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The Betta broodfish supply in Indonesia majorly comes from wild populations and fetches a higher price compared to hatchery cross-breeds, especially Betta rubra. This condition exerts pressure on the wild populations. Therefore, this study aims to examine the diversity, distribution, and conservation status of Betta fish species list in the study area. A total of 422 Betta fishes were collected from January 2019 to January 2021 from 19 of 59 sampling locations surveyed, consisting of four species, namely, Betta imbellis (TL: 14.09–31.98 mm; BW: 0.03–0.39 g), B. splendens (TL: 21.09–40.14 mm; BW: 0.05–0.70 g), B. rubra (TL: 11.35 to 47.80 mm; BW: 0.02–0.90 g), and B. dennisyongi (TL: 20.09–47.81 mm; BW: 0.07–0.91 g). There are four Betta species occurred in Aceh waters, namely B. dennisyongi, B. rubra, B. splendens, and B. imbellis. The results showed that B. dennisyongi was found at 8 sampling locations and had higher local distribution (13.56% LD) followed by B. rubra (8.47% LD), B. splendens (6.78% LD) and B. imbellis which had the lowest distribution and was only found in two locations (3.39% LD). Furthermore, field measurements (in situ) of water quality in the wild habitat showed temperature ranging from 23.7 to 31.9°C while pH ranged from 5.24 to 8.51. Based on the IUCN Redlist data, B. rubra is categorized as being critically endangered.

Background: The number of nucleotide sequences in public repositories has exploded recently. However, the data contain errors, leading to incorrect species identification. Several fighting fish (Betta spp.) are poorly described, with unresolved cryptic species complexes masking undescribed species. Here, DNA barcoding was used to detect erroneous sequences in public repositories. Objective: This study reflects the current quantitative and qualitative status of DNA barcoding in fighting fish and provides a rapid and reliable identification tool. Methods: A total of 1034 barcode sequences were analyzed from mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) and cytochrome b (Cytb) genes from 71 fighting fish species. Results: The nearest neighbor test showed the highest percentage of intraspecific nearest neighbors at 93.41% for COI and 91.67% for Cytb, which can be used as reference barcodes for certain taxa. Intraspecific variation was usually less than 13%, while most species differed by more than 54%. The barcoding gap, calculated from the difference between inter- and intraspecific sequence divergences, was negative in the COI data set indicating overlapping intra- and interspecific sequence divergence. Sequence saturation was observed in the Cytb data set but not in the COI data set. Conclusion: The COI gene should thus be used as the main barcoding marker for fighting fish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Betta broodfish supply in Indonesia majorly comes from wild populations and fetches a higher price compared to hatchery cross-breeds, especially Betta rubra. This condition exerts pressure on the wild populations. Therefore, this study aims to examine the diversity, distribution, and conservation status of Betta fish species list in the study area. A total of 422 Betta fishes were collected from January 2019 to January 2021 from 19 of 59 sampling locations surveyed, consisting of four species, namely, Betta imbellis (TL: 14.09–31.98 mm; BW: 0.03–0.39 g), B. splendens (TL: 21.09–40.14 mm; BW: 0.05–0.70 g), B. rubra (TL: 11.35 to 47.80 mm; BW: 0.02–0.90 g), and B. dennisyongi (TL: 20.09–47.81 mm; BW: 0.07–0.91 g). There are four Betta species occurred in Aceh waters, namely B. dennisyongi, B. rubra, B. splendens, and B. imbellis. The results showed that B. dennisyongi was found at 8 sampling locations and had higher local distribution (13.56% LD) followed by B. rubra (8.47% LD), B. splendens (6.78% LD) and B. imbellis which had the lowest distribution and was only found in two locations (3.39% LD). Furthermore, field measurements (in situ) of water quality in the wild habitat showed temperature ranging from 23.7 to 31.9°C while pH ranged from 5.24 to 8.51. Based on the IUCN Redlist data, B. rubra is categorized as being critically endangered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Teleost fish are known to respond to environmental manipulation, which makes them an ideal model animal for testing relationships between the environment and behavior. The Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens, is a solitary, highly territorial fish that displays fierce stereotyped aggressive behavior toward conspecifics or members of other species. Adult fish, especially males, are generally housed in isolation in captivity. Here we report evidence that an enriched rearing environment can decrease the level of aggression in bettas and enable adults to be housed in groups. Results B. splendens individuals were hatched in our laboratory and raised in groups in an enriched environment. At the juvenile or subadult stage, some individuals were relocated to a poor environment and kept in isolation. To evaluate aggression, a mirror-image test was conducted at the juvenile, subadult, and adult stages for each fish, and body parameters as well as plasma concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone, estradiol, and cortisol were evaluated. Male and female adult bettas raised in a group showed lower levels of aggression than other adult fish. The magnitude of threatening behavior was greater in adult bettas isolated as subadults, whereas the magnitude of fighting behavior was grater in adult bettas isolated as juveniles. The influence of rearing conditions on behavior was greater in females than in males. Plasma cortisol concentrations of adult bettas isolated as subadults after the mirror-image test were higher than those in other experimental groups. Adult males isolated as subadults had significantly higher plasma concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone than males raised in a group and isolated as juveniles. Females isolated as subadults had a higher gonadosomatic index than females raised in a group and females isolated as juveniles. Conclusions These results indicate that bettas can be kept in a group under enriched environments and that the timing of isolation influences the aggression and sexual maturity of bettas. Female and male bettas responded differently to environmental manipulation. Judging from their level of sexual maturity, bettas isolated as subadults show proper development.

Mekong fighting fish (Betta smaragdina) are found in Northeast Thailand. A complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of B. smaragdina was assembled and annotated. Mitogenome sequences were 16,372 bp in length, with slight AT bias (59.8%), containing 37 genes with identical order to most teleost mitogenomes. Phylogenetic analysis of B. smaragdina showed closer relationship with B. splendens and B. mahachaiensis as the bubble-nesting group, compared to the mouthbrooder group (B. apollon, B. simplex, and B. pi). Results will allow the creation of a reference annotated genome that can be utilized to sustain biodiversity and eco-management of betta bioresources to improve conservation programs.

Mahachai bettas (Betta mahachaiensis) are distributed in areas of brackish water with Nipa Palms in Samut Sakhon, Thailand but urbanization is restricting their biodiversity. A complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of B. mahachaiensis was determined to support conservation programs. Mitogenome sequences were 16,980 bp in length with slight AT bias (61.91%), containing 37 genes with identical order to most teleost mitogenomes. Phylogenetic analysis of B. mahachaiensis showed a closer relationship with B. splendens. Results will allow the creation of a reference annotated genome that can be utilized to sustain biodiversity and eco-management of the betta to improve conservation programs.

Background: Teleost fish are known to respond to environmental manipulation, which makes them an ideal model animal for testing relationships between the environment and behavior. The Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens, is a solitary, highly territorial fish that displays fierce stereotyped aggressive behavior toward conspecifics or members of other species. Adult fish, especially males, are generally housed in isolation in captivity. Here we report evidence that an enriched rearing environment can decrease the level of aggression in bettas and enable adults to be housed in groups. Results: B. splendens individuals were hatched in our laboratory and raised in groups in an enriched environment. At the juvenile or subadult stage, some individuals were relocated to a poor environment and kept in isolation. To evaluate aggression, a mirror-image test was conducted at the juvenile, subadult, and adult stages for each fish, and body parameters as well as plasma concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone, estradiol, and cortisol were evaluated. Male and female adult bettas raised in a group showed lower levels of aggression than other adult fish. The magnitude of threatening behavior was greater in adult bettas isolated as subadults, whereas the magnitude of fighting behavior was grater in adult bettas isolated as juveniles. The influence of rearing conditions on behavior was greater in females than in males. Plasma cortisol concentrations of adult bettas isolated as subadults after the mirror-image test were higher than those in other experimental groups. Adult males isolated as subadults had significantly higher plasma concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone than males raised in a group and isolated as juveniles. Females isolated as subadults had a higher gonadosomatic index than females raised in a group and females isolated as juveniles. Conclusions: These results indicate that bettas can be kept in a group under enriched environments and that the timing of isolation influences the aggression and sexual maturity of bettas. Female and male bettas responded differently to environmental manipulation. Judging from their level of sexual maturity, bettas isolated as subadults show proper development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mouthbrooding fighting fish Betta apollon and B. simplex are widely distributed in Southeast Asia but urbanization is restricting their biodiversity. Complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of B. apollon and B. simplex were determined to support systematic conservation programs. Mitogenome sequences were 16,536 and 16,549 bp in length with slight AT bias (56.68% and 56.60%), respectively, containing 37 genes with the order identical to most teleost mitogenomes. Phylogenetic analysis of B. apollon showed a closer relationship with B. simplex, grouped with B. pi as a monophyletic clade of mouthbrooders. Results will facilitate evolutionary studies, species diversity, and conservation management in fighting fishes.

This review updates what is known about Betta fish species in Thailand and Southeast Asian countries. The text is made easy to read for an uninitiated audience. It covers wild nest-builders, wild mouthbrooders, their appearance, distribution, and habitats. A section on domesticated fish is included for the general public. Details for more serious readership can be found in photos, maps, a table, and a diagram. DNA analyses for species differentiation leading to a phylogenetic tree and ancestral relationships are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wonderful as they are, insects do not by any means exhaust the possibilities of suitable organisms to conduct fascinating, cutting-edge, low-cost research, especially in animal behavior. Having seen how insects can be used to this end, in all the previous articles in this series, I will now deliberately choose examples from studies done on vertebrates, starting with fish and navigating through the evolutionary tree of life, all the way to humans. In this article, we will see how simple, clever experiments can reveal that when fish fight, the outcome is not only based on their intrinsic fighting abilities but also on extrinsic factors such as prior winning and losing experiences, and indeed, on a sophisticated interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In particular, we will study the phenomenon of winner-effects and loser-effects and learn that this is a near-virgin field of research waiting to be exploited and eminently suitable for cutting-edge research at a trifling cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Betta pi is the largest species of mouthbrooding fighting fish, while B. splendens is a globally ornamental bubble nesting fish. Complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of wild individuals of B. pi and B. splendens were determined. The mitogenome sequences were 16,521 and 16,980 base pair in length, containing 37 genes with gene order identical to most teleost mitogenomes. Overall A + T content was 57.72% for B. pi and 61.92% for B. splendens. Phylogenetic analysis showed that B. pi and B. splendens were highly supported monophyletic clades. Our results will facilitate further genetic studies, including mitochondrial variations and population structure of fighting fishes.

Background: Fluoxetine (ProzacTM) is one of the most popular antidepressant that can be released to aquatic systems via sewage-treatment effluents. It is suspected to provoke substantial effects in the aquatic environment. Methods: In spawning tanks, specimens were exposed to concentrations of 0 and 0.54 µgl-1 fluoxetine from male introduction until the larvae had hatched. Prior to spawning, nest area and time spent for nest building were measured. Also, spawning duration, number of copulations per spawning and eggs per copulation, total produced eggs and hatching rate were recorded. Results: The number of copulations, eggs per copulation and total produced eggs did not differ between the two treatments. Fluoxetine treatment significantly decreased the nest size, time spent for nest building and spawning duration. Also hatching rate was significantly lower during fluoxetine treatment than in the control condition. Notably, five fluoxetine treated males cannibalized their eggs and larvae. Conclusion: We showed that environmental exposure of fighting fish to fluoxetine potentially alters specific aspects of nest building and sexual behavior and, as a consequence, reproductive output.

Mouthbrooding fighting fish Betta apollon and B. simplex are widely distributed in Southeast Asia but urbanization is restricting their biodiversity. Complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of B. apollon and B. simplex were determined to support systematic conservation programs. Mitogenome sequences were 16,536 and 16,549 bp in length with slight AT bias (56.68% and 56.60%), respectively, containing 37 genes with the order identical to most teleost mitogenomes. Phylogenetic analysis of B. apollon showed a closer relationship with B. simplex, grouped with B. pi as a monophyletic clade of mouthbrooders. Results will facilitate evolutionary studies, species diversity, and conservation management in fighting fishes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Betta pi is the largest species of mouthbrooding fighting fish, while B. splendens is a globally ornamental bubble nesting fish. Complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of wild individuals of B. pi and B. splendens were determined. The mitogenome sequences were 16,521 and 16,980 base pair in length, containing 37 genes with gene order identical to most teleost mitogenomes. Overall A + T content was 57.72% for B. pi and 61.92% for B. splendens. Phylogenetic analysis showed that B. pi and B. splendens were highly supported monophyletic clades. Our results will facilitate further genetic studies, including mitochondrial variations and population structure of fighting fishes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animal social behavior, an essential part of biology, involves the process and mechanism of how animals live in groups. Because it is a topic usually taught by the traditional method in a very abstract way, students end up having an inadequate understanding and even some misconceptions of it. This study, thus, aimed to develop a learning unit, based on the 5E learning model, to enhance high-school students' understanding of some aspects of animal social behavior by using the Siamese fighting fish as a concrete example. Students were engaged by video clips on animal behavior together with other learning materials. They designed their own experiments, which involved observing fish behavior in tanks and constructed their own knowledge from data gathered and discussion in class. The experimental group was given the 5E learning unit, whereas the control group was taught traditionally, both with the same objectives. Student achievements were assessed by pre- and post- tests and their documents. Students participating in the 5E learning unit gained better conceptual understanding of animal social behavior as well as acquired science process skills. They had acquired positive attitudes toward the learning unit as evidenced by their reflections and semi-structured interviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To ensure better understanding of two rather difficult topics in biology, genetics and biodiversity among secondary students, we developed a learning unit which required them to learn by hands-on activities together with inquiry guided by the teacher. The experimental group learned in the hands-on class while the control group in the traditional lecture class. The experimental group used colored clips to represent traits (phenotype) of genes (genotype) which segregate and come together independently. Using the Punnett square as a guide for the above genotype and phenotype probabilities the students placed the clips and counted the resulting traits and thus came up with their Mendelian inheritance of traits. For the topic on biodiversity, the students were given plastic models of diverse animals and asked to classify them according to morphological criteria. The students compared similarity (or difference) and number of parts and forms and deduced their taxonomic relationship. They could base their explanations for the above on genetics and population change (evolution) learned previously. The results clearly showed an increase in conceptual understanding of the students in both topics as compared to the control group taught by traditional lecture. The teacher had the standard objectives in mind while guiding the students who were engaged enough to pursue the activity to the end. Additionally, the students stated that they enjoyed being active and challenged in the unit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study focused on the effects of the cooperative learning on students' achievement. A learning unit on the fighting fish living process was used as a case study. The participants, 30 grade-4 students, were randomly divided into five groups of six students each. A learning center on fighting fish was established and equipped with learning resources in the school. Students worked together in each topic which differed from group to group. After the activity each group shared their findings to the class. Following extensive discussion all students were expected to gain knowledge from both in-group activity and activities of other groups. For the overall knowledge gained, the students were assessed both individually and as a group. The results showed improvement in the level of knowledge of the students from the first week to the third week. Results from their mind maps indicated that almost all students were able to conceptualize about various aspects of the life of the fighting fish. This can be explained by the self-accountability of individual students as well as their responsibility for the achievement of their friends. The students showed positive attitude toward the cooperative learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: VERBEEK, P., T. IWAMOTO AND N. MURAKAMI. Variable stress-responsiveness in wild type and domesticated fighting fish. PHYSIOL BEHAV XX(X) 000-000, 2007. We combined behavioral and physiological measures to compare coping style in wild-type Betta splendens and a domesticated strain selectively bred for sports fighting. We showed previously that the fighter strain is more aggressive than the wild type during experimental conditions that most closely resemble an actual fight. We predicted that compared to the wild type, the fighter strain would show a more proactive coping style, characterized by lesser cortisol and greater sympathetic responses to non-social challenges. We introduced males to an unfamiliar environment and spatial confinement as challenges that may resemble some of those that B. splendens may encounter in its natural habitat. We developed a non-invasive stress assay that enables repeated individual measures of water-borne cortisol. We estimated sympathetic activation through opercular beat rate and recorded the duration of behavioral immobility. We found that exposure to an unfamiliar environment raised cortisol levels in the wild type but not in the fighter strain and that confinement raised cortisol levels in both. In both strains opercular beat rates were significantly reduced during the latter stages of confinement compared to during the early stages. The fighter strain, but not the wild type, adopted a behavioral strategy of immobility from the very beginning of confinement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We investigated differences in aggression between wild-type Betta splendens, Betta smaragdina, two domesticated strains of B. splendens selectively bred for cockfight-like contests and appearance, and Betta sp. mahachai, an unclassified Betta variety. We tested the fish for aggression once they reached sexual maturity as well as during adulthood. We used a combined mirror and video playback test and a mutual-viewing test to measure close-range gill extension and biting attempts as principal measures of aggression. As predicted, the short-finned domesticated strains were significantly more aggressive than wild-type B. splendens. However, the difference in aggression manifested itself only in the mutual-viewing test, which is the test that most closely resembled an actual fight. Betta splendens and the closely related B. smaragdina did not differ in aggression across the experimental contexts; however, B. sp. mahachai responded more aggressively to the combined mirror/video test than B. splendens. Four of the five groups of fighting fish tested responded significantly more aggressively to video images of an aggressive conspecific male than to blank screen controls, suggesting that video playback can be a useful tool for measuring aggression in fighting fish. Our results are relevant for improving our understanding of key aspects of territorial aggression in teleost fish as well as for developing the most reliable ways of measuring them. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Male Siamese fighting fish continued to approach visual stimuli associated with conspecifics in the absence of opportunities to perform threat displays or to attack. Dominant fish performed more operant responses than subordinates when such responses led to the appearance of their own mirror images, and all fish learned to delay their threat displays if these resulted in disappearance of mirror image. In a second experiment, subjects overwhelmingly preferred to view conspecifics (to whom they frequently displayed) compared to no stimulus or members of other species (to whom they did not display). The functions of threat displays in aggressive encounters is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mekong fighting fish ( Betta smaragdina ) are found in Northeast Thailand. A complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of B. smaragdina was assembled and annotated. Mitogenome sequences were 16,372 bp in length, with slight AT bias (59.8%), containing 37 genes with identical order to most teleost mitogenomes. Phylogenetic analysis of B. smaragdina showed closer relationship with B. splendens and B. mahachaiensis as the bubble-nesting group, compared to the mouthbrooder group ( B. apollon , B. simplex , and B. pi ). Results will allow the creation of a reference annotated genome that can be utilized to sustain biodiversity and eco-management of betta bioresources to improve conservation programs., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest and are entirely responsible for the contents of this article. Animal care and all experimental procedures were approved by the Animal Experiment Committee, Kasetsart University, Thailand (approval no. ACKU63-SCI-007) and conducted in accordance with the Regulations on Animal Experiments at Kasetsart University., (© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.)

Mahachai bettas ( Betta mahachaiensis ) are distributed in areas of brackish water with Nipa Palms in Samut Sakhon, Thailand but urbanization is restricting their biodiversity. A complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of B. mahachaiensis was determined to support conservation programs. Mitogenome sequences were 16,980 bp in length with slight AT bias (61.91%), containing 37 genes with identical order to most teleost mitogenomes. Phylogenetic analysis of B. mahachaiensis showed a closer relationship with B. splendens . Results will allow the creation of a reference annotated genome that can be utilized to sustain biodiversity and eco-management of the betta to improve conservation programs., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest and are entirely responsible for the contents of this article. Animal care and all experimental procedures were approved by the Animal Experiment Committee, Kasetsart University, Thailand (approval no. ACKU63-SCI-007) and conducted in accordance with the Regulations on Animal Experiments at Kasetsart University., (© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.)

Betta pi is the largest species of mouthbrooding fighting fish, while B. splendens is a globally ornamental bubble nesting fish. Complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of wild individuals of B. pi and B. splendens were determined. The mitogenome sequences were 16,521 and 16,980 base pair in length, containing 37 genes with gene order identical to most teleost mitogenomes. Overall A + T content was 57.72% for B. pi and 61.92% for B. splendens . Phylogenetic analysis showed that B. pi and B. splendens were highly supported monophyletic clades. Our results will facilitate further genetic studies, including mitochondrial variations and population structure of fighting fishes., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflict of interest and are responsible for the content and writing of this article. Animal care and all experimental procedures were approved by the Animal Experiment Committee, Kasetsart University, Thailand (approval no. ACKU01157), and conducted in accordance with the Regulations on Animal Experiments at Kasetsart University., (© 2017 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.)

Fighting fish species in the genus Betta are found in several Southeast Asian countries. Depending on the mode of paternal care for fertilized eggs and hatchlings, various species of the betta fish are classified as mouth brooders or nest builders whose members in turn have been grouped according to their similarities mainly in morphology. The mouth brooders as well as some nest builders involved in the present study include fishes discovered and identified subsequent to previous reports on species groupings and their positions on phylogenetic trees based on DNA sequences that differ from those used by us in this study. From the mitochondrial COI gene and nuclear ITS1 gene sequences and more accurate analyses we conclude that the following members of the mouth-brooding pairs, named differently previously, are virtually identical, viz the Betta prima-Betta pallida pair and Betta ferox-Betta apollon pair. The Betta simplex, hitherto believed to be one species, could possibly be genetically split into 2 distinct species. In addition, several other established type-locality fishes could harbor cryptic species as judged by genetic differences. Assignments of fish species to groups reported earlier may have to be altered somewhat by the present genetic findings. We propose here a new Betta fish phylogenetic tree which, albeit being similar to the previous ones, is clearly different from them. Our gene-based evidence also leads to assignments of some fishes to new species groups and alters the positions of some species on the new phylogenetic tree, thus implying different ancestral relationships.

In Thailand, there are currently five recognized species members of the bubble-nesting Betta genus, namely Betta splendens, B. smaragdina, B. imbellis, B. mahachaiensis and B. siamorientalis. In 2010, we indicated the possibility, based on COI barcoding evidence, that there might be two additional species, albeit cryptic, related to the type-locality B. smaragdina in some provinces in the northeast of Thailand. In the present study, after a more extensive survey of the northeast, and phylogenetic analyses based on COI and ITS1 sequences, the B. smaragdina group may be composed of at least 3 cryptic species members. The phylogenetic positions of these B. smaragdina group members in the bubble-nesting bettas' tree together with those of their congeners have been consolidated by better DNA sequence quality and phylogenetic analyses. With a better supported tree, the species statuses of B. siamorientalis and the Cambodian B. smaragdina-like fish, B. stiktos, are also confirmed.