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Background: Bio-fertilizers may be used to maintain soil fertility and soil improvement. Methods: In this study involving 12 treatments and 3 replications was conducted in Tehran, Iran. The experiment was conducted in 2018-2019 as a randomized complete block design. The treatments were 1- vermicompost (10 t/ha), 2- nitroxin, 3- bio-superphosphate, 4- biosulfur, 5- vermicompost + nitroxin, 6- vermicompost + bio-superphosphate, 7- vermicompost + biosulfur, 8- nitroxin + biosuperphosphate, 9- nitroxin + biosulfur, 10- bio-superphosphate + biosulfur, 11- chemical fertilizer and 12- control (without fertilizer). Result: The results showed that the treatments had a significant impact on the characteristics examined such as the highest plant height (75.3 cm) in the treatment combining vermicompost and biological superphosphate and the highest number of shoots/plant. The highest concentration of N in seeds (2.92%) was obtained when plants were treated with nitroxin and biosulfur and the highest concentration of P in seeds (0.83%) when treated with biological superphosphate. In addition, the highest K content in seeds (4.06%) and grain yield (1297.5 kg.ha-1) were found in the treatment of nitroxin and bio-superphosphate, as well as the content of essential oil (0.32%) and the yield of essential oils (2.89 kg.ha-1) was obtained when treated with nitroxin. Consequently, Bio-organic fertilizers can be considered as an alternative to chemical fertilizers in organic coriander cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the impact of different soil amendments on the growth of Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) under water deficit stress conditions. The experiment was conducted using a factorial design with three replicates in 2022 in the research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture of Lorestan University. Treatments included three levels of severe water deficit stress, mild water deficit stress, and no water stress, and eleven levels of compost enriched with various amendments (biochar, Trichoderma, Thiobacillus + sulfur, and chemical fertilizer NPK), as well as a control without compost. The results showed that the highest fresh and dry shoot and root, and plant height were observed in the compost enriched with all amendments under no stress conditions. The lowest values of these traits were found in the severe stress and no compost treatment. Ion leakage increased with stress, but the application of treatments reduced ion leakage. Water deficit stress decreased the RWC, with severe stress reducing it by 48.7% compared to the control. Treatments significantly increased the RWC compared to the control. The highest levels of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and the highest essential oil yield were observed in the compost enriched with all amendments under no stress conditions, while the lowest levels of these traits were observed in the control. Overall, compost enriched with organic, biological and chemical treatments can mitigate the adverse effects of water deficit stress on plants and they are beneficial in improving both quantitative and qualitative plant traits. Enrichment of chicken manure compost with the mentioned treatments can be introduced as a suitable pre-planting fertilizer to increase the yield of plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionGarden thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), is a small perennial plant native to the Mediterranean region that is now found worldwide. It is commonly used as a culinary herb and for medicinal purposes as well (Silva et al., 2021). Thymol is one of the main and active chemical compounds of thyme. It has been shown to have antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties and is often used as a natural preservative in food and cosmetic products (Hammoudi et al., 2022). Golubkina et al. (2020) reported that the use of mycorrhizal fungi as a technology that is compatible with the environment and by increasing plant access to nutrients and increasing resistance to stresses as well as improving water absorption, can lead to improved plant growth. Today, the use of organic compounds such as humic acid can affect many morphological, physiological and biochemical processes of plants and lead to improvement in plant growth (Mousavi et al., 2022).Materials and MethodsIn order to investigate the effects of foliar application of humic acid fertilization and mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis on Thymus vulgaris L., a factorial layout has been applied, based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the field of the research farm of Islamic Azad University, Takestan Branch during 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 growing seasons. Experimental factors included three species of mycorrhiza fungi (control, Glomus mosseae, G.etunicatum and G.intradices) and humic acid fertilizer levels included (control, 150 and 300 mg.L-1). Important traits such as plant height, herbal fresh weight, essential oil percentage, and yield, flavonoid content, root colonization percentage, thymol and carvacrol percentage were measured and analyzed.Results and DiscussionThe results showed that the effects of the treatments were significant at the 1% level for all investigated traits. For the characteristics of essential oil percentage and essential oil yield, the interaction effect was also significant at 1%, with an observed increase of over 200%. The application of 300 mg/liter humic acid resulted in a 14% increase in root colonization and a 16% increase in flavonoid percentage. Similarly, the application of mycorrhiza increased these traits by 23% and 30%, respectively. Thymol and carvacrol were the most abundant essential oil compounds. It can be concluded that the quality of thyme essential oil improved under the treatments. Among the mycorrhizae used in this research, G. mosseae mycorrhizae were more effective than the other two types. The results suggest that the application of mycorrhiza has a more significant impact on improving the examined traits compared to humic acid.ConclusionBased on the results of this study, application of mycorrhiza due to creating a symbiotic relationship with the roots of the garden thyme plant and humic acid spraying could increase the quantity and quality of the produced product. mycorrhiza was better than the use of humic acid in most treatments.

In the context of addressing climate change, it becomes essential to anticipate how it will affect plant biodiversity and the way plants adapt physiologically and morphologically to challenging environmental circumstances. To gain a comprehensive understanding of how plants adapt to adverse climatic conditions, we conducted a year-long study with three distinct water stress levels: 25% (sample 1), 50% (sample 2), and 75% (sample 3). The findings revealed a general decrease in primary metabolites (including proteins, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, lipids, and essential minerals like Mg, Fe, K, and Mn) as the water stress level increased. In contrast, secondary metabolites (such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and coumarins) exhibited an increase with rising water stress, although a decline became evident as conditions worsened. The same trend was observed in essential oil yield. Furthermore, gas chromatography analysis of essential oils from the plants indicated significant alterations in their chemical composition due to the influence of stressful environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Agricultural Science & Sustainable Production is the property of University of Tabriz and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The aim of this study was investigation of PHARMAX nano fertilizer and its frequency of foliar application effects on morphological characteristics, straw yield, fruit yield, percentage and yield of essential oil of (Coriandrum sativum L.). A factorial experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with 8 treatments and 3 replications. Factors were included frequency of foliar application (tillering stage and two weeks after the first foliar application) and concentration of nano fertilizer (0, 1, 3 and 5 ml/L). Finally, the results were statistically analyzed using MSTAT-C software and the mean data were compared with Duncan test at the statistical level of 5 %. The results showed that a significant effect of number of foliar sprays on plant height, number of umbrellas/plant, number of umbrellas/square meter, number of grain/umbrella, grain yield, straw yield, single plant grain weight, single plant biomass yield, percentage and essential oil yield. In addition, different concentrations of nano fertilizer had a significant effect on most traits except the number of grain/umbrella, 1000-Grain weight and essential oil percentage. The interaction of two factors on all traits except number of umbrellas/plant, number of grain/umbrella and percentage and yield of essential oil was significant. With increasing the concentration of nano fertilizer from 0 to 5 ml/L, the number of umbrellas/square meter, grain yields, straw and essential oil yield, increased 62.5, 74.1, 74.3, 186.8 % respectively. In addition, increasing the frequency of foliar application increased the mentioned traits. According to the results, it seems that the treatment of twice-foliar application and concentration of 5 ml/L nano-fertilizer was the best treatment due to increased yield and other traits.

IntroductionFennel (Foeniculum vulgar Mill) is one of the most important medicinal plants of the Umbelliferae family, which is cultivated mainly for the use of seeds and essential oils in various pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic industries (Norouzi Shahri et al., 2015). The medicinal plant of fennel in Iran is widely distributed in the regions of Khorasan, Tehran, Gorgan, Mazandaran, Kurdistan, Kerman, Gilan and Tabriz, and grows up to three meters above sea level. Plants face a variety of biological and non-biological stresses during growth. Drought stress is one of the most important abiotic stresses that reduces growth and yield in many crops and medicinal plants (Kabiri et al., 2014; Bahrani et al., 2013). Mycorrhizal fungi have several functions in the ecosystem of crops; so that it improves the physical quality of the soil, the chemical quality of the soil and the biological quality of the soil. Mycorrhiza has been reported to increase biomass, essential oil content, and ultimately essential oil function in medicinal plants (Hatami and Ghorbanpour, 2016; Ghorbanpour et al., 2014). The use of biofertilizers including Azotobacter, Azospirillium and phosphate-soluble bacteria has significant effects on the essential oil of marjoram. Growth-promoting bacteria may accumulate in the rhizosphere, root surface, or even the intracellular space of plants (Zafari et al., 2018; Bahrani et al., 2010). In general, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of application of mycorrhiza and growth-promoting bacteria Azospirillum under drought stress on morphological traits and fennel essential oil in Zarghan and Kodian regions that have different climatic conditions.Materials and methodsAn experiment was carried out to investigated the effect of mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae) and growth promoting bacteria (Azospirillum) in drought stress on agronomic and biochemical characteristics of Foeniculum vulgar, in 2019-2020 crop season in two regions (Kodian, Zarghan) of Shiraz, Fars province, Iran. The experiment was done as a factorial split plot in a randomized complete blocks design with three replications. Main plots were drought stress at three levels: 30% (control), 60% and 90% field capacity and sub-plots were mycorrhiza, at two levels (no inoculation, and seed inoculation with Fungal) and also Azospirillum at two levels (no inoculation and seed inoculation with bacteria).Results and discussionThe results showed that inoculation of Glomus mosseae and Azospirillum had significant effect on grain yield, biological yield, thousand seed weight, plant height, number of umbrellas per plant, essential oil yield and percentage in both regions and improved the negative effects of drought stress. The highest seed yield in both places belonged to the treatment of 30% field capacity with inoculation of mycorrhiza and Azospirillum. Mycorrhiza and Azospirillum reduced the negative effects of drought stress and increased all morphological and biochemical characteristics.ConclusionIn general, interaction of mycorrhiza and Azospirillum consumption in no drought stress can be suggested to maximize morphological and biochemical characteristics of Fennel under the same weather conditions of the study.

Finding the appropriate fertilizer level and the best transplanting dates of yarrow as one of the most important medicinal plants can help farmers achieve better cultivation results. Therefore, this study aimed to determine yarrow optimal transplanting dates and animal manure level and to investigate the effect of these two factors on yield and seed yield components. A split plate experiment was carried out based on a randomized complete block design in three replications during 2021-2022. The experimental treatments consisted of animal manure fertilizer as the main factor (0, 10, 20, 30 ton ha-1) and transplanting dates (April 4, April 24, May 14) as the sub-factor. The studied traits included essential oil content, yield, and seed yield components. The results showed that the application of animal manure has a positive effect on the numbers of inflorescences (0.77 m-2), florets (216.3 m-2), flowering stems (6.3 m-2), seeds per inflorescence (78840 m-2), and thousand seed weight (3.6 g). April 4 was the best transplanting date in terms of the evaluated traits. The highest essential oil yield (2.2 g m-2) was observed for 30 ton ha-1 animal manure treatment on April 4. In general, based on the results of this study, applying 30 ton ha-1 of animal manure and choosing April 4 as the transplanting date can promote essential oil content, yield, and seed yield components. Therefore, it is possible to consider the use of animal manure as an organic fertilizer to improve the yield of medicinal plants, including yarrow.

Copyright of Academic Journal of Agriculture / Akademik Ziraat Dergisi is the property of University of Ordu, Faculty of Agriculture, Academic Journal of Agriculture and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Research results reporting the effect of under periods of induced salt stress on biomass production, yield and composition of the essential oil of rosemary are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate phytomass production and essential oil yield of basil plants (Ocimum basilicum L. 'Basilicão') in soilless cultivation under different levels of salt stress, in addition to analyzing their phytochemistry. Four periods of salt stress were evaluated in summer and winter experiments: 0, 10, 20 and 30 days. The analyzed variables were fresh mass (FM), dry mass (DM), number of inflorescences (NI), essential oil yield (EOY), and phytochemistry. A completely randomized design was used, and the data were submitted to analysis of variance and evaluated by polynomial regression. Salt stress reduces leaf and stem FM and DM and the FM of total aerial part, in summer and in winter; it increases FM, DM, and NI in summer; there is no difference in FM, DM or NI in winter; and no difference in DM of total aerial part in both seasons. Leaf EOY reduces under salt stress during both seasons, as well as total EOY in winter. Inflorescence EOY increases in summer. Linalool, the main component of the oil, increases under salt stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finding the appropriate fertilizer level and the best transplanting dates of yarrow as one of the most important medicinal plants can help farmers achieve better cultivation results. Therefore, this study aimed to determine yarrow optimal transplanting dates and animal manure level and to investigate the effect of these two factors on yield and seed yield components. A split plate experiment was carried out based on a randomized complete block design in three replications during 2021-2022. The experimental treatments consisted of animal manure fertilizer as the main factor (0, 10, 20, 30 ton ha-1) and transplanting dates (April 4, April 24, May 14) as the sub-factor. The studied traits included essential oil content, yield, and seed yield components. The results showed that the application of animal manure has a positive effect on the numbers of inflorescences (0.77 m-2), florets (216.3 m-2), flowering stems (6.3 m-2), seeds per inflorescence (78840 m-2), and thousand seed weight (3.6 g). April 4 was the best transplanting date in terms of the evaluated traits. The highest essential oil yield (2.2 g m-2) was observed for 30 ton ha-1 animal manure treatment on April 4. In general, based on the results of this study, applying 30 ton ha-1 of animal manure and choosing April 4 as the transplanting date can promote essential oil content, yield, and seed yield components. Therefore, it is possible to consider the use of animal manure as an organic fertilizer to improve the yield of medicinal plants, including yarrow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyssop is one of the medicinal plants that have many properties and benefits for the health of the body. Hyssop is an annual plant and often grows along roadsides. Hyssop leaves and green stems contain many bioactive compounds such as rosemary and Caffeic acid along with pinion, beta-pinna, limonene, pinoamophone and isopinocampone, tannins, glycosides, flavonoids, and essential oils. It is found that it can be produced purely by steam distillation from crushed leaves and stems. In this study, different bio fertilizers, chemical fertilizers, and manure were applied to find out their effects on the growth and active substances of Hyssop. Essential oils of Hyssop aerial parts were obtained by hydrodistillation and analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Essential oil percent was maximum (1.66%) by application of N50P40K50 fertilizer and there was not any significant difference compared to control treatments. The highest value of oil yield (5.389 kg/ha) was achieved on cow manure treatment which increased oil yield compared to control (3.718 kg/ha). The highest value of isopinocampone (43.32%) was obtained from plants that received N50P40K50 fertilizer compare to the control treatment (39.32%). Control treatment had the highest value of pinocamphone (14.11%) compared with cattle manure treatment (11.59%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: In order to evaluate different levels of wheat straw mulch and herbicide on quantitative, qualitative yield and weeds control of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare MIL.) an experiment was conducted arranged as splitplot based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 3 replications at Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan during 2019-2020 growing season. Methods: Treatments included different concentrations of linuron herbicide (0, 1.5, 3, 4.5 L/ha) as the main plot and different levels of wheat straw mulch (0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 tons/ha) as the subplot. Results: The results revealed that the lowest dry weight of broadleaf and grass weeds (73 and 15 g/m2) of 4.5 L/ha herbicide and 9 and 12 tons'/ha mulch was obtained. The highest grain yield was observed (80 g/m2) in 3L/ha of herbicide application and wheat straw mulch 9 ton/ha, and the lowest (18 g/m2) in treatment non-application of mulch and herbicide. The highest essential oil yield of fennel (2.82 g/m2) was obtained in treatment herbicide application (3 L/ha) and straw mulch (9 ton/ha), while in treatment non-application of mulch and herbicide was 0.48 g/m2. Conclusion: Therefore, in integrated weed management, the use of wheat straw mulch could be considered for reducing weeds competition and achieving sustainable agriculture in medicinal plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionIntercropping as an approach for development of sustainable agriculture systems is pursuing the purposes such as creating ecological balance, further exploitation of resources, increase the quantity and quality of yield and reduce losses due to pests, diseases and weeds and reduce the dependence of farmers to pesticides, to maintain product quality and marketability. Jahani et al (2007) reported that intercropping of lentil and cumin has significantly increased dry weight of vegetative organs, biological yield, 1000-seed weight and number of seeds per cumin umbrella and seed yield. Legume/non-legume intercropping system due to the beneficial use of resources produces more yields. In review of about the fennel and fenugreek intercropping, intercropping of the two plants significantly increased the fennel seed yield compared with monoculture.Materials and MethodsThe experiment was conducted in 2014-2015 growing season based on randomized complete block design with three replications at Agricultural Research Station, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Experimental treatments were 25% mung bean + 75% fennel, 50% mung bean + 50% fennel, 75% mung bean + 25% fennel, monoculture of mung bean and monoculture of fennel. Species were sown at the same time in 12/06/2015 in rows with a distance of 50 cm. At harvesting time, dry matter, seed yield and yield components of these crops were measured. Yield advantages of intercrops over monocultures were compared by land equivalent ratios. Seeds of fennel were analyzed for essential oil content. Results and DiscussionThe highest seed yield, biomass and essential oil of fennel for monoculture with 1460.4, 12286.4 and 50.4 kg per hectare respectively and the lowest values for 25% fennel + 75% mung bean treatment with 263.2, 5843.3 and 8.1 kg per hectare respectively were observed. Also, the highest seed yield and biomass of mung bean for monoculture with 2167.1 and 8900.5 kg per hectare respectively and the lowest values for 25% fennel + 75% mung bean treatment with 740.5 and 2540.5 kg per hectare respectively were observed. The highest essential oil contents of fennel with 3.56% was observed in ratio of 50% fennel + 50% mung bean and the lowest value was observed in 25% fennel + 75% mung bean with 3.1%. It seems that interspecific competition between fennel and mung bean due to the abiotic stresses (competition) led to increasing essential oil percent in intercrops. The highest essential oil yield of fennel was observed in monoculture with 50.4 kg/ha and the lowest value was observed in 25% fennel + 75% mung bean with 8.1 kg/ha. The highest mung bean harvest index was 28% in 25% mung bean + 75% fennel and the lowest was observed in 50% mung bean + 50% fennel with 23.5%. Also, the highest fennel harvest index was observed with 12% in monoculture and the lowest in 25% fennel + 75% mung bean with 4.5%. The highest value of total land equivalent ratio (1.07) was obtained in ratio of 50% mung bean + 50% fennel indicating 7 percent yield advantage of intercropping compared to pure stands of species of these two products compare to each other that represents of showing the more efficient use of land. The lowest value by intercrops of land equivalent ratio was observed in ratio of 25% mung bean + 75% fennel which was 9% lower than the monoculture.ConclusionIn general, intercropping of fennel with mung bean, had positive effect on biological and seed yield of two species as well as percent and yield of fennel essential oil. So, in order to reduce the consumption of chemical fertilizers in sustainable agriculture and as for nitrogen biological fixation ability of mung bean, intercropping this plant with fennel can be increased resources efficiency and improve of the quality and quantity yield of fennel.

In order to investigate the effect of wood vinegar and humic acid on morphological and biochemical traits, antioxidant enzymes, and peppermint essential oil under water deficit stress conditions, an experiment was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications in the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture of the Tarbiat Modares University. The experimental treatments were irrigation regimes at three levels (irrigation up to the field capacity and after depletion 25 (optimal irrigation), 40 (moderate water deficit stress), and 55 (severe water deficit stress) % of plant available water in the root zone, respectively) as main plots and foliar application at seven levels (humic acid (1, 2, and 3%), wood vinegar (5, 10, and 15%) and no foliar application (control)) as sub plots. The highest plant height (38.63 cm) was obtained from the treatment of using wood vinegar 15% under optimal irrigation conditions, while, the maximum leaf area index (3.01) was observed in the treatment using wood vinegar 15% under moderate water deficit stress conditions. The maximum essential oil yield was observed in the foliar application of humic acid 3% under optimal irrigation conditions with 37.48 kg h-1, and with the treatments of humic acid 2% under optimal irrigation conditions with 34.34 kg ha-1 and foliar application of 15% of wood vinegar under optimal irrigation conditions with 36.11 kg ha-1 was placed in a statistical group. An increase in water deficit stress caused a decrease in essential oil yield, so that in moderate and severe water deficit stress, 9.37% and 40.17% of essential oil yield decreased, respectively. The use of wood vinegar and humic acid increased the yield of peppermint essential oil, so that by increasing the foliar concentration of wood vinegar from 0 to 15%, the yield of essential oil increased by 81.29%, and increasing the concentration of humic acid foliar application from 0 to 3% increased the yield of essential oil by 69.28%. Considering the water limitation, the use of acid humic 3% is recommended in optimal irrigation conditions and moderate water deficit stress, and wood vinegar 15% in severe water deficit stress conditions is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weeds are the most important limiting factors in agricultural systems and the use of mulch is considered as a suitable solution in the ecological management of weeds. In order to evaluate the coriander yield and its weed control, a factorial experiment was conducted at the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zanjan in 2020. The first factor was the types of mulches including ratios of 100 % (40.0 kg ha-1), 66 % (26.4 kg ha-1), and 33 % (13.2 kg ha-1) of clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) and 100 % (20.0 kg ha-1), 66 % (13.2 kg ha-1), and 33 % (6.6 kg ha-1) of alfalfa (Medicago scutellate L.) as living mulches, wheat straw (Triticum aestivum L.) (one kg m-2) as a non-living mulch, and a non-mulched treatment and the second factor was weed control including complete weed control, once-weed control and non-weed control. The results showed that the effects of the treatments of mulch type and weed control were statistically significant on the components of yield and yield of coriander. The highest grain yield (1601.4 kg ha-1), biomass yield (3901.0 kg ha-1) and essential oil yield (3.35 kg ha-1) were recorded in wheat straw mulch under complete weed control conditions. Clover at densities of 100 % and 66 % caused suffocation and complete destruction of coriander plants. Therefore, the grain yield and biomass production of coriander in these treatments were equal to zero. Alfalfa at low densities had no significant effect on weed control. Complete control of weeds caused a significant increase in all evaluated traits in coriander. The results of the present study showed that wheat straw mulch is a suitable solution for controlling coriander weeds, which not only does not interfere with the growth of coriander but also causes effective control of its weeds. Therefore, considering the importance of integrated control of weeds in sustainable agricultural systems, the use of wheat straw mulch can be introduced as one of the strategies to reduce the use of chemical pesticides and reduce environmental pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite their importance in food processing, perfumery and cosmetics, the inheritance of sweet orange aromatic compounds, as well as their yield in the fruit peel, has been little analyzed. In the present study, the segregation of aromatic compounds was studied in an F1 population of 77 hybrids resulting from crosses between clementine and blood sweet orange. Fruit-peel essential oils (PEOs) extracted by hydrodistillation were analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization detection. Genotyping by sequencing was performed on the parents and the hybrids. The resulting "clementine × sweet blood orange" genetic map consists of 710 SNP markers distributed in nine linkage groups (LGs), representing the nine citrus chromosomes, and spanning 1054 centimorgans. Twenty quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified, explaining between 20.5 and 55.0% of the variance of the major aromatic compounds and PEO yield. The QTLs for monoterpenes and aliphatic aldehydes predominantly colocalized on LGs 5 and 8, as did the two QTLs for PEO yield. The sesquiterpene QTLs were located on LGs 1, 3, 6 and 8. The detection of major QTLs associated with the synthesis of aliphatic aldehydes, known for their strong aromatic properties, open the way for marker-assisted selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, climate change is disrupting life on Earth by causing imbalances in the biosphere. This work aimed to evaluate the impact of climate change on the content of primary and secondary metabolites and the yield of essential oil of Rosmarinus officinalis. Thus, the results of the conducted experiment show that the content of primary metabolites decreased with increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation along the experiment (proteins from 7.61% to 7.14%, carbohydrates from 6.92% to 5.64%, fats from 1.48% to 1.29% and dietary fiber from 4.96% to 4.22% and mineral composition: Ca from 7.67% to 5.98%, Mg from 8.61% to 7.01%, Fe from 7.53% to 7.21% and Mn from 6.85% to 3.97%), and the content of secondary metabolites increased in the second year when increasing the temperature by 5C° and water stress by 50% (coumarin from 6.59% to 10.99%, saponins from 7.15% to 8.46%, tannin from 3.92% to 5.95%, alkaloids from 6.69% to 15.62% and flavonoid from 8.02% to 15.75%), but in the fourth year when the temperature continued to increase and water stress was 75% the content of secondary metabolites decreased (coumarin from 10.99% to 8.27%, saponins from 8.46% to 7.87%, tannin from 5.95% to 4.85%, alkaloids from 15.62% to 10.68% and flavonoid from 15.75% to 11.36%) and the same results were obtained for the yield of essential oil which increased in the second year and decreased in the fourth year. This GC analysis of the three essential oil samples shows that the majority of compounds in the three essential oils studied are cineole (S1:45.98%, S2:55.36%, S3:43.08%) followed by camphor (S1:17.44%, S2:21.44%, S3:21.56%) and Alpha-pinene (S1:9.30%, S2:8.34%, S3: 9.17%) and other compounds in low percentage.

IntroductionWater deficit or drought stress is one of the critical abiotic stresses and limiting factors in the productivity of plants, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. In these conditions, the nutrient use efficiency by plant decrease due to the lower mobility of these elements. The application of bio-fertilizers is one of the most important and sustainable strategies for soil fertility management and plant nutrition; in addition to reducing chemical pollution, improves plant growth conditions. The application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), as bio-fertilizer improves plant nutrients and water uptake and enhances plant resistance to stress conditions leading to improving plant growth and productivity. The objectives were evaluating the effect of different fertilizer sources (chemical fertilizer and AMF as biofertilizer) and harvesting time on the quantity and quality characteristics of peppermint under drought-stress conditions.Materials and Methods To evaluate the effects of different fertilizer sources and harvesting times on the quantity and quality of essential oil in peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) under drought stress conditions, a field experiment was carried out at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Maragheh, Iran, in 2019. The study followed a split-split plot design based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 36 treatments and three replications. The first factor included three irrigation levels: irrigation after depletion of 30% available water as control, depletion of 50% of available water as mild stress, and depletion of 70% of available water as severe stress. The sub-factor included different fertilizer sources, including control (C), 100% nitrogen fertilizer (NF), arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (Rhizophagus intraradices) (AMF), 75% NF + AMF, 50% NF + AMF, and 25% NF + AMF. The third factor was harvesting time (first and second harvest). The distance between rows was set to be 4 m, with a plant density of 10 plants per m2. In AM fungi treatments, 80 g of the soil containing mycorrhizal fungi hyphae and the remains of the root and spores (1000 g spore.10-1 g soil) was added to the soil during planting. The aerial parts of peppermint were harvested at 50% flowering stage on the first and second harvests. The data were analyzed using analysis of variance and mean comparison based on the least significant difference (LSD) test with SAS 9.3 statistical software. Results and DiscussionThe results showed that plant height, number of nodes per plant, number of leaves per plant, number of lateral branches per plant, SPAD index, dry matter yield, essential oil content, and yield were significantly affected by the interaction of fertilizer sources x irrigation levels, harvesting time, and harvesting time x irrigation levels. The highest and lowest values of morphological characteristics, leaf greenness, dry matter yield, and essential oil yield of peppermint were achieved under non-stress conditions with the application of 75% nitrogen fertilizer + AMF and severe water stress without fertilization, respectively. The maximum (2.4%) and minimum (1.2%) of essential oil content were observed under mild water stress fertilized with 75% nitrogen fertilizer + AMF and severe water stress without fertilization, respectively. The main essential oil compounds were menthol, menthone, 1,8 cineol, and menthofuran. The highest menthol and menthone content were recorded under mild water stress fertilized with 75% nitrogen fertilizer + AMF and non-stress conditions fertilized with 25% nitrogen fertilizer + AMF. The first harvest showed higher values of morphological characteristics, dry matter yield, essential oil content, and yield compared to the second harvest due to the longer growth period and better growth conditions in the first harvest.ConclusionsThe results demonstrated that the plant height, the number of nods per plant, number of leaves per plant, the number of lateral branches per plant, SPAD index, dry matter yield and essential oil yield decreased significantly with increasing stress levels. In contrast, the application of AMF reduced the adverse effects of water stress, so that in severe water stress conditions (irrigation after depletion of 70% available water), individual and integrative application of AMF with nitrogen fertilizer increased the mentioned traits when compared with control. In addition, the mentioned traits in the first harvest increased by 127.8, 194.6, 159.8, 147.7, 17.7, and 37.9% in comparison with the second harvest. Also, the essential oil content of peppermint is enhanced with increasing water stress to mild stress. So, the essential oil content in mild stress increased by 11.4 and 39.7%, respectively, when compared with non-stress and severe stress. The highest essential oil yield was achieved at the first harvest with the integrative application of 75% NF+ AMF. Also, the major essential oil compounds of peppermint (menthol) was recorded in mild stress integrated with 75% nitrogen fertilizer+ AMF. Generally, considering that the economic purpose of cultivating medicinal plants is extracting the maximum content of secondary metabolites, and since the productivity of peppermint essential oil increased significantly by the integrative application of 75% nitrogen fertilizer+ mycorrhiza in mild stress, it can be suggested as a superior treatment.

Salinity stress is known to have a detrimental effect on mint plants. The aim of the present work was to investigate the possible effects of salinity stress on Mentha spicata, Mentha piperita and Mentha arvensis. Plants were exposed to salinity stress using different concentrations of NaCl (0, 50, 100, 150 mM). Under salinity stress, plant growth, oil yield, content and composition, as well as physiological parameters were adversely affected. Among the studied species, M. arvensis experienced the maximum loss in terms of oil percentage. Physiological characteristics and oil composition were significantly affected with intensification of salt stress. For instance, in M. spicata, with increasing salinity stress, piperitone oxide was decreased from 78.4% in control to 38.0% in 150 mM NaCl, whereas menthol was increased from 1.0 to 37.1%. Moreover, in M. piperita, menthone, isomenthone and limonene were all increased in low stress and then were decreased in high stress conditions. In M. arvensis, the major compound; menthol was not affected but the content of menthone increased. It could be concluded that the salinity stress is detrimental but might be useful and may be recommended as an appropriate approach in improving the oil quality or to producing specific compounds under mild or moderate stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The current study was carried out with the hypothesis that foliar application of plant-derived smoke water (PDSW) and karrikinolide (KAR1) might enhanced the plant growth, physiology, and essential oil production of the Mentha arvensis L. Karrikinolide (KAR1) is one of the most important bioactive constituents of PDSW. Methods: Mint (Mentha arvensis L.) was grown in natural conditions in the nethouse. Different concentrations of PDSW (1:125, 1:250, 1:500 and 1:1000 v/v) and KAR1 (10-9 M, 10-8 M, 10-7 M and 10-6 M) were used as foliar-spray treatments, using double-distilled water as control. The PDSW was prepared by burning the dried wheat-straw that acted as a growth-promoting substance. Results: Foliar-spray treatment 1:500 v/v of PDSW and 10-8 M of KAR1 proved optimal for enhancing all morphological, physiological, and essential-oil yield related parameters. In comparison with the control, 1:500 v/v of PDSW and 10-8 M of KAR1 increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) the height of mint plant (19.23% and 16.47%), fresh weight (19.30% and 17.44%), dry weight (35.36% and 24.75%), leaf area (18.22% and 17.46%), and leaf yield per plant (28.41% and 23.74%). In addition, these treatments also significantly increased the photosynthetic parameters, including chlorophyll fluorescence (12.10% and 11.41%), total chlorophyll content (25.70% and 20.77%), and total carotenoid content (29.77% and 27.18%). Likewise, 1:500 v/v of PDSW and 10-8 M of KAR1 significantly increased the essential-oil content (37.09% and 32.25%), essential oil productivity per plant (72.22% and 66.66%), menthol content (29.94% and 25.42%), menthyl acetate content (36.90% and 31.73%), and menthone content (44.38% and 37.75%). Furthermore, the TIC chromatogram of the GCMS analysis revealed the presence of 34 compounds, 12 of which showed major peak areas. Discussion: Treatment 1: 500 v/v of PDSW proved better than the treatment 10-8 M of KAR1 with regard to most of the parameters studied. The outcome of the study can be used as a recommendation tool for agricultural and horticultural crops, since it costs much lesser than that of KAR1. In fact, the foliar application of PDSW proved economical and played bioactive role at very low concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, climate change is disrupting life on Earth by causing imbalances in the biosphere. This work aimed to evaluate the impact of climate change on the content of primary and secondary metabolites and the yield of essential oil of Rosmarinus officinalis. Thus, the results of the conducted experiment show that the content of primary metabolites decreased with increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation along the experiment(proteins from 7.61% to 7.14%, carbohydrates from 6.92% to 5.64%, fats from 1.48% to 1.29% and dietary fiber from 4.96% to 4.22% and mineral composition: Ca from 7.67% to 5.98%, Mg from 8.61% to 7.01%, Fe from 7.53% to 7.21% and Mn from 6.85% to 3.97%), and the content of secondary metabolites increased in the second year when increasing the temperature by 5 °C and water stress by 50% (coumarin from 6.59% to 10.99%, saponins from 7.15% to 8.46%, tannin from 3.92% to 5.95%, alkaloids from 6.69% to 15.62% and flavonoid from 8.02% to 15.75%),but in the fourth year when the temperature continued to increase and water stress was 75% the content of secondary metabolites decreased (coumarin from 10.99% to 8.27%, saponins from 8.46% to 7.87%, tannin from 5.95% to 4.85%, alkaloids from 15.62% to 10.68% and flavonoid from 15.75% to 11.36%)and the same results were obtained for the yield of essential oil which increased in the second year and decreased in the fourth year. This GC analysis of the three essential oil samples shows that the majority of compounds in the three essential oils studied are cineole (S1:45.98%, S2:55.36%, S3:43.08%) followed by camphor (S1:17.44%, S2:21.44%, S3:21.56%) and Alpha-pinene (S1:9.30%, S2:8.34%, S3: 9.17%) and other compounds in low percentage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dracocephalum moldavica L. is an annual medicinal plant that belongs to the Labiate family. The essential oil of this plant has natural antibacterial, antimicrobial and Healing of wounds. To determine the essential oil content and compositions of its shoots, different populations were examined at three regions, consisted Sepidan, Lar, and Fasa (Fars province, Iran). These regions were cold semi-arid, hot desert, and hot semi-arid climates with rainfall 491, 216, and 196 mm/year, respectively. The essential oil was extracted by the use of hydro distillation, and was analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and biological activities in terms of antioxidant properties were also performed as per standard methods. A total of 21 compounds were identified from these populations. The results showed that most of these compounds were related to the Sepidan region. The main components of the essential oil were geranyl acetate (24.34-25.11%), neral (13.57-14.05%), geraniol (12.99-13.60%), and geranial (12.99-13.03%). The lowest compounds were obtained in the Lar region, but this region exhibited the highest antioxidant activity (83.31%), the highest amount of total phenolic, and flavonoid. According to climatic parameters effects on phytochemical compounds of D.moldavica species, these findings indicated that this species' populations from the south of Iran are characterized by geranyl acetate-rich EOs which can be considered for further domestication, conservation, breeding, and exploitation programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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IntroductionThe current study was carried out with the hypothesis that foliar application of plant-derived smoke water (PDSW) and karrikinolide (KAR1) might enhanced the plant growth, physiology, and essential oil production of the Mentha arvensis L. Karrikinolide (KAR1) is one of the most important bioactive constituents of PDSW. MethodsMint (Mentha arvensis L.) was grown in natural conditions in the net-house. Different concentrations of PDSW (1:125, 1:250, 1:500 and 1:1000 v/v) and KAR1 (10-9 M, 10-8 M, 10-7 M and 10-6 M) were used as foliar-spray treatments, using double-distilled water as control. The PDSW was prepared by burning the dried wheat-straw that acted as a growth-promoting substance.ResultsFoliar-spray treatment 1:500 v/v of PDSW and 10-8 M of KAR1 proved optimal for enhancing all morphological, physiological, and essential-oil yield related parameters. In comparison with the control, 1:500 v/v of PDSW and 10-8 M of KAR1 increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) the height of mint plant (19.23% and 16.47%), fresh weight (19.30% and 17.44%), dry weight (35.36% and 24.75%), leaf area (18.22% and 17.46%), and leaf yield per plant (28.41% and 23.74%). In addition, these treatments also significantly increased the photosynthetic parameters, including chlorophyll fluorescence (12.10% and 11.41%), total chlorophyll content (25.70% and 20.77%), and total carotenoid content (29.77% and 27.18%). Likewise, 1:500 v/v of PDSW and 10-8 M of KAR1 significantly increased the essential-oil content (37.09% and 32.25%), essential oil productivity per plant (72.22% and 66.66%), menthol content (29.94% and 25.42%), menthyl acetate content (36.90% and 31.73%), and menthone content (44.38% and 37.75%). Furthermore, the TIC chromatogram of the GCMS analysis revealed the presence of 34 compounds, 12 of which showed major peak areas. DiscussionTreatment 1: 500 v/v of PDSW proved better than the treatment 10-8 M of KAR1 with regard to most of the parameters studied. The outcome of the study can be used as a recommendation tool for agricultural and horticultural crops, since it costs much lesser than that of KAR1. In fact, the foliar application of PDSW proved economical and played bioactive role at very low concentrations.

In this study, the effect of various drying methods (fresh plant, shade-drying, sun-drying, and oven-drying at 30 and 60 °C) on the essential oil (EO) composition of rose-scented geranium were determined. Essential oil samples were extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC and GC-MS systems. The highest EO contents were obtained in the fresh plant (1.98%), followed by shade-drying (1.34 %) and oven-drying at 30 °C (1.20 %). The main components were citronellol (23.99-39.87%), geraniol (4.15-17.09%), menthone (4.48-8.34%), linalool (1.96-7.42%), β-caryophyllene (2.63-4.32%), geranyl tiglate (0.99-4.52%), citronellyl butyrate (0.53-5.31%) and cis-rose oxide (0.71-3.15%). The drying methods showed a marked impact on the constituents of the EO samples. The results demonstrated that drying the aerial parts of fresh geranium, and shade-drying and oven-drying at 30 °C were the best optimal methods to obtain the highest oil yield, and citronellol, geraniol, and linalool contents in the oil.

This research aimed to evaluate the combined effects of chemical, biological and organic fertilizers on several features of Satureja khuzistanica. As an aromatic plant with medicinal properties, endemic to Iran, S. khuzistanica was studied for essential oil (EO%) and composition. Spanning for two growing seasons (2017–2019), the experiments involved 13 nutritional treatments, ie, (a) control (C), (b) nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK; 50‐25‐25 Kg ha−1), (c) cattle manure (CM30; 30 ton ha−1), (d) CM60 (60 ton ha−1), (e) CM30 + NPK, (f) CM60 + NPK, (g) vermicompost (V5, 5 ton ha−1), (h) V5 + NPK, (i) Glomus mosseae (GM), (j) Glomus Intra (GI), (k) sulphur (S0; 0 Kg ha−1) + thiobacillus (T), (l) S250 + T (sulphur: 250 Kg ha−1,) and (m) V5 + T. At full flowering stage, samples were taken from aerial segments of plants in all treatment groups. After shade‐drying, the samples were hydro‐distillated to obtain essential oil (EO) and were then evaluated by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The interaction between year and fertilizer, as two treatments, had a significant effect (P ≤ 0.01) on the oil percentage, oil constituents and essential oil yield (EO.Y) of S. khuzistanica. GM and S0 + T caused the highest oil percentage in the first (3.7%) and second year (3.9%), respectively. V5 + NPK and V5 + T resulted in a substantial rise in EO.Y in the first (30.4 kg ha−1) and second year (64.3 kg ha−1), respectively. Carvacrol was highest in the first (92.1%) and second year (95.2%), as a result of using V5 + T and NPK treatments, respectively. Biological and vermicompost fertilizers not only improved the amount of EO but also enhanced its quality and aroma, as reflected in the constituents of the EO. The GI treatment and the V5 + NPK treatment led to high amounts of K in the branches. Meanwhile, high S contents were measured in the branches in response to the V5 and the S250 + T treatments. These findings suggested that biofertilizers and organic fertilizers can benefit the cultivation of S. khuzistanica because, when combined together, they can enhance the percentage and phenolic compounds in the EO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the effect of various drying methods (fresh plant, shade-drying, sun-drying, and oven-drying at 30 and 60 °C) on the essential oil (EO) composition of rose-scented geranium were determined. Essential oil samples were extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC and GC-MS systems. The highest EO contents were obtained in the fresh plant (1.98%), followed by shade-drying (1.34 %) and oven-drying at 30 °C (1.20 %). The main components were citronellol (23.99-39.87%), geraniol (4.15-17.09%), menthone (4.48-8.34%), linalool (1.96-7.42%), β-caryophyllene (2.63-4.32%), geranyl tiglate (0.99-4.52%), citronellyl butyrate (0.53-5.31%) and cis-rose oxide (0.71-3.15%). The drying methods showed a marked impact on the constituents of the EO samples. The results demonstrated that drying the aerial parts of fresh geranium, and shade-drying and oven-drying at 30 °C were the best optimal methods to obtain the highest oil yield, and citronellol, geraniol, and linalool contents in the oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential oils (EOs) from Abies sachalinensis (Sakhalin fir), a conifer species found in Sakhalin Island and Hokkaido in Japan, effectively remove nitrogen dioxide and possess antifungal activity. EOs also exert a relaxing effect and enhance air quality. Underwater shock waves generate instantaneous high pressure that ruptures cell walls, enhancing the performance of steam distillation and oil extraction. In this study, we aimed to increase the yield and quality of A. sachalinensis extracts using shockwaves. Leaves and branches were subjected to shockwave pretreatment or left untreated before EO extraction by steam distillation. EO yield of untreated dried leaves was 2.4 g/kg of dry leaf weight (DW). Upon application of a 3.0 kV, 3.6 kJ shockwave, the yield increased with the number of shockwave cycles. After ten cycles, yield increased 13.6-fold. Pretreatment with shockwaves for 10 cycles resulted in approximately 6- and 13-fold reductions in total energy consumption relative to fresh and dried leaves, respectively. Antioxidant activity increased more than 30-fold in shockwave-pretreated leaves than in untreated dried leaves after 10 cycles. This novel process can significantly reduce the energy used for EO extraction in steam distillation, thereby contributing to the development of a sustainable, low-energy EO production system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought stress limits the growth and yield of essential oils of valuable medicinal plants such as feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium). So, foliar application efficiency of nano-silicon complexes (glycine-nano-silicon, histidine-nano-silicon, glutamine-nano-silicon) was assessed on the growth and yield of feverfew, in a 120-day period of drought stress that was imposed by different irrigation gaps (4, 8 and 12 days). Nano-silicon compounds were sprayed on plants at three concentrations (zero-control, 1.5 and 3.0 mM) at 10-day intervals. The results showed that with increasing intensity of drought stress, leaf water saturation, accumulation of hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde increased and membrane damage in the leaf developed. With the loss of leaf water content and the development of oxidative damage, biomass accumulation, leaf area, the number of flowering branches in the plant decreased. Under severe drought stress, antioxidant capacity, phenol accumulation and essential oil yield decreased. The application of nano-silicon complexes limited tissue dehydration (35%) and the development of oxidative damage (30%) under drought stress conditions and restored the growth (25%) and yield of plant essential oils (30%). There was no significant difference between 1.5 and 3.0 mM nano-silicon compounds in most of the evaluated indices and glycine-nano-silicon combination was most effective in increasing plant drought tolerance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mentha pulegium L. is a plant with numerous health benefits that is utilized in traditional Algerian medicine. The objective of the current study was to analyze the chemical compositions of the essential oils produced by the M. pulegium flower and leaf parts after identifying the best hydrodistillation operating parameters and modeling the kinetic extraction. According to parametric tests, first order extraction kinetics result in yields of 1.7±0.06% (w/w) for leaves through 60 minutes and 4.00±0.10% (w/w) for flowers through 30 minutes. Five compounds were found in flowers, whereas 16 compounds were found in leaves. For leaves, a total of 15 constituents accounting for 100% of the oil were found; for flowers, a total of 5 constituents accounting for 100% of the oil were found. Predominance of oxygenated monoterpenes, such as pulegone (53.09%), menthol (12.53%), and neoisopulegol (5.7%) was determined in leaves, respectively pulegone (83.40%), isopulegylacetate (7.98%), and menthol (3.63%) in flowers. The results indicate that the experimental conditions used provided good yields in the extraction of essential oils, particularly from mint blossoms via hydrodistillation. As a result, there are options for lowering the time and energy required for mint oil extraction while still producing a high-quality product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the aim was to microwave dry Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. leaves, while evaluating the role of microwave power regarding drying behavior, drying rate, drying time, drying kinetics, moisture diffusivity, energy consumption and essential oil yield. The leaves were dried by microwave at four different power levels (180, 360, 600 and 720 W). The results found that increasing the increment power levels decreased the time for drying and increased the drying rate. To fit the experimental data, nine widely used thin layer drying kinetics models were used. The analysis of the drying curves indicated that the Page model was the most appropriate. There was a significant difference in moisture diffusivity between 2.36×10-11 and 11.45×10-11m2/s. Increasing microwave power was led to an increase in moisture diffusivity. In accordance with the Arrhenius equation, a value of 7.4225 W/g was determined for the activation energy. In terms of specific energy consumption, the results ranged from 8.56 to 9.93 kWh/kg. When leaves were dried with a microwave power of 180 W, the maximum yield of essential oil was obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mentha pulegium L. is a plant with numerous health benefits that is utilized in traditional Algerian medicine. The objective of the current study was to analyze the chemical compositions of the essential oils produced by the M. pulegium flower and leaf parts after identifying the best hydrodistillation operating parameters and modeling the kinetic extraction. According to parametric tests, first order extraction kinetics result in yields of 1.7±0.06% (w/w) for leaves through 60 minutes and 4.00±0.10% (w/w) for flowers through 30 minutes. Five compounds were found in flowers, whereas 16 compounds were found in leaves. For leaves, a total of 15 constituents accounting for 100% of the oil were found; for flowers, a total of 5 constituents accounting for 100% of the oil were found. Predominance of oxygenated monoterpenes, such as pulegone (53.09%), menthol (12.53%), and neoisopulegol (5.7%) was determined in leaves, respectively pulegone (83.40%), isopulegylacetate (7.98%), and menthol (3.63%) in flowers. The results indicate that the experimental conditions used provided good yields in the extraction of essential oils, particularly from mint blossoms via hydrodistillation. As a result, there are options for lowering the time and energy required for mint oil extraction while still producing a high-quality product.

One of the most important goals of cultivating medicinal plants is to improve their essential oil content, which will be affected by environmental factors such as water deficit stress and nutritional stress conditions. In this regard, a three-year split plot study has been done as a randomized complete block design with three replications in Uimia University at the 2014-2017 cropping years. The main factors include irrigation regimes in three levels (noimal irrigation, supplementary irrigation, and rainfed conditions), and the sub-factor at six levels include fertilizer resources {biofertilizer (Azotobaror 1 + Phosphate-Barvar 2), complete chemical fertilizer and complete Nano fertilizer with and without vermicompost. Sampling and analysis of traits are performed in the cropping year 2016-2017 (third year of planting). Compared to normal irrigation, the results show that supplementary irrigation and rainfed treatments while reducing the concentration of nitrogen (14.94% and 7.72%), phosphorus (31.20% and 37.71%), potassium (11.58% and 9.14%), copper (14.27% and 28.96%), and total dry weight (33.22% and 56.14%), increase the concentration of iron (8.08% and 66.05%), zinc (16.82% and 7.16%), and essential oil yield (25.32% and 37.11%) of thyme, respectively. Combined application of nano fertilizer with vermicompost under normal irrigation conditions, and application of nano fertilizer in supplementary and rainfed irrigation conditions has improved essential oil yield by 2.7%, 3.39%, and 3.78%, respectively. In general, the improvement of essential oil yield in water deficit stress, during the application of nano fertilizer, indicates the efficiency of this fertilizer in providing nutrients and achieving sustainable agricultural goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present factorial study assessed the reaction of dragonhead medicinal plant to the different levels of nitrogen (N) and micronutrient nutrition during 2016–2017 arranged in a completely randomized block design with three replications. Factor A contained three levels of N fertilizer (½ before planting and ½ one month after planting, 1/3 before planting and 1/3 one month after planting, 1/3 about forty days after planting). Factor B was micronutrients spray at five levels (control, Fe with B, Fe with Zn, B with Zn, Fe with B and Zn). According to the results, the mutual effect of nitrogen fertilizer and micronutrients affected stem height, iron and zinc percentage, essential oil percentage and yield, and plant dry weight. Additionally, nitrogen application played a role in nitrogen, iron and zinc percentage, stem height, plant dry weight, essential oil percentage and yield, as well as the number of lateral branches. Finally, micronutrients significantly influenced all characteristics under study except stem height and nitrogen percentage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background and Objective: This study was performed to investigate some quantitative characteristics and quality of hyssop under heat stress and nitrogen fertilizer. Materials and Methods: The experiment was conducted as a split-plot in a completely randomized block design with six planting dates and three replications in 2017-2018. The main factor was different levels of nitrogen fertilizer: 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg.ha-1 and sub-factor was planting dates between 30-day periods from October 17 to March 25. Results: Increasing nitrogen fertilizer at the level of 150 kg/ha resulted in the increase of 18.1%, 39.5%, 20.1%, 43.3% and 47.2% in flowering top-branch length, flowering top-branch weight, plant height, biomass yield and total essential oil yield, respectively, compared to not consumption. The highest yield of total essential oil (36051 g.ha-1) was obtained in T1N4, which was 89.7% higher than T4N1. Increasing ambient temperature in the range of 25–40 °C linearly led to decline of top-branch length, top-branch weight and biomass decreased but decreased essential oil yield in the above temperature range was fitted as a quadratic function (R2 = 0.86). Heat stress on delayed sowing dates T3, T4, T5 and T6 reduced the essential oil yield compared to the sowing date T1 by 30.5%, 70.3%, 66.4% and 39.3%, respectively. Conclusion: The application of nitrogen fertilizer increased the studied traits. To reduce the effect of heat stress and achieve optimal yield, are recommended the hyssop planted from 25 October to 25 November and are used 150 kg.ha-1 of nitrogen fertilizer in the subtropical region of Jiroft.

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) is one of the valuable medicinal plants cultivated in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran, facing to drought stress. Accordingly, an experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of algae extract and humic acid on cumin under drought stress conditions as a factorial split plot in a randomized complete blocks design with three replications in a farm located in Boyer-Ahmad city, 35 km from Yasouj, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad province in 2019 and 2020 years. The experimental factors included drought stress as the main factor at three levels of irrigation after consumption of 35 (control), 70, and 90% of soil moisture and humic acid at two levels of 0 and 300 mg.L-1 and algae at two levels of 0 and 2 L.ha-1 as the sub-factors. The results showed that foliar application of humic acid and algae extract had a significant effect on essential oil yield, number of branches, biological yield, grain yield, 1000-seed weight, number of seeds per umbrella, number of umbrellas per plant, plant height, and essential oil percentage and improved the negative effects of drought stress. The highest grain yield, 1000-grain weight, essential oil yield, and number of grains per umbrella were obtained by foliar application of humic acid and algae extract. The application of humic acid was more effective than algae extract on traits except yield and essential oil percentage which were more affected by algae extract. In general, the results showed that foliar application of humic acid and algae extract could moderate the adverse stress conditions and increase cumin yield by 41.4%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential oil extracted from Kunzea ambigua is new fragrant oil that has been shown to exhibit antimicrobial and anti-fungal properties, however only a few plantations exist to provide for controlled cropping and consistency of product. Extraction technology has been optimised to provide for the rapid assessment of germplasm collected from wild populations of Kunzea ambigua. Small-scale solvent extraction methods were developed to efficiently process large numbers of specimens collected from native stands. The datasets were used to predict the yield and quality of steam distilled essential oils. The effects on volatiles extracted from vegetative material, which had been either frozen or dried prior to extraction, was investigated. Recovery of volatiles was significantly higher from frozen samples, relative to oven-dried, and ethanol was a more efficient solvent compared to petroleum ether. The recovery from solvent extraction of K. ambigua leaf material was similar to, or higher than that from distillation, however, the level of terpinen-4-ol yield increased 15-fold during steam distillation. The compositional profiles and fractional volumes of kunzea essential oil collected at different times during steam distillation were established. The highest oil yield was collected between 30 and 60 mins. α-Pinene and 1,8-cineole dominated the essential oil profile in the early stages of distillation, whilst viridiflorol gradually increased with longer distillation time. This study shows that ethanol extraction of frozen/thawed K. ambigua leaf is useful for predicting the essential oil yield, whilst the time of distillation can be manipulated to maximize the relative concentration of targeted bioactive compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growth regulators are widely used to stimulate the growth of crops and vegetables, increase yield, and improve their quality. The aim of this field experiment was to determine the effect of salicylic and gibberellic acids on the physiological and biochemical leaf traits of flowering (55-60-day-old) sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) after spraying them on the 18th day (growth stage of 3-4 leaves). The relative humidity between June and August was 36-54%, the rainfall 0-23.2 mm, and the maximum and minimum temperatures were 28-35.8°C and 10.6-17.4°C, respectively. In the experiment, salicylic acid at concentrations of 0, 250, 500, and 750 μM and gibberellic acid at concentrations of 0, 125, 250, and 375 μM were used. The use of both acids resulted in significant (P ≤ 0.05) increases in the plant height, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf relative water content, leaf area, dry weight of aboveground parts of the plants, and the percentage of the essential oil content with a synergistic effect. The strongest effect was observed when salicylic acid at the concentrations of 250 and 500 μM was sprayed by the combination with gibberellic acid at a concentration of 250 μM: such treatment resulted in increases in the leaf area index, the chlorophyll content index, the chlorophyll and carotenoids content, relative water content, soluble carbohydrate content, dry weight, essential oil content and essential oil yield (kg ha-1). The higher essential oil yield of 21.7 kg ha-1 (compared to 9.9 kg ha-1 in the control) was due to both the higher mass of the aboveground part 1702 kg ha-1 (compared to 999 kg ha-1 in the control), and the 1.28 times higher content of leaf essential oil. The experimental data shows that spraying sweet basil by the combination of 250 and 500 μM salicylic and 250 μM gibberellic acids may increase both the yields of the aboveground part of the plant and of essential oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the response of quantitative and qualitative yield of ajwain (Carum copticum L.) to the irrigation cut-off in different nutritional regimes, an experiment was conducted as splitplot in a randomized complete block design with four replications at the research farm of Sarvestan Agricultural Jihad Organization, Fars province in 2019. The factors consisted of irrigation as the main factor at two levels (optimal irrigation and irrigation cut-off at flowering stage) and nutritional regime as the sub-factor at six levels (control, mycorrhiza, 15 ton.ha-1 manure, 15 ton.ha-1 manure + mycorrhiza, 30 ton.ha-1 manure, and 30 ton.ha-1 manure + mycorrhiza). The irrigation cut-off treatment reduced the plant height, number of umbrellas per plant, number of seeds per umbrella, 1000-seed weight, seed yield, biological yield, essential oil percentage, and essential oil yield by 30.65, 37.25, 46.12, 43.40, 24.40, 41.78, 19.68, and 52.86%, respectively compared to the optimal irrigation. The use of manure and mycorrhiza significantly increased all the mentioned traits. Moreover, the interaction of irrigation and nutritional sources treatments significantly affected only the percentage and essential oil yield. The highest percentage (2.80%) and essential oil yield (15.02 kg.ha-1) was observed in the 30 ton.ha-1 manure + mycorrhiza and optimum irrigation treatment. The lowest essential oil percentage (1.60%) was obtained in the control and optimum irrigation treatment and the lowest essential oil yield (4.62 kg.ha-1) resulted from the control and irrigation cut-off treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Objective: The aim of this experiment was to study the effect of inoculation with growth promoting bacteria and mycorrhiza-like fungi (Piriformospora indica) under water deficit stress on some morphological traits and essential oil yield of Moldavian balm (Dracocephalum moldavica L.). Materials & Methods: a factorial experiment was conducted in University of Tabriz, Iran based on randomized complete block design with three replications in 2017. The first factor was water deficit based on field capacity (FC) at four levels including 80-100 % FC, 70-85%FC, 55-70% FC, 40-55% FC and the second factor was inoculation of Moldavian balm with different microorganisms including Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Agrobacterium, Piriformospora indica and control (non-inoculation). Results: The results showed that the effect of water deficit stress and inoculation treatments on all morphological traits were significant. With increasing water deficit stress, all growth traits including plant height, branch number, main branch length, number of cycle of flowers per main branches, essential oil content and yield were significantly reduced. The highest amount of dry flowering head yield (2.41g/pot) was obtained with Enterobacter sp. However, the highest dry mater yield (59 g/pot), essential oil percentage (0.32%) and essential oil yield (0.19 g/pot) were obtained under Agrobacterium treatment. Conclusion: In general, inoculations with Piriformospora indica and Agrobacterium, were the best treatments in terms of dry mater yield and essential oil yield under moderate drought stress conditions and can be recommended as treatments to reduce the application of chemical fertilizers in sustainable production of Moldavian balm.

Mentha spicata L. is cultivated for its essential oil which has various industrial uses. There are several species of Mentha genus but M. spicata is the only one which is rich in carvone. The present study was carried out at Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Research Centre, Pantnagar in 2020 to evaluate the yield potential and essential oil quality of five spearmint cultivars grown in sub-tropical condition of Uttarakhand, so that farmers could select, choose and cultivate the right cultivar to get maximum benefits. CIM-Mohak and MSS-5 showed significant higher yield (herb yield, essential oil yield) i.e. 124.10 and 116.20 q/ha and 68.88 and 70.58 kg/ ha, respectively. The analysis of essential oils from five spearmint cultivars revealed that limonene was more in Neer kalka (35.1%) and carvone was more in Arka (64.35%) but cultivars CIM-Mohak and MSS-5 had almost same concentration of carvone and limonene. The study concludes that CIM-Mohak and MSS-5 can be grown for spearmint cultivation in sub-tropical conditions for higher returns.

This study aims to optimize peppermint oil extraction process using response surface methodology (RSM). Experiments were performed for different batch sizes (1500, 1700, and 1900 kg). System performance was evaluated in terms of thermal efficiency, productivity, essential oil yield (EOY), extraction efficiency, and CO2 emissions. Total energy consumption for 1500, 1700, and 1900 kg batch sizes are 1379.46, 1336.58, and 1286.56 kWh, while CO2 emissions are 1104, 1069, and 1028 kg, respectively. Maximum hourly system productivity, cumulative productivity, maximum hourly thermal efficiency, maximum extraction efficiency, and maximum EOY were obtained as 8.3 L/h, 20 L, 2%, 41.5%, and 0.461% (w/w), respectively, for 1900 kg. Average increase in total productivity, extraction efficiency, and EOY was 49.25%, 1%, and 26%, increasing in batch size from 1500 kg to 1900 kg. Extraction time and batch size have important effect (p < 0.001) on the extraction yield. Optimal process parameters are identified 300 min of extraction time and 1807.5 kg of batch size. The highest oil yield was 1.0614% under optimal conditions. Experiment was further performed for 1807.5 kg of batch size and the yield was found as 1.04621. Predicted and experimental results were found in good consistency with percentage deviation of 1.436. Therefore, this is helpful in conducting further research on optimizing process parameters for conventional distillation system of peppermint oil extraction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The experiment was conducted in the period 2018-2020 in the region of Razgrad, the land of Osenets village, Northeastern Bulgaria on soil type Chernozem and an experimental area of 500 m2 in four replications with lavender variety Sevtopolis. The following foliar fertilizers and biostimulators were included in the study at the respective rates: Variant 1 - Fertigrain foliar - 1.5 l/ha, Variant 2 - Amalgerol - 3.5 l/ha, Variant 3 - Fertileader vital - 3 l/ha, Variant 4 - Siapton - 3 l/ha. They were applied at the end of buttoning and the beginning of flowering stage. In order to follow out the effect of those products on the elements of productivity, essential oil content, inflorescences and essential oil yield, the variants were compared to an untreated control (Variant 5). The experiment was carried out following the adopted cultivation technology. The following characteristics were reported: number of tuft inflorescences, length of flowering stem, number of flower nodes, weight of tuff inflorescences, yield of fresh inflorescences - kg/ha, essential oil content - % and yield of essential oil - kg/ha. Data obtained for the values of the structural elements, the yield and the essential oil content were statistically processed by the method of dispersion and correlation analyses. The results showed: the structural elements of the yield - number of tuft inflorescences, length of flowering stem, number of flower nodes and weight of tuff inflorescences in the treated variants exceed the untreated control up to 8.9%, 11.3%, 19.34% and 13.6% respectively. The increase in flower yield in the products used for foliar application was in the range from 69 to 580 kg/ha compared to the control variant. The highest yield was reported in the variant treated with the preparation Siapton 3 l/ha - 6280 kg/ha. Compared to the untreated control in foliar fertilization with the tested products was reported an increase in the content of essential oil, and the highest values were when used the product Fertilider vital 3 l/ha - 1.69% to 1.51% for the control variant. The yield of essential oil was with the highest values when used the products Fertileader vital 3 l/ha and Siapton 3 l/ha and exceed the control variant by 18.2%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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