production. Despite the fact that intraperitonally administered FTY720 could be detected in brain regions known to mediate neuro-immune interactions, the present findings show that the physiological action of FTY720 is not inducible by mere taste-immune associative learning. Whether conditioning generalises across all small-molecule drugs with immunosuppressive properties still needs to be investigated with modified paradigms probably using distinct sensory CS. Moreover, these findings emphasize the need to further investigate the underlying mechanisms of conditioned immunomodulation to assess the generalisability and usability of associative learning protocols as supportive therapies in clinical contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Sphingosine 1 Phosphate (S1P) is a key regulator of inflammation, angiogenesis, vessel permeability, and immune processes, acting through S1P receptors. Fingolimod (FTY720), an S1P receptor analog Fingolimod, was initially approved for multiple sclerosis treatment and has shown potential for application in infectious and inflammatory disorders, including COVID-19. Study Design: Comprehensive Literature Review. Setting: Northwest School of Medicine. Period: 1st March 2023 to 3rd July 2023. Methods: Examining S1P pathways, S1P receptor analogs, and their potential in treating inflammatory and infectious disorders, particularly COVID-19, utilizing Fingolimod. Results: S1P analogs have demonstrated therapeutic benefits in autoimmune diseases. In COVID-19, these analogs modulate the inflammatory response, reduce tissue damage, and promote viral clearance. Fingolimod, in particular, affects S1PR1, S1PR4, and S1PR5, blunting the inflammatory response and mitigating lung tissue injury. Early administration may prevent excessive inflammation without interfering with viral clearance. Potential risks include disturbance of cytokine homeostasis and delayed administration. Limited human studies and concerns about off-target effects need addressing. Conclusion: Fingolimod shows promise in treating COVID-19 by reducing inflammation and lung damage. Further research is needed to address limitations and ensure safety for clinical application. Sphingosine 1 Phosphate (S1P) plays a key role in regulating inflammation and immune responses, with Fingolimod being a potential treatment option. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive vascular leakage and shock is a major cause of dengue‐associated mortality. At present, there are no specific treatments available. Sphingolipid pathway is a key player in the endothelial barrier integrity; and is mediated through the five sphingosine‐1‐phosphate receptors (S1PR1‐S1PR5). Signaling through S1PR2 promotes barrier disruption; and in Dengue virus (DENV)‐infection, there is overexpression of this receptor. Fingolimod (FTY720) is a specific agonist that targets the remaining barrier‐protective S1P receptors, without targeting S1PR2. In the present study, we explored whether FTY720 treatment can alleviate DENV‐induced endothelial hyperpermeability. In functional assays, in both in vitro systems and in AG129 animal models, FTY720 treatment was found effective. Upon treatment, there was complete restoration of the monolayer integrity in DENV serotype 2‐infected human microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC‐1). At the molecular level, the treatment reversed activation of the S1P pathway. It significantly reduced the phosphorylation of the key molecules such as PTEN, RhoA, and VE‐Cadherin; and also, the expression levels of S1PR2. In DENV2‐infected AG129 mice treated with FTY720, there was significant improvement in weight gain, in overall clinical symptoms, and in survival. Whereas 100% of the DENV2‐infected, untreated animals died by day‐10 post‐infection, 70% of the FTY720‐treated animals were alive; and at the end of the 15‐day post‐infection observation period, 30% of them were still surviving. There was a significant reduction in the Evan's‐blue dye permeability in the organs of FTY720‐treated, DENV‐2 infected animals; and also improvement in the hemogram, with complete restoration of thrombocytopenia and hepatic function. Our results show that the FDA‐approved molecule Fingolimod (FTY720) is a promising therapeutic intervention in severe dengue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, different heterocyclic entities consisting of tyrosine amino acid and triazine ring were designed based on the structure of fingolimod, the first oral drug for multiple sclerosis (MS). Interaction of these compounds with S1P1 and S1P3, as two involving targets for fingolimod, was evaluated utilizing molecular docking and then the designed compounds were synthesized and evaluated in the terms of red blood cell and T-lymphocyte depletion in comparison to fingolimod. The 4-aminopyridine substituted derivative (8a) showed low binding energy with the active site of S1P1 (−9.4 kcal/mol) and higher binding energy (−5.87 kcal/mol) with the active site of S1P3. Also, in pharmacological studies, this compound was able to reduce white blood cells better than fingolimod and did not show destructive effects on red blood cells, unlike fingolimod. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study has found that clusterin deficiency may be a biomarker for a lack of response to teriflunomide, an oral therapy for multiple sclerosis (MS). The study used RNA sequencing to identify genes that showed differential expression in responders and non-responders to teriflunomide treatment, and clusterin was the only gene that was validated and found to be downregulated in non-responders. Further analysis revealed that clusterin expression was primarily reduced in certain T cells from non-responders. Another study investigated the effects of teriflunomide treatment on T-cell metabolism, apoptosis, and proliferation in MS patients. It found that teriflunomide treatment reduced the respiratory and glycolytic capacities of T-cells, but there were no significant differences in the metabolic profile between responders and non-responders. Non-responders had a higher resistance to apoptosis and a reduced proliferative response in memory T-cell populations compared to responders. These findings suggest that teriflunomide non-responders may have abnormal persistence of pathogenic T-cells in the blood. Further research is needed to validate these findings and their implications for identifying non-responders to teriflunomide treatment. [Extracted from the article]

Background: Evidence from network meta-analyses (NMAs) and real-world propensity score (PS) analyses suggest monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) offer a therapeutic advantage over currently available oral therapies and, therefore, warrant consideration as a distinct group of high-efficacy disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) for patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis (RMS). This is counter to the current perception of these therapies by some stakeholders, including payers. Objectives: A multifaceted indirect treatment comparison (ITC) approach was undertaken to clarify the relative efficacy of mAbs and oral therapies. Design: Two ITC methods that use individual patient data (IPD) to adjust for between-trial differences, PS analyses and simulated treatment comparisons (STCs), were used to compare the mAb ofatumumab versus the oral therapies cladribine, fingolimod, and ozanimod. Data sources and methods: As IPD were available for trials of ofatumumab and fingolimod, PS analyses were conducted. Given summary-level data were available for cladribine, fingolimod, and ozanimod trials, STCs were conducted between ofatumumab and each of these oral therapies. Three efficacy outcomes were compared: annualized relapse rate (ARR), 3-month confirmed disability progression (3mCDP), and 6-month CDP (6mCDP). Results: The PS analyses demonstrated ofatumumab was statistically superior to fingolimod for ARR and time to 3mCDP but not time to 6mCDP. In STCs, ofatumumab was statistically superior in reducing ARR and decreasing the proportion of patients with 3mCDP compared with cladribine, fingolimod, and ozanimod and in decreasing the proportion with 6mCP compared with fingolimod and ozanimod. These findings were largely consistent with recently published NMAs that identified mAb therapies as the most efficacious DMTs for RMS. Conclusion: Complementary ITC methods showed ofatumumab was superior to cladribine, fingolimod, and ozanimod in lowering relapse rates and delaying disability progression among patients with RMS. Our study supports the therapeutic superiority of mAbs over currently available oral DMTs for RMS and the delineation of mAbs as high-efficacy therapies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Humoral responses after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination are greatly impaired in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients on fingolimod. Effects of repeated vaccination and infections on long-term responses are unclear. Methods: Prospective study in 60 MS patients on fingolimod measuring humoral responses after up to four vaccinations and 8 months after fourth vaccination. Results: Anti-WH1 antibody titers increased with each additional vaccination. At long-term follow-up titers increased further and most patients developed new humoral responses against the BA.1 omicron variant. Conclusion: Repeated SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations boost humoral immunity and, probably together with SARS-CoV-2 infections, induce humoral responses on the long-term in almost all patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Multiple sclerosis (MS) has a multi-factorial etiology involving genetic factors. Fingolimod (Gilenya ®, FTY720) modulates the G-protein-coupled sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptors, S1PR1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Variation in the human S1PR1 coding sequence results in heterogeneity in the function of the receptor. Interleukin-17, producing CD4+ T cells, tends to be increased after treatment with Fingolimod. The aim of the study was to investigate single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the S1PR1 gene or interleukin-17 (IL-17) levels in a small group of Iranian relapsing-remitting MS patients treated with Fingolimod. Materials and Methods: In this case-control study, the genomic DNA of 94 MS patients treated with Fingolimod was extracted and Sanger sequencing was performed on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products to detect variants in the S1PR1 gene. Quantification of IL-17 from the serum of the patients was performed using a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results: Among 94 relapsing-remitting MS patients treated with Fingolimod, 69 (73.4%) were responders and 25 (26.6%) were non-responders. There were four novel and five common SNPs in the S1PR1 gene and no significant association between SNP genotype and drug response was detected. In a subset of 34 patients, there was no significant difference in IL-17 serum concentrations before or after treatment and no association with S1PR1 polymorphisms was determined. Conclusion: This study is the first in Iran to investigate association between SNPs of the S1PR1 gene or IL-17 levels with fingolimod response in a small group of Iranian relapsing remitting MS patients. There was no association with S1PR1 gene SNPs or IL-17 levels before or after treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite more than 40 years of counterdrug interdiction efforts in the Western Hemisphere, cocaine trafficking, or "narco-trafficking", networks continue to evolve and increase their global reach. Counterdrug interdiction continues to fall short of performance targets, due to the adaptability of narco-trafficking networks and spatially complex constraints on interdiction operations (e.g., resources, jurisdictional). Due to these dynamics, current modeling approaches offer limited strategic insights into time-varying, spatially optimal allocation of counterdrug interdiction assets. This study presents coupled agent-based and spatial optimization models to investigate the co-evolution of counterdrug interdiction deployment and narco-trafficking networks' adaptive responses. Increased spatially optimized interdiction assets were found to increase seizure volumes. However, the value per seized shipment concurrently decreased and the number of active nodes increased or was unchanged. Narco-trafficking networks adaptively responded to increased interdiction pressure by spatially diversifying routes and dispersing shipment volumes. Thus, increased interdiction pressure had the unintended effect of expanding the spatial footprint of narco-trafficking networks. This coupled modeling approach enabled the study of narco-trafficking network evolution while being subjected to varying interdiction pressure as a spatially complex adaptive system. Capturing such co-evolution dynamics is essential for simulating traffickers' realistic adaptive responses to a wide range of interdiction scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Diffuse brain injury (DBI) models are characterized by intense global brain inflammation and edema, which characterize the most severe form of TBI. In a previous experiment, we found that fingolimod promoted recovery after controlled cortical impact injury (CCI) by modulating inflammation around brain lesions. However, it remains unclear whether fingolimod can also attenuate DBI because of its different injury mechanisms. Furthermore, whether fingolimod has additional underlying effects on repairing DBI is unknown. Methods: The impact acceleration model of DBI was established in adult Sprague–Dawley rats. Fingolimod (0.5 mg/kg) was administered 0.5, 24, and 48 h after injury for 3 consecutive days. Immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence analysis, cytokine array, and western blotting were used to evaluate inflammatory cells, inflammatory factors, AQP4 polarization, apoptosis in brain cells, and the accumulation of APP after DBI in rats. To evaluate the function of the glymphatic system (GS), a fluorescent tracer was injected into the cistern. The neural function of rats with DBI was evaluated using various tests, including the modified neurological severity score (mNSS), horizontal ladder‐crossing test, beam walking test, and tape sensing and removal test. Brain water content was also measured. Results: Fingolimod administration for 3 consecutive days could reduce the levels of inflammatory cytokines, neutrophil recruitment, microglia, and astrocyte activation in the brain following DBI. Moreover, fingolimod reduced apoptotic protein expression, brain cell apoptosis, brain edema, and APP accumulation. Additionally, fingolimod inhibited the loss of AQP4 polarization, improved lymphatic system function, and reduced damage to nervous system function. Notably, inhibiting the GS weakened the therapeutic effect of fingolimod on the neurological function of rats with DBI and increased the accumulation of APP in the brain. Conclusions: In brief, these findings suggest that fingolimod alleviates whole‐brain inflammation and GS system damage after DBI and that inhibiting the GS could weaken the positive effect of fingolimod on nerve function in rats with DBI. Thus, inhibiting inflammation and regulating the GS may be critical for the therapeutic effect of fingolimod on DBI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]