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Although guilt is often considered the most prevalent emotional outcome of work–family conflict (WFC), most work–family research focuses on family‐related guilt stemming from work interference with family, rather than job‐related guilt stemming from family interference with work (FIW). In addition, there is little understanding of how different employee social groups experience the implications of FIW in their daily lives. To address these research gaps, this study explores the relationship between daily FIW and job‐related guilt, and its subsequent impact on job satisfaction. It also investigates variation in these relationships by (1) gender and (2) the intersection of gender and ethnicity. Bayesian multilevel structural equation modeling using data from 5‐day diary surveys from 210 solicitors in Britain shows daily FIW is associated with higher job‐related guilt and subsequently lower job satisfaction. The relationship is stronger for women than men in general, but is also stronger for South Asian women than white British women (and men), and for South Asian men than white British men. This suggests that studies focusing on single social group characteristics (e.g., gender) are likely to obscure intersectional effects that might produce significant within‐group variation. The findings also highlight the importance of integrating workplace inequality arguments into theorization of WFC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Prevention of (suicidal) crisis starts with appreciating its dynamics. However, crisis is a complex multidimensional phenomenon and how it evolves over time is still poorly understood. This study aims to clarify crisis dynamics by clustering fluctuations in the interplay of cognitive, affective, and behavioral (CAB) crisis factors within persons over time into latent states. Methods: To allow for fine grained information on CAB factors over a prolonged period of time, ecological momentary assessment data comprised of self-report questionnaires (3 × daily) on five CAB symptoms (self-control, negative affect, contact avoidance, contact desire and suicidal ideation) was collected in twenty-six patients (60 measurements per patient). Empirically-derived crisis states and personalized state dynamics were isolated utilizing multilevel hidden Markov models. Results: In this proof-of-concept study, four distinct and ascending CAB-based crisis states were derived. At the sample level, remaining within the current CAB crisis state from one five-hour interval to the next was most likely, with staying likeliness decreasing with ascending states. When residing in CAB crisis state 2 or higher, it was least likely to transition back to CAB crisis state 1. However, large patient heterogeneity was observed both in the tendency to remain within a certain CAB crisis state and transitioning between crisis states. Conclusion: The uncovered crisis states using multilevel HMM quantify and visualize the pattern of crisis trajectories at the patient individual level. The observed differences between patients underlines the need for future innovation in personalized crisis prevention, and statistical models that facilitate such a personalized approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims: Studies show that higher levels of positive affect (PA) and lower levels of negative affect (NA) are related to craving and alcohol consumption at a daily level in men, but little is known on these associations at a momentary level, and whether they are present in women. This study measured the dynamics of within‐person NA and PA surrounding craving, non‐heavy alcohol use and binge drinking in women with alcohol use disorder (AUD) and female controls without AUD. Methods: 53 female patients with AUD and 75 female controls, all recruited in Belgium, were included in an experience sampling study where they reported on momentary NA, PA, craving and alcohol use in daily life over a period of 12 months. Assessments occurred eight times a day on Thursdays, Fridays and Saturdays in seven bursts of three weeks. Results: Within‐person NA at a previous assessment (t−1) predicted craving at the current assessment (t0) in patients with AUD in a positive linear [β = 0.043; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.002, 0.057; P = 0.041] and quadratic fashion (β = 0.034; CI = 0.011, 0.057; P = 0.004). Within‐person PA at t−1 predicted craving at t0 in patients with AUD with a positive quadratic relation (β = 0.042; CI = 0.08, 0.065; P < 0.001). Within‐person NA at t−1 negatively predicted non‐heavy alcohol use at t0 in a linear fashion in controls (β = −0.495; CI = ‐0.677, ‐0.312; P < 0.001) and patients with AUD (β = −0.276; CI = ‐0.421, ‐0.132; P < 0.001). Within‐person PA at t−1 significantly predicted non‐heavy alcohol use at t0 with a positive linear term (β = 0.470; CI = 0.329, 0.610; P < 0.001) in controls, but with a positive linear term (β = 0.399; CI = 0.260, 0.454; P < 0.001) and a positive quadratic term (β = 0.203; CI = 0.060, 0.347; P = 0.003) in patients with AUD. Within‐person NA at t−1 predicted binge drinking at t0 in patients with AUD with a significant quadratic term (β = 0.236; CI = 0.060, 0.412; P = 0.008), but not for controls. Within‐person PA at t−1 predicted binge drinking at t0 in patients with AUD with a significant quadratic term (β = 0.378; CI = 0.215, 0.542; P < 0.001), and this was also the case for controls (β = 0.487; CI = 0.158, 0.770; P < 0.001). Non‐heavy alcohol use at t0 predicted lower levels of NA at t+1 in both patients with AUD (β = −0.161; SE = 0.044; CI = ‐0.248, 0.074; P = 0.001) and controls (β = −0.114; CI = ‐0.198, ‐0.029; P = 0.010). Non‐heavy alcohol use at t0 also predicted higher levels of PA at t+1 in both patients with AUD (β = 0.181; CI = 0.088, 0.274; P < 0.001) and controls (β = 0.189; CI = 0.101, 0.278; P < 0.001). Conclusions: The momentary relation between affect and craving or alcohol use seems to be non‐linear in female patients with alcohol use disorder, whereby a worse mood predicts subsequent alcohol use, though more for binge drinking than for non‐heavy alcohol use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This study investigated the real-time variability of secondary school students' academic emotions (i.e., enjoyment, enthusiasm, boredom, and frustration) in mathematics classes, examining their relation to the day of the week, time of the day, and teaching methods. Utilizing experience sampling methodology, the research captures the dynamic nature of emotions as states, providing insights into their situational dynamics. Methods: 440 students reported twice during their mathematics classes for a period of 10 school days on their real-time experiences of academic enjoyment, enthusiasm, boredom, and frustration. Additionally, their teachers indicated the teaching methods that were used on each measurement occasion. Results: Results indicated students to have a more positive emotional pattern on Fridays (i.e., a "Thank God it's Friday" effect) and Wednesdays, likely due to the anticipation of leisure time. Additionally, a "Frustrating Tuesday" effect was observed, while no evidence was found for a "Blue Monday" effect. Time of the day effects were less consistent, with frustration increasing throughout the day and boredom being higher in the afternoon, possibly due to postprandial somnolence (i.e., post-meal dip). Teaching methods differently related to emotions; during individual and group work students experienced more enjoyment and enthusiasm but also more frustration compared to whole-class instruction. During classroom discussion more frustration was experienced relative to whole-class instruction. Female students experienced less enthusiasm than male students, and higher ability students experienced more enjoyment, enthusiasm and less boredom than lower ability students. Discussion: This study underscores the importance of considering temporal factors and teaching methods in understanding students' emotional experiences in educational settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Assessing the progression of COVID stress syndrome (CSS) and understanding how cognitive and emotional factors play a role in the dynamic system is critical for prevention and intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic. We investigated the dynamic relationship between self-reported COVID stress syndrome, cognitive factors, and emotional factors through time-series network analysis. Methods and Measures: Participants were 188 university students involved in an experience sampling method study that lasted 14 days, three times a day, during the COVID-19 pandemic period following a shift in pandemic prevention and control policy. Results: CSS symptoms are usually present simultaneously, and xenophobia is the most central node of the network. There is a complex mutual predictive relationship between CSS symptoms, in which traumatic stress symptoms are crucial in developing and maintaining the CSS symptom network. Negative affect was associated with CSS symptoms at the same time, and subjective health cognition was a significant predictor of CSS symptoms the next time. Conclusions: Traumatic stress symptoms are essential nodes in the CSS symptom network, and negative emotions and subjective health influence the occurrence and development of CSS symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescents with depression tend to perceive behavior of parents as less positive than adolescents without depression, but conclusions are based on retrospective reports assessed once or over long time intervals, with the risk of memory biases affecting the recall. The current study used ecological momentary assessments to examine the link between adolescent affect and the amount of warmth and criticism expressed by both mothers and fathers in families with adolescents with depression versus adolescents without psychopathology in daily life. It also explored the possible bias by assessing parenting on the momentary, daily (EMA), and retrospective level. The sample consisted of 34 adolescents with depression and 58 parents and 80 healthy controls and 151 parents (adolescents: Mage = 15.8, SD = 1.41; 67.5% girls, parents: Mage = 49.3, SD = 5.73; 54.1% mothers). Participants completed retrospective questionnaires and four surveys a day for 14 consecutive days. Preregistered multilevel models showed that momentary parenting reports of adolescents with depression and healthy controls did not differ. The associations between perceived parenting of both mothers and fathers and adolescent affect did also not differ between the two groups. These results illustrate that adolescents generally benefit from supportive parenting, but substantial differences between individuals were found. In contrast to the momentary data, both adolescents with depression and their parents did report more negative parenting on retrospective questionnaires than healthy controls and their parents indicating that adolescents with depression may have a negativity bias in their retrospective recall. These findings are highly relevant for clinical practice and underscore the need for careful assessments on different time scales and including all family members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals prefer interpersonal distance; that is approaching beyond a certain amount of distance is perceived as unpleasant. The extensive research in this area spans from cross‐cultural psychology to applied sciences such as architecture. Although there is a large corpus of research on inter‐individual and cross‐cultural differences in preferred interpersonal distances, these preferences have—to our knowledge—yet to be analysed intra‐individually across time. Therefore, we conducted a pre‐registered experience‐sampling study in the field (N = 81 participants, 2 weeks, k = 3716 daily assessments) by assessing preferred distances and whether they were contingent on the number of people in close proximity (i.e., crowding). Furthermore, we used a Bluetooth scan to nonintrusively measure the number of people within 2 m. We found substantial variance in the preferred interpersonal distances, not only between participants but also within participants, suggesting large situation‐dependent state‐like aspects of this construct. Second, in addition to the expected age and gender effects (older and female participants preferred larger distances), the more people there were within 2 m (Bluetooth was the best measure for this), the smaller the preferred interpersonal distance to strangers. This observation indicates the potential presence of either an adaptation process (i.e., adapting to the situation) or a selection process (i.e., demonstrating a greater tolerance for crowding due to the self‐selection of the situation). It seems probable that research on the state aspects of preferred interpersonal distances will retain their significance in the future, given the ongoing process of urbanisation in numerous countries worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyclical patterns in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data on emotions have remained relatively underresearched. Addressing such patterns can help to better understand emotion dynamics across time and contexts. However, no general rules of thumb are readily available for psychological researchers to determine the required sample size for measuring cyclical patterns in emotions. This study, therefore, estimates the minimum required sample sizes—in terms of the number of measurements per time period and subjects—to obtain a power of 80% given a certain underlying cyclical pattern based on input parameter values derived from an empirical EMA dataset. Estimated minimum required sample sizes varied between 50 subjects and 10 measurements per subject for accurately detecting cyclical patterns with a large magnitude, to 60 subjects and 30 measurements per subject for cyclical patterns of small magnitude. The resulting rules of thumb for sample sizes are discussed with a number of considerations in mind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To examine the impact of social media overuse on work effort amidst crisis, we apply Conservation of Resources theory to explain how social media acts as an internal stressor that depletes daily self-regulatory resources, resulting in lower daily work effort. Further, we explore whether daily mindfulness acts as a personal resource that individuals can draw from to buffer the negative effects of social media on organisational outcomes. To examine our theoretical model, we use a type of experience sampling methodology (ESM). We followed 227 participants partaking in a 30-day mindfulness challenge during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic (May/June 2020) through a daily diary study resulting in 3,851 data points at the within-person level. We examined the association between daily social media overuse and employee work effort through the mediating mechanism of daily state self-control capacity and daily mindfulness as a potential moderator of this relationship. Results suggest that daily social media overuse was related to decreased daily work effort through reduced state self-control; however, participants experienced less decline in work effort following social media overuse on days that they were more mindful, suggesting mindfulness acts as a personal resource that buffers the strain on daily state self-control capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Many experience sampling (ESM) studies suggested that high resilience is reflected by quickly recovering one’s emotional baseline. However, former studies relied on coarse data and did not look into differential recovery from emotional ups and downs. This preregistered proof-of-concept study therefore used high-resolution data collected in 2022 to compute emotional recovery after high levels of positive versus negative emotions. Adults (N = 68) participated in a three-week ESM study with eight assessments per day, complemented by short-spaced burst assessments. Resilience was assessed at baseline (trait-level; TR) and daily (day-level; DR). Multilevel survival analyses showed that high DR predicted faster returns from negative emotions, but also delayed returns following positive emotions (exp(β) = 1.32, p = 0.006). Instead, TR did not relate to emotional recovery (exp(β) = 0.85, p = 0.067). These findings were generally robust across different sensitivity analyses. This illustrates how innovative ESM designs combined with time-to-event analyses may further our insight in emotional recovery and the timescale at which it unfolds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Resilience is a broad and dynamic concept that can be seen as being constituted by the combination of internal factors, for example, temperament profiles, and external factors, for example, social support. This paper aimed to identify temperament profiles in help‐seeking youth exposed to adverse childhood experiences, and to investigate whether temperament (putative internal protective factor) interacts with social schemas (as proxy for the putative external protective factor social support) such that their combination is associated with (a) reduced mental health problems and (b) attenuated decrease in positive affect following daily life stressors. Methods: Self‐report questionnaires were used to measure temperament, social schemas and mental health problems. The experience sampling method was used to assess stress and positive affect (i.e., stress‐sensitivity as a potential daily life resilience mechanism). Temperament profiles were identified by latent profile analysis and regression analyses were used to examine (interaction) effects. Results: In 138 subjects, three temperament profiles were identified, that is, a moderate, volatile and persevering profile, of which the latter was negatively associated with mental health problems. Neither mental health problems nor stress sensitivity were found to be affected by the interaction between temperament and social schemas. However, positive social schemas were found to be independently associated with reduced mental health problems (b = −4.41; p = <.001) and reduced stress sensitivity (b =.10, p =.044). Conclusions: Findings are relevant for both practice and research, and contribute to improving our understanding of putative protective factor in the development of mental ill‐health, thereby further unravelling the construct of resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate the relationship between social interaction and emotional experience in older adults, and the moderating effects of social interaction objects and personality traits on their relationship. Method: Totally 208 elderly individuals were selected and assessed with a self-designed demographic information questionnaire and the NEO Personality Inventory (NEOPI). The Rochester Interaction Record (RIR) was used to record 14 days of social activity, and the Positive-Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) was used to evaluate emotions after each interaction. Using Mplus Multilevel Model (MLM) for model construction. Results: Through model construction, it was found that the interaction between openness and communication quality was statistically significant (β = 0. 45, P<0.05). When the dependent variable was positive emotion, the higher the openness of elderly people, the stronger the connection between communication quality and positive emotion. When interacting with non-family members, the interaction between openness and social quality was statistically significant (p=0.52, P<0.05). The higher the openness of older adults, the stronger the connection between social quality and positive emotions. Conclusion: It suggests that older adults with moderate or higher levels of openness have a stronger connection between social interaction quality and positive emotions when interacting with non-family members. That is, the higher the quality of interaction, the more positive emotions could be promoted, but negative emotions could not be reduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Affect recall is key to psychological assessment and decision‐making. However, self‐concepts (self‐beliefs) may bias retrospective affect reports such that they deviate from lived experiences. Does this experience‐memory gap apply to solitude experiences? We hypothesized that individuals misremember how they feel overall and when in solitude, in line with self‐concepts of introversion, self‐determined/not‐self‐determined solitude motivations, and independent/interdependent self‐construal. A pilot study comparing retrospective to daily affect reports captured over 2 weeks (N = 104 UK university students) provided preliminary evidence of introversion and not‐self‐determined solitude shaping affect recall. Methods: In the main pre‐registered study, participants aged 18–49 in the UK (N = 160) and Hong Kong (N = 159) reported their momentary affective states and social situations 5 times per day over 7 days, then recalled how they felt over the week. Results and Discussion: Individuals higher in self‐determined solitude were more prone to retrospectively overestimate their high‐ and low‐arousal positive affect in solitude and showed less overestimation/more underestimation of negative affect in solitude. Higher not‐self‐determined solitude was associated with overestimating loneliness, and higher interdependent self‐construal with overestimating loneliness and energy levels, in solitude. Comparisons based on residence/ethnicity suggest culture influences solitude‐seeking and affective memory. Implications for well‐being and affect measurement are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Current treatments for mental disorders, like pharmacotherapy or psychological approaches, do not lead to full remission in all individuals. Physical activity (PA) is effective at improving psycho-physical health in major depressive and anxiety disorders. However, the efficacy of PA as an adjunctive treatment for borderline personality disorder (BPD) has not been studied. To date, there are no approved pharmacological treatments for this severe condition and limited accessibility to effective psychotherapeutic interventions. This study tests the efficacy of a structured PA programme as an additional treatment for BPD outpatients. Methods The PABORD is a randomised controlled trial for female outpatients (18–40 years) with a BPD diagnosis. The intervention group (n = 32) will participate in a 12-week structured PA programme supervised by a sport medicine physician and preceded by three psychoeducation sessions on healthy eating habits. The control group (n = 32) will receive a 12-week psychoeducation programme on PA, diet, and health risks of a sedentary lifestyle for a total of 8 sessions. The study aims to determine if the PA intervention is superior to the control in reducing BPD symptoms. Secondary aims include improving PA levels and physical and psychological health. Assessments will be conducted at baseline, post-intervention, and 3 months post-intervention. Discussion The structured PA programme is expected to outperform the control group in terms of health and PA outcomes at the end of the intervention. Repeated assessments will also help to identify psychosocial factors that influence PA maintenance. Findings will support the potential widespread implementation of PA programmes for BPD treatment. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06461104. Registered on 6 June 2024 {2a}.

Abstract Purpose Emotional eating during negative emotions might underlie disordered eating behavior (i.e., binge eating and food restriction). Positive emotions, by contrast, seem to promote healthier eating behavior. Naturalistic research on the links between emotions and eating across individuals with binge-eating disorder (BED), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge-purge anorexia nervosa (AN-BP), and restrictive anorexia nervosa (AN-R) is, however, lacking. Methods Individuals without eating disorders (comparison group, CG, n = 85), and patients with BED (n = 41), BN (n = 50), AN-BP (n = 26), and AN-R (n = 29) participated in an ecological momentary assessment study. Six daily notifications over eight days prompted ratings of momentary food craving and emotional states differing in valence and arousal. Results Results supported specific emotion-food-craving patterns in each group. Compared to the CG, arousing negative emotions and higher cravings co-occurred in patients with BN. In patients with AN-BP (at trend level also in patients with AN-R) less arousing negative emotions and lower cravings co-occurred. In patients with AN, positive emotions and higher cravings co-occurred whereas in patients with BED less arousing positive emotions and lower cravings co-occurred. Conclusion The found emotion-craving associations may underlie group-specific (dys-)functional eating behaviors, i.e., binge eating and food restriction during negative emotions in patients with BN and AN, and normalized appetitive responses during positive emotions in patients with BED and AN. Therapeutic efforts could target arousing negative emotions in patients with BN, and less arousing negative emotions in patients with AN. Positive emotions could be used in a salutogenetic approach in patients with BED and AN.

Aims: Aggression on psychiatric wards is a complex issue with significant consequences for both patients and healthcare providers. This study aimed to investigate the behavioural and emotional consequences of aggressive experiences on nurses working in psychiatric wards both at work and at home as well as the contribution of nurses' behaviour to the development of aggression. Methods: This research utilised the experience sampling method (ESM) to collect real‐time data from nurses working in a high intensive care (HIC) unit within a mental health institution in the Netherlands. Results: The findings revealed that most nurses reported good sleep quality, feeling fit for the day and looking forward to starting their day. These reports were not significantly associated with having a workday ahead or the number of patients admitted. There was a negative association with the number of admitted patients being on or over the maximum bed capacity, although not significant. There were no statistically significant associations between the answers to the morning questionnaire and the behaviour and emotions of nurses and patients later that day nor the appearance of aggressive incidents. Experiencing an aggressive incident had no influence on the sleep of the nurse later that day, nor on their social behaviour. Conclusion: This study offers valuable insights into the daily experiences of nurses in psychiatric wards, particularly in relation to aggression. The real‐time data collection by ESM allowed for a nuanced understanding of nurses' behaviours and emotions. No significant associations were found between nurses' functioning and aggressive incidents happening on the ward, but this study might have been contextually influenced so that this study mainly highlights the need for further research with larger samples and across multiple wards to draw definitive conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background : Current treatments for mental disorders, like pharmacotherapy or psychological approaches, do not lead to full remission in all individuals. Physical activity (PA) is effective at improving psycho-physical health in major depressive and anxiety disorders. However, the efficacy of PA as an adjunctive treatment for borderline personality disorder (BPD) has not been studied. To date, there are no approved pharmacological treatments for this severe condition and limited accessibility to effective psychotherapeutic interventions. This study tests the efficacy of a structured PA programme as an additional treatment for BPD outpatients. Methods: The PABORD is a randomised controlled trial for female outpatients (18–40 years) with a BPD diagnosis. The intervention group (n = 32) will participate in a 12-week structured PA programme supervised by a sport medicine physician and preceded by three psychoeducation sessions on healthy eating habits. The control group (n = 32) will receive a 12-week psychoeducation programme on PA, diet, and health risks of a sedentary lifestyle for a total of 8 sessions. The study aims to determine if the PA intervention is superior to the control in reducing BPD symptoms. Secondary aims include improving PA levels and physical and psychological health. Assessments will be conducted at baseline, post-intervention, and 3 months post-intervention. Discussion: The structured PA programme is expected to outperform the control group in terms of health and PA outcomes at the end of the intervention. Repeated assessments will also help to identify psychosocial factors that influence PA maintenance. Findings will support the potential widespread implementation of PA programmes for BPD treatment. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT06461104. Registered on 6 June 2024 {2a}. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salesperson humor usage (SPHU) is often linked with positive outcomes, but little is known about its potential negative effects on salespeople. This study uses ego depletion theory to investigate the negative spillover effect of daily SPHU on work–family conflict via experience sampling method, using data from 109 salespeople over 10 workdays. Results show that daily SPHU is positively associated with daily work–family conflict through increased daily ego depletion. Moreover, the study examines daily supervisor developmental feedback as a context‐relevant moderator that can alleviate the relationship between daily SPHU and ego depletion. By detailing the mediating and moderating mechanisms of daily SPHU spill‐over in a sales interaction context, this study not only supports the perspective of ego depletion in understanding the dark sides of daily SPHU but also offers insights for organizations to inhibit its negative effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses a resource perspective that combines theories used commonly to explore recovery experiences as a theoretical framework and investigate the effects of recovery at the beginning of the workday on exhaustion and vigour at the end of the workday, with workflow in the morning as a mediator. An experience sampling method was used to collect data from 84 fulltime employees. Participants received three survey links each workday over a 2‐week period, resulting in 837 days‐level and 2517 data points. Hierarchical linear regression was used to test hypotheses, with results suggesting that greater recovery at the beginning of the workday correlated negatively with exhaustion and positively with vigour at the end of the workday. Recovery at the beginning correlated positively with flow state in the morning, and flow state correlated positively with vigour at the end of the workday. Flow state in the morning mediated the relationship between recovery level at the beginning and vigour at the end of the workday. These findings suggest the importance of recovery and the effects of flow state on employees' vigour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Engagement has been recognized as one of the most important factors of learning and achievement in academic settings. Research on engagement has been gearing toward a "person-in-context" orientation, where both personal characteristics and contextual features in relation to students' engagement are considered. This orientation allows a more in-depth understanding of how a person embedded within a context engages in a task, and it pays particular attention to the interactions between the person and contextual features. Engagement in context is situational, longitudinal, and multi-dimensional. This in-situ orientation requires a research methodology that is embedded in and responsive to the context where learning occurs. In this paper, we provide a conceptual synthesis of research on academic engagement in proposing a framework of engagement in context. We introduce the affordances of Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM) and provide a review of current technologies in supporting ESM. In addition, we provide example cases of examining engagement using ESM and technology. In these cases, we discuss details about how ESM combines with technologies and statistical approaches in providing insights to educational research, theory, and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Despite an extensive body of research on job crafting, our understanding of how bottom‐up job crafting behaviors interact with top‐down job design in influencing employee effectiveness remains limited. Drawing on conservation of resources theory, we developed and tested a theoretical framework to examine the implications of daily promotion‐ versus prevention‐oriented relational job crafting on employees' energy and subsequent task performance, in the context of relational job design (i.e., task interdependence). To test our theorizing, we conducted two experience‐sampling studies over 10 workdays with full‐time employees across various organizations (Study 1: Nday‐level = 845, Nperson‐level = 126; Study 2: Nday‐level = 793, Nperson‐level = 108). Multilevel path modeling indicated promotion‐oriented relational job crafting was positively associated with subsequent task performance by increasing energy levels (Study 2), particularly when task interdependence was low (Study 1). In contrast, prevention‐oriented relational job crafting was energy depleting in low‐task‐interdependent contexts (Study 2) but increased employees' energy in high‐task‐interdependent contexts (Study 1). Our findings suggest different forms of day‐to‐day relational job crafting behaviors are relevant for employees' energy and performance, but their effectiveness may depend on the relational job‐design context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loneliness among young adults is a growing concern worldwide, posing serious health risks. While the human ecological framework explains how various factors such as socio-demographic, social, and built environment characteristics can affect this feeling, still, relatively little is known about the effect of built environment characteristics on the feelings of loneliness that young people experience in their daily life activities. This research investigates the relationship between built environment characteristics and emotional state loneliness in young adults (aged 18–25) during their daily activities. Leveraging the Experience Sampling Method, we collected data from 43 participants for 393 personal experiences during daily activities across different environmental settings. The findings of a mixed-effects regression model reveal that built environment features significantly impact emotional state loneliness. Notably, activity location accessibility, social company during activities, and walking activities all contribute to reducing loneliness. These findings can inform urban planners and municipalities to implement interventions that support youngsters' activities and positive experiences to enhance well-being and alleviate feelings of loneliness in young adults. Specific recommendations regarding the built environment are (1) to create spaces that are accessible, (2) create spaces that are especially accessible by foot, and (3) provide housing with shared facilities for young adults rather than apartments/studios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Emotional eating during negative emotions might underlie disordered eating behavior (i.e., binge eating and food restriction). Positive emotions, by contrast, seem to promote healthier eating behavior. Naturalistic research on the links between emotions and eating across individuals with binge-eating disorder (BED), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge-purge anorexia nervosa (AN-BP), and restrictive anorexia nervosa (AN-R) is, however, lacking. Methods: Individuals without eating disorders (comparison group, CG, n = 85), and patients with BED (n = 41), BN (n = 50), AN-BP (n = 26), and AN-R (n = 29) participated in an ecological momentary assessment study. Six daily notifications over eight days prompted ratings of momentary food craving and emotional states differing in valence and arousal. Results: Results supported specific emotion-food-craving patterns in each group. Compared to the CG, arousing negative emotions and higher cravings co-occurred in patients with BN. In patients with AN-BP (at trend level also in patients with AN-R) less arousing negative emotions and lower cravings co-occurred. In patients with AN, positive emotions and higher cravings co-occurred whereas in patients with BED less arousing positive emotions and lower cravings co-occurred. Conclusion: The found emotion-craving associations may underlie group-specific (dys-)functional eating behaviors, i.e., binge eating and food restriction during negative emotions in patients with BN and AN, and normalized appetitive responses during positive emotions in patients with BED and AN. Therapeutic efforts could target arousing negative emotions in patients with BN, and less arousing negative emotions in patients with AN. Positive emotions could be used in a salutogenetic approach in patients with BED and AN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Limits of the Numerical calls for the (re)contextualization of the numerical in the social domain and emphasizes that using quantitative data has epistemic and practical/moral considerations that may not align. In this review essay, we evaluate these claims using a case study, viz. the personalized, clinical experience sampling method (ESM) in mental health care. This case study (1) nuances claims made in Limits of the Numerical regarding the generality and non-contextuality of numerical data, and (2) highlights two additional dimensions to the numerical that have been underexposed in the book (i.e., reactivity and Ballung concepts). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our objective is to implement a single-case experimental design (SCED) infrastructure in combination with experience-sampling methods (ESM) into the standard diagnostic procedure of a German outpatient research and training clinic. Building on the idea of routine outcome monitoring, the SCED infrastructure introduces intensive longitudinal data collection, individual effectiveness measures, and the opportunity for systematic manipulation to push personalization efforts further. It aims to empower psychotherapists and patients to evaluate their own treatment (idiographic perspective) and to enable researchers to analyze open questions of personalized psychotherapy (nomothetic perspective). Organized around the principles of agile research, we plan to develop, implement, and evaluate the SCED infrastructure in six successive studies with continuous stakeholder involvement: In the project development phase, the business model for the SCED infrastructure is developed that describes its vision in consideration of the context (Study 1). Also, the infrastructure's prototype is specified, encompassing the SCED procedure, ESM protocol, and ESM survey (Study 2 and 3). During the optimization phase, feasibility and acceptability are tested and the infrastructure is adapted accordingly (Study 4). The evaluation phase includes a pilot implementation study to assess implementation outcomes (Study 5), followed by actual implementation using a within-institution A-B design (Study 6). The sustainability phase involves continuous monitoring and improvement. We discuss to what extent the generated data could be used to address current questions of personalized psychotherapy research. Anticipated barriers and limitations during the implementation processes are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The experience sampling method (ESM) allows for a high degree of ecological validity compared to laboratory research, at the cost of greater effort for participants. It would therefore benefit from implementations that reduce participant effort. In the present paper, we introduce a screenless wrist-worn one-button wearable as an unobtrusive measurement method that can be employed in ESM designs. We developed an open-source Android application to make this commercially available wearable easily configurable and usable. Over the course of six pilot studies, we explored the technical viability (e.g., battery life, reliability of inputs) of this wearable. We compared data quality between wearables and smartphones in a within-subjects design, exploring both the input options of using the number of button presses as a Likert scale, as well as using the angle of the device as a Physical Analogue Scale. Assessments of Extraversion made with either of these methods were highly correlated to comparable assessments made with comparable methods on a smartphone (i.e., Likert scale or a Visual Analogue Scale, respectively). Furthermore, in a preregistered ESM field experiment (N = 134, 4 weeks), we compared compliance to real-life event triggers between wearable devices and smartphones. We found higher numbers of logged events in the wearable group, indicating better adherence to the event-contingent scheduling. Overall, despite the device's minimal capabilities and resulting limitations, one-button wearables can be beneficial for use in ESM designs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) can be used to examine the dynamics of suicidal ideation in daily life. While the general acceptability and feasibility of EMA in suicide research has been established, further examination of potential iatrogenic effects (i.e., negative reactivity) and identifying those more likely to react negatively is needed. Participants (N = 82) with current suicidal ideation completed 21 days of EMA (4×/day) and filled in M = 78% (Med = 84%) of the EMA. No positive or negative affect reactivity was observed in EMA ratings over the study period. Retrospectively, most participants rated their experience as positive (69%); 22% indicated mood worsening, and 18% suicidal ideation reactivity. Those with more borderline personality traits, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and higher depressive, anxiety, and suicidal ideation symptoms, were more likely to report iatrogenic effects. In conclusion, while high compliance rates and lack of affect reactivity during EMA indicate that EMA is well tolerated in suicide research, a minority of participants may report subjective mood effects in retrospect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How adolescents and their parents cope with adolescent stress is relevant for child well-being. (In)congruencies between parent and child perceptions of child stress may be important sources of information for understanding family functioning. However, research assessing the occurrence of stressful events in adolescents' daily lives from the perspective of both adolescents and their parents is lacking, likely because this type of research comes with numerous challenges. Therefore, this pilot study examined the feasibility of two different paradigms, daily diary and the experience sampling method (ESM), for triadic (child–mother–father) assessment of adolescent stress in daily life. Twenty family triads participated either in the diary paradigm (receiving one survey per day) or the ESM paradigm (receiving multiple surveys per day). Results indicated that both paradigms seemed doable to participants in terms of experienced burden, and individual compliance to the paradigms was sufficient. The absolute number of reported stressors was similar across paradigms. In addition, both paradigms captured convergence and divergence in the family members' reports of adolescent stress and between- and within-family differences therein. However, diary participants experienced lower burden and missed relatively less assessments (higher individual and triadic compliance) than ESM participants, suggesting higher data quality. In all, these findings suggest that although both paradigms may be feasible, a diary paradigm may be preferred to capture triadic family reports of adolescent stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates whether demographics, L2 enjoyment, L2 anxiety, psychological well-being, or informal digital learning of English (IDLE) affect willingness to communicate in L2 (L2 WTC) at trait or state levels. Across two weeks, 16 Hong Kong EFL students completed pre-and post-trait-level surveys and generated 1,120 state-level responses via the experience sampling method (ESM). The survey findings revealed that students who were older, had higher language proficiency, or had higher pre-WTC digitally reported higher L2 WTC in the classroom. Students who had studied English longer, had higher language proficiency, had higher pre-psychological well-being, had a higher standard deviation L2 WTC over 14 days, or had higher teacher appreciation showed higher L2 WTC outside of class. Students with higher language proficiency, higher pre-WTC digitally, or higher post-psychological well-being reported higher L2 WTC in digital settings. The ESM findings revealed that students with higher teacher appreciation, currently engaged in productive IDLE or both receptive and productive types of IDLE, currently experienced greater L2 enjoyment, or currently experienced greater well-being had higher L2 WTC now. Our findings are relevant to: (a) L2 WTC, informal language learning, and positive psychology theories, and (b) strategies that can be used to enhance students' L2 WTC overall and at a particular moment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Researchers have identified links between anxious and avoidant attachments and difficulties with self-compassion, giving others compassion, and receiving compassion. However, while compassion requires both awareness of opportunities for compassion and compassionate action, little is known about attachment-related differences in reporting compassionate opportunities. Further, most research relies on retrospective-reports that may not accurately assess compassionate behaviors in everyday life. Method: Consequently, we collected 2,757 experience sampling survey responses from 125 participants (95 women, 27 men, 3 non-binary, Mage = 18.74, SDage = 1.66) to investigate whether attachment anxiety, avoidance, or their interaction were associated with differences in propensity for reporting compassionate opportunities, actions, and emotional responses to opportunities in everyday life across self-compassion, giving compassion, and receiving compassion. Results: Anxiety was associated with greater likelihood of reporting all types of compassionate opportunities and less positive responses to opportunities to receive compassion. Avoidance was associated with less likelihood of reporting opportunities to give and receive compassion and less positive responses to opportunities to give compassion. Those high in anxiety but simultaneously low in avoidance reported fewer self-compassionate actions, but we identified no further differences in compassionate action. Discussion: This study highlights the potential role of awareness of compassionate opportunities in attachment-related differences in compassion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schizotypy, a multidimensional construct with positive, negative, and disorganized dimensions, represents a vulnerability marker for the development of schizophrenia. Although there has been increasing evidence linking schizotypy to emotion regulation (ER) deficits, the specific association between different schizotypal dimensions and alterations in ER strategy use in daily life remains poorly understood. Using the experience sampling method (ESM), the present study examined the associations between positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy and ER strategy use in daily life in a nonclinical young adult sample (N = 258). Participants were instructed to report their ER strategy use 5 times a day for 14 days. Four adaptive ER strategies (reflection, reappraisal, social sharing, and distraction) and two maladaptive ER strategies (suppression and rumination) were included. Multilevel modeling analyses showed that positive schizotypal traits predicted greater use of adaptive ER strategies, while negative schizotypal traits predicted less use of adaptive ER strategies and more frequent use of emotional suppression in daily life. No associations between disorganized schizotypal traits and any ER strategy use were found. Schizotypy dimensions are differentiated by preferences for different ER strategies in daily life. The findings suggest a strong association between negative schizotypy and notable dysfunctions in ER, emphasizing the significance of negative schizotypy as a vulnerability factor for psychosis. • Associations between the different dimensions of schizotypy and ER were examined. • The ESM was used to capture an accurate picture of real-time ER strategy use. • Negative schizotypy is associated with broader ER dysfunction. • Positive schizotypy is associated with greater use of adaptive strategies. • No significant association is found between disorganized schizotypy and ER. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Despite the importance for understanding mechanisms of change, little is known about the order of change in daily life emotions, cognitions, and behaviors during treatment of depression. This study examined the within-person temporal order of emotional, cognitive, and behavioral improvements using ecological momentary assessment data. Method: Thirty-two individuals with diagnosed depression completed ecological momentary assessment questions on emotions (sad mood, happy mood), behaviors (social interaction, number of activities), and cognitive variables (worrying, negative self-thoughts) 5 times a day during a 4-month period in which they underwent psychotherapy for depression. Nonparametric change-point analyses were used to determine the timing of gains (i.e., improvements in the mean of each variable) for each individual. We then established whether the first (i.e., earliest) gains in emotions preceded, followed, or occurred in the same week as cognitive and behavioral gains for each individual. Results: Contrary to our hypotheses, first gains in behaviors did not precede first emotional gains (3 times, 8%) more often than they followed them (26 times, 70%). Cognitive gains often occurred in the same week as first emotional gains (43 times, 58%) and less often preceded (13 times, 18%) or followed emotional gains (18 times, 24%). Conclusion: The first improvements in behaviors did not tend to precede the first improvements in emotions likely because fewer behavioral gains were found. The finding that cognitive variables tend to improve around the same time as sad mood may explain why many studies failed to find that cognitive change predicts later change in depressive symptoms. What is the public health significance of this article?: This study suggests that happy mood, sad mood, and negative ways of thinking often start to improve around the same time during treatment of depression. Fewer improvements were found in activities and interactions, which explains why activities and interactions often improved after individuals started to feel better. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

En psycho-oncologie, les travaux sur la dynamique temporelle des expériences affectives et les processus de régulation associés restent encore peu nombreux. Par conséquent, cet article a pour premier objectif de faire un état des travaux sur la dynamique affective via un recueil longitudinal intensif auprès de personnes atteintes d'un cancer à travers une revue narrative de la littérature. Par la suite, son objectif est de permettre aux chercheurs et aux psychologues de mettre en place cette méthode auprès de personnes atteintes d'un cancer en proposant des recommandations. Notre revue narrative (n = 6) met en évidence d'importantes variations affectives au cours de la journée chez les personnes atteintes d'un cancer, ainsi que des relations intra-individuelles entre affects et d'autres variables telle que la fatigue. Cependant, il est important de relever que les études recensées présentent des protocoles hétérogènes, et qu'aucune étude ne cible la dynamique affective et ses relations avec les processus de régulation. Une seconde partie des résultats construite sur les bases des études recensées comprend des recommandations concernant la réalisation d'études via des recueils longitudinaux intensifs. Notre revue narrative met en avant l'intérêt de développer les études basées sur un recueil longitudinal intensif auprès de personnes atteintes de cancer. L'utilisation d'une telle méthode au travers du cadre rigoureux établi, permettrait d'obtenir des indices valides de dynamique affective permettant de mieux comprendre les processus de régulation affective face à la maladie en milieu écologique. In psycho-oncology, research into the affective dynamics and regulation is still scarce. Consequently, the first aim of this study is to carry out a state of works on affective dynamics using experience sampling method in cancer patients through a narrative review of the literature. Then, its second objective is to enable researchers and psychologist to implement this method with cancer patients, by proposing recommendations. Our narrative review (n = 6) highlights significant affective variations throughout the day in cancer patients, thus intra-individual relationships between affects and other variables such as fatigue. However, it is important to note that the studies reviewed present heterogeneous protocols, and that none of them targets affective dynamics and their relationships with regulatory processes. The second part of the results is based on the studies reviewed, and includes recommendation for conducting studies using experience sampling method. Our narrative review highlights the value of developing studies based on experience sampling method from cancer patients. The use of this method, within the rigorous framework established, would make it possible to obtain valid indices of affective dynamics that would provide a better understanding of affective regulation to cope illness in ecological environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundPrevention of (suicidal) crisis starts with appreciating its dynamics. However, crisis is a complex multidimensional phenomenon and how it evolves over time is still poorly understood. This study aims to clarify crisis dynamics by clustering fluctuations in the interplay of cognitive, affective, and behavioral (CAB) crisis factors within persons over time into latent states.MethodsTo allow for fine grained information on CAB factors over a prolonged period of time, ecological momentary assessment data comprised of self-report questionnaires (3 × daily) on five CAB symptoms (self-control, negative affect, contact avoidance, contact desire and suicidal ideation) was collected in twenty-six patients (60 measurements per patient). Empirically-derived crisis states and personalized state dynamics were isolated utilizing multilevel hidden Markov models.ResultsIn this proof-of-concept study, four distinct and ascending CAB-based crisis states were derived. At the sample level, remaining within the current CAB crisis state from one five-hour interval to the next was most likely, with staying likeliness decreasing with ascending states. When residing in CAB crisis state 2 or higher, it was least likely to transition back to CAB crisis state 1. However, large patient heterogeneity was observed both in the tendency to remain within a certain CAB crisis state and transitioning between crisis states.ConclusionThe uncovered crisis states using multilevel HMM quantify and visualize the pattern of crisis trajectories at the patient individual level. The observed differences between patients underlines the need for future innovation in personalized crisis prevention, and statistical models that facilitate such a personalized approach.

IntroductionThis study investigated the real-time variability of secondary school students’ academic emotions (i.e., enjoyment, enthusiasm, boredom, and frustration) in mathematics classes, examining their relation to the day of the week, time of the day, and teaching methods. Utilizing experience sampling methodology, the research captures the dynamic nature of emotions as states, providing insights into their situational dynamics.Methods440 students reported twice during their mathematics classes for a period of 10 school days on their real-time experiences of academic enjoyment, enthusiasm, boredom, and frustration. Additionally, their teachers indicated the teaching methods that were used on each measurement occasion.ResultsResults indicated students to have a more positive emotional pattern on Fridays (i.e., a “Thank God it’s Friday” effect) and Wednesdays, likely due to the anticipation of leisure time. Additionally, a “Frustrating Tuesday” effect was observed, while no evidence was found for a “Blue Monday” effect. Time of the day effects were less consistent, with frustration increasing throughout the day and boredom being higher in the afternoon, possibly due to postprandial somnolence (i.e., post-meal dip). Teaching methods differently related to emotions; during individual and group work students experienced more enjoyment and enthusiasm but also more frustration compared to whole-class instruction. During classroom discussion more frustration was experienced relative to whole-class instruction. Female students experienced less enthusiasm than male students, and higher ability students experienced more enjoyment, enthusiasm and less boredom than lower ability students.DiscussionThis study underscores the importance of considering temporal factors and teaching methods in understanding students’ emotional experiences in educational settings.

Abstract Background Recent years have seen a growing interest in the use of digital tools for delivering person-centred mental health care. Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM), a structured diary technique for capturing moment-to-moment variation in experience and behaviour in service users’ daily life, reflects a particularly promising avenue for implementing a person-centred approach. While there is evidence on the effectiveness of ESM-based monitoring, uptake in routine mental health care remains limited. The overarching aim of this hybrid effectiveness-implementation study is to investigate, in detail, reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance as well as contextual factors, processes, and costs of implementing ESM-based monitoring, reporting, and feedback into routine mental health care in four European countries (i.e., Belgium, Germany, Scotland, Slovakia). Methods In this hybrid effectiveness-implementation study, a parallel-group, assessor-blind, multi-centre cluster randomized controlled trial (cRCT) will be conducted, combined with a process and economic evaluation. In the cRCT, 24 clinical units (as the cluster and unit of randomization) at eight sites in four European countries will be randomly allocated using an unbalanced 2:1 ratio to one of two conditions: (a) the experimental condition, in which participants receive a Digital Mobile Mental Health intervention (DMMH) and other implementation strategies in addition to treatment as usual (TAU) or (b) the control condition, in which service users are provided with TAU. Outcome data in service users and clinicians will be collected at four time points: at baseline (t0), 2-month post-baseline (t1), 6-month post-baseline (t2), and 12-month post-baseline (t3). The primary outcome will be patient-reported service engagement assessed with the service attachment questionnaire at 2-month post-baseline. The process and economic evaluation will provide in-depth insights into in-vivo context-mechanism-outcome configurations and economic costs of the DMMH and other implementation strategies in routine care, respectively. Discussion If this trial provides evidence on reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation and maintenance of implementing ESM-based monitoring, reporting, and feedback, it will form the basis for establishing its public health impact and has significant potential to bridge the research-to-practice gap and contribute to swifter ecological translation of digital innovations to real-world delivery in routine mental health care. Trial registration ISRCTN15109760 (ISRCTN registry, date: 03/08/2022).

AbstractBackgroundMethodsResultsConclusionsThe MoodWheel app is a newly developed tool that uses experience sampling method (ESM) for assessing negative and positive emotions, based on the circumplex model of emotions and the binary model of distress, and including behavioral and heart rate (HR) measurement via photoplethysmography and the possibility to personalize the application with additional measures. Aims: This study was designed to assess the factorial structure, reliability and validity of the MoodWheel (MW) application for evaluating emotions in children, adolescents.A sample of 490 children and adolescents were recruited from the schools. Internal consistency was assessed via Cronbach’s alpha test. Concurrent validity was assessed by evaluating the correlations between MW and Profile of Emotional Distress scale (PED) scores, in terms of functional/dysfunctional negative and positive emotions.Results obtained show that MW has good to excellent internal consistency and test-retest reliability, while the convergent validity was also adequate. Moreover, we found support for the organization of the MW based on the binary model of distress, given the predictive value found for the irrational and rational beliefs.The MW application is a useful and easy to use tool that can be used for the accurate measurement of emotions, which will be complimented in future with additional behavioral parameters to provide a comprehensive and dynamic assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Machine learning could predict binge behavior and help develop treatments for bulimia nervosa (BN) and alcohol use disorder (AUD). Therefore, this study evaluates person-specific and pooled prediction models for binge eating (BE), alcohol use, and binge drinking (BD) in daily life, and identifies the most important predictors. Methods A total of 120 patients (BN: 50; AUD: 51; BN/AUD: 19) participated in an experience sampling study, where over a period of 12 months they reported on their eating and drinking behaviors as well as on several other emotional, behavioral, and contextual factors in daily life. The study had a burst-measurement design, where assessments occurred eight times a day on Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays in seven bursts of three weeks. Afterwards, person-specific and pooled models were fit with elastic net regularized regression and evaluated with cross-validation. From these models, the variables with the 10% highest estimates were identified. Results The person-specific models had a median AUC of 0.61, 0.80, and 0.85 for BE, alcohol use, and BD respectively, while the pooled models had a median AUC of 0.70, 0.90, and 0.93. The most important predictors across the behaviors were craving and time of day. However, predictors concerning social context and affect differed among BE, alcohol use, and BD. Conclusions Pooled models outperformed person-specific models and the models for alcohol use and BD outperformed those for BE. Future studies should explore how the performance of these models can be improved and how they can be used to deliver interventions in daily life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the general aggression model (GAM), Anderson and Bushman (2002) provided an integrative framework to explain the complex nature of aggression. Based on the GAM, we examined whether personological and situational factors (interactively) have an impact on the person's internal state (consisting of aggressive cognition, affect, and physiological arousal), which in turn is assumed to lead to aggressive behaviour. In a large‐scale experience sampling study, 403 participants answered 7558 questionnaires over a period of 2 weeks. As hypothesized, participants were more likely to exhibit an aggressive internal state the higher they scored on antagonistic personality traits (trait aggression, narcissism, psychopathy, sadism, anger rumination) and the more interpersonal, intrapersonal, and environmental triggers they experienced. Aggressive behaviour was positively related to trait aggression, psychopathy, sadism, anger rumination, and all situational triggers. Furthermore, the impact of antagonistic personality traits and situational triggers on aggressive behaviour was considerably reduced when the aggressive internal state was taken into account. Contrary to predictions, the relationship between antagonistic personality traits and the aggressive internal state was most pronounced when situational triggers were low. Overall, however, the process by which personal and situational variables predict aggression in daily life can be well explained by the GAM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]