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Laboratory and pilot scale pretreatment processes were assessed for empty fruit bunch (EFB) at different morphologies using anhydrous ammonia pretreatment (AAP). The AAP was used to deconstruct the complex structure of EFB through physical and chemical reaction to promote efficient conversion of the carbohydrates to monomeric sugars. Different morphologies of EFB samples used were unpressed EFB (UE), pressed EFB (PE), pressed and shredded EFB (PES), and lastly pressed, shredded and ground EFB (PESG). The APP process was optimized using a 1.0 L laboratory scale reactor and further scaled up to a 22 L pressure vessel (AAPB). AAP-PESG contained 76.2%, and AAP-PES contained 75.5% of structural carbohydrates, showing no significant difference. AAPUE showed the lowest glucan conversion of 28%. The optimal laboratory conditions adopted were 135 °C, 30 min, moist to dry EFB loading of 2:1, and ammonia to dry EFB loading of 1:1. Glucan conversion of AAP-PES were 87%, 80%, and 62% at 1%, 3%, and 6% glucan loadings, respectively. The AAP-PES detected acetamide concentration at 7.3 mg/g, while AAPB-PES was only at 4.4 mg/g. Chemical composition, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Brunauer Emmett Teller surface area, and scanning electron microscopy supported the assessment of AAP and AAPB processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laboratory and pilot scale pretreatment processes were assessed for empty fruit bunch (EFB) at different morphologies using anhydrous ammonia pretreatment (AAP). The AAP was used to deconstruct the complex structure of EFB through physical and chemical reaction to promote efficient conversion of the carbohydrates to monomeric sugars. Different morphologies of EFB samples used were unpressed EFB (UE), pressed EFB (PE), pressed and shredded EFB (PES), and lastly pressed, shredded and ground EFB (PESG). The APP process was optimized using a 1.0 L laboratory scale reactor and further scaled up to a 22 L pressure vessel (AAPB). AAP-PESG contained 76.2%, and AAP-PES contained 75.5% of structural carbohydrates, showing no significant difference. AAP-UE showed the lowest glucan conversion of 28%. The optimal laboratory conditions adopted were 135 °C, 30 min, moist to dry EFB loading of 2:1, and ammonia to dry EFB loading of 1:1. Glucan conversion of AAP-PES were 87%, 80%, and 62% at 1%, 3%, and 6% glucan loadings, respectively. The AAP-PES detected acetamide concentration at 7.3 mg/g, while AAPB-PES was only at 4.4 mg/g. Chemical composition, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Brunauer Emmett Teller surface area, and scanning electron microscopy supported the assessment of AAP and AAPB processes.

AbstractFour empty fruit bunch hydrochars namely HC, HC-Acr, HC-APS, and HC-Acr-APS, were synthesized through one-step hydrothermal carbonization in the presence of acrylic acid (Acr) and/or ammonium persulphate (APS). This study aims to combine HTC with free radical graft copolymerization to produce hydrochar with enhanced functional groups and adsorption capabilities. The FTIR results show that the modified hydrochars contain more functional groups as compared to the unmodified hydrochar. The HC-Acr-APS demonstrates the highest MG capacity (qm = 72.86 mg/g). The kinetic data obeyed the pseudo-second order model (qe = 19.61 mg/g, k2 = 0.02 g/mg.h), while isotherm demonstrates a good fit with the Freundlich model. The positive enthalpy change (ΔH = 26.06 kJ/mol) indicates an endothermic adsorption process, while the positive entropy change (ΔS=77.15 J/mol.K) suggests increased molecular randomness during adsorption. The Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) is also assessed, indicating the thermodynamic favorability of the adsorption process. This study offers valuable insights into the potential of surface-modified EFB hydrochar as an efficient adsorbent for MG removal, providing a sustainable solution for environmental challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The usage of renewable energy is a mitigation phenomenon majorly impacting the power sectors, with biomass being one of the sources directly replacing coal in various applications. This leads to the portrayal of biomass having the potential to be a carbonaceous material, namely the Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) of oil palm. To increase the characteristics of EFB, it can be converted into carbon-based products through thermochemical processes, such as hydrothermal carbonization. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the characteristics of feedstock and biochar EFB using the TGA method. The heating rate used in this study is 10 - 30°C/min at five °C/min intervals. The effect of heating rate on kinetic parameters and thermal (DTG, TGA) and combustion (T ignition, T burn out) characteristics was also determined. This study carried out the HTC process at temperatures of 210°C and 230°C. The results showed that biochar EFB had a higher ignition, burnout temperature, and activation energy than raw EFB. Ignition temperatures for EFB-HT210°C and EFB-HT230°C were 297°C and 298°C; burnout temperatures for EFBHT210° C, EFB-HT230°C were 407°C and 450° C; and the activation energy for EFB-HT°210C, EFB-HT°230C were 58.84 kJ/mol and 62.16 kJ/mol. Besides the characteristics of biomass, the heating rate also affects combustion. This proved that increased heating rate caused higher ignition and burnout temperature and decreased activation energy. The results also indicated that the difference in heating rate influenced the peak temperature in DTG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering Malaysia's position as a leading producer of palm oil, it wastes appears to be a promising renewable energy source. Thus, present work compares optimal behavioural performance and power generation potential from the palm oil mill wastes, including empty fruit bunch (EFB) and palm kernel shell (PKS). Aspen Plus software is used to perform a sensitivity study, investigating the influence of temperature and equivalence ratio (ER) on syngas output, syngas composition, and power generation. Temperature increase (600◦C to 1000◦C) leads to increase in H2 and CO and decrease in CO2 and CH4 composition. At optimal operating condition, temperature for EFB and PKS is at 740◦C and 865◦C while ER is at 0.25 for both feedstocks. The low heating value (LHV), cold gas efficiency (CGE) and total syngas output happens to be around 4.84 MJ/Nm3, 48.89% and 259.18 kg/hr for (EFB and 4.01 MJ/Nm3, 51.27 % and 312.97 kg/h for PKS. EFB shows higher capability to produce more quality syngas and generate more power compared to PKS. From economic perspective, EFB brings more revenue (115 million/year) than PKS (111 million/year) for 10 MW plant capacity by considering electricity as the main product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochar produced from biomass based Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) pyrolysis presents an alternative energy source. Biomass through the pelletization process will produce bio-pellets with higher density, while microwave pyrolysis achieves better energy efficiency and cost effectiveness. This two-step process will produce a product with a longer combustion duration and higher thermochemical conversion efficiency. This study aims to utilize EFB waste through a two-step process (pelletization and microwave pyrolysis) to produce biochar as an alternative renewable energy approaching commercial standards. EFB bio-pellets with a mass of 80, 100, and 120 g were pyrolyzed in a microwave pyrolysis reactor with the power of 450, 600, and 850 W, and in time variations of 20, 30, and 40 min. The results showed that 850 W power and 80 g mass were the optimal conditions to produce biochar with the highest heating value (26.73 MJ/kg), moisture content (0.48 %) volatile matter content (12.56 %), ash content (22.33 %), and fixed carbon (64.62 %). The SEM-EDX analysis indicated that the biochar product showed an increase in carbon (C) content up to 67.4 %. It is expected that combination of the pelletization process and microwave assisted pyrolysis could become a new alternative for producing biochar that could be commercialized. This research was carried out to address the problem of accumulating EFB in palm oil mills and generating renewable energy from waste.

Wet milling and ultrasonication were utilized as an environmental benign approach to produce mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNP) to trap migrating reservoir fines. Static adsorption was performed at various conditions to ascertain effect of concentration, time, and salinity on MSNP adsorption onto reservoir fines. Adsorption kinetic and isotherms models were utilized to conceptualize the adsorption procedures and the corresponding mechanisms proffered. Microstructural analysis shows a mesoporous structure ranging from 2.88 to 44.8 nm with high specific surface area of 332 m2/g and purity of 94%. Pseudo-second order with regression coefficient (R2) of 0.99 shows that the model best defines the reservoir fines adsorption rate onto MSNP. Equilibrium parameter (RL) of < 1 signifies a favorable adsorption and strong bonding. Heterogeneity factor value of 1/n < 1 and the n values of 5–11 show sufficient site for adsorption. Langmuir isotherm model with R2 of 0.985 best fitted the equilibrium adsorption of kaolinite whereas high R2 of 0.98 and lower sum of squared errors of illite for Freundlich model indicates it is better than Langmuir model. Experimental results have shown that the mesopores accelerated the reservoir fines adsorption by MSNP through chemosorption and single-layer coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) are extensively utilized as affordable, renewable materials. The conventional technique for making CNFs is time‐consuming, requires hazardous toxic chemicals, and consumes enormous amounts of energy. CNFs from empty fruit bunches (EFB) were produced via deep eutectic solvent (DES) and ultrasonication. The DES treatment conditions were optimized using the central composite design (CCD) approach of response surface methodology (RSM). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that the reaction time, DES molar ratio, and temperature were all significant variables. The experimental results closely correspond to the theoretical model of CNFs yield. X‐ray diffraction (XRD) studies demonstrated that the crystallinity index of the CNFs increased significantly after sonication. It could be stated that DES treatment and ultrasonication were effective ways to successfully generate CNFs from EFB. This study may serve as foundation for high‐yield, industrial‐scale synthesis of nanocellulose using DES treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm empty fruit bunch oil (palm EFB oil) is a waste product that can be used to produce biodiesel at a low cost. However, high free fatty acid (FFA) content is the primary obstacle to biodiesel production. Before the transesterification process can begin, the oil must be esterified to reduce its acid content. This study seeks to employ dual‐frequency ultrasound at frequencies of 28 kHz (200 W) and 40 kHz (200 W) to aid in the esterification and transesterification of ZSM‐5‐38 and CaO catalysts, respectively. Central composite design and response surface methodology were used to determine the optimal conditions for the three primary parameters of methanol to oil (M:O molar ratio), catalyst loading and reaction time. A 12:1 M:O molar ratio, 11.36 wt% catalyst loading (ZSM‐5‐38) and 60 min of reaction duration were the optimal conditions for esterification to achieve a FFA conversion of 91.51%. The reusability of ZSM‐5‐38 revealed a decrease in FFA conversions of 87.36, 75.11, 67.13 and 58.68% with each reused cycle. The optimal transesterification conditions were a 3.28:1 M:O molar ratio, 4.62 wt% catalyst loading (CaO) and 64 min of reaction time, yielding 83.58% biodiesel. The viscosity value (D 445), the flash point (D 93) and the heating value (ASTM D240) of biodiesel produced under optimal conditions were evaluated. The biodiesel properties were determined to be 4.7931 mm2/s, 176°C and 40 398 kJ/kg, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Torrefaction is a thermal procedure used to convert biomass into a substance resembling coal that possesses superior fuel properties compared to the original biomass. Torrefied biomass is hydrophobic and has a greater energy density, making it more advantageous for handling and storage. The purpose of this investigation is to establish a simulation model of the torrefaction process utilizing Malaysian biomass and optimize it for mass yield and energy consumption. Additionally, the objective is to integrate the optimized torrefaction process into an existing biomass power plant. By retrofitting a biomass‐based power generation facility with torrefaction technology, the existing feedstock can be upgraded before sending it to the power plant. Essentially, torrefaction technology represents an enhancement of biomass utilization technology, ultimately allowing for the maximum application of biomass energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empty fruit bunch (EFB) is a biomass residue from palm oil plantations, abundant in tropical countries like Malaysia. EFB is a valuable resource when utilized for energy recovery. Rice husk ash (RHA), retrieved after pyrolyzing and calcining rice husks, has high silica content and is a low-cost alternative to conventional silica precursors. This study utilizes RHA as a silica precursor for catalyst synthesis, labelled CRHA. CRHA is metal-modified using nickel and iron, forming NiCRHA, FeCRHA and NiFeCRHA catalysts. The synthesized catalysts were applied to the pyrolysis of EFB and compared with HZSM-5 via thermogravimetric analyser (TGA). From TGA, CRHA produced similar amount of volatilized matter (75.1 wt%) to HZSM-5 catalyst (73.3 wt%) while using NiCRHA resulted in the highest amount of volatilized matter (83.9 wt%) among the catalytic runs. Kinetic analysis from the application of Coats-Redfern method showed that the non-catalytic run followed a one-dimensional diffusion while the catalytic runs followed the anti-Jander diffusion. The activation energy, Ea, was overall reduced from 74.15 kJ·mol−1 with the presence of the catalysts in the order of: 69.64 kJ·mol−1 (EFB-NiCRHA) > 64.28 kJ·mol−1 (EFB-CRHA) > 63.57 kJ·mol−1 (EFB-NiFeCRHA) > 58.77 kJ·mol−1 (EFB-FeCRHA) > 53.81 kJ·mol−1 (EFB-HZSM-5). Despite NiCRHA having the highest Ea among the catalytic runs, it also had the highest pre-exponential factor (1.48 × 104 min−1) allowing the reaction to overcome the energy barrier and volatilized the most matter. This study showed that low-cost alternative sources can be used for catalysts synthesis and applied to thermochemical processes like pyrolysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cofiring coal with various biomasses has received much attention due to environmental factors and is considered a low-cost option. Although cofiring coal with biomass seems feasible, it potentially produces ash, which causes issues in boilers, such as fouling and slagging. This paper comprehensively investigates combustion performances and slagging and fouling behaviors during cofiring biomass and coal. A thorough examination is conducted to investigate the slagging-fouling tendencies employing ash indices. Thermogravimetry-differential scanning calorimetry and a pilot combustion experiment using a drop tube furnace (DTF) are performed to investigate the thermal behavior of the materials, including ash observation using scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray analysis and X-ray diffraction systems. Results show that cofiring coal with 25% biomass (mixture of empty fruit bunch and palm frond) has the best combustion performance. It is found that cofiring coal with 25% biomass, either empty fruit bunch or frond, increases the risk of slagging with evidence of the decrease of ash fusion temperatures, deposition material, and sticky material in the probe. The results can provide useful information about cofiring behavior and slagging-fouling tendencies before being implemented into a real plant.

The objective of the present work was to evaluate the performance of two-stage adsorber of activated carbon from oil palm empty fruit bunch for methylene blue removal. The model was developed to predict optimum adsorbent mass and time at a specified volumes and concentrations of dye solution. Results show that the adsorbent mass can be reduced by 6.67%. Operating time taken to attain the equilibrium in a two-stage adsorber has dramatically decreased from 22 h to 0.52 h. In the performance evaluation, the adsorbent mass in stage-1 is higher than in stage-2, which lessen the workload to achieve equilibrium. A two-stage adsorber aids to optimize the mass and contact time for different percentage of dye removal that economically feasible for industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biomass wastes originating from palm oil milling activities can be characterized by their high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solid (TSS), and oil and grease content. The utilization of oil palm wastes such as palm oil mill effluent (POME) and empty fruit bunch (EFB) has great potential for a sustainable energy biomass pellet as it reduces the reliance on conventional materials for energy production. A mixture of POME and EFB in various ratios ranging between 7:3, 8:2, 9:1, and 10:0 was fermented in the presence of Lysinibacillus sp. LC 556247 for 120 h at 37 ± 2 °C and 180 rpm with the aim of elucidating the biodegradation of complex organic material in terms of BOD, COD, TSS, total organic carbon, inorganic carbon, and total carbon content. After fermentation, the mixtures were oven dried at 105 °C overnight and then subjected to calorific energy value (CEV) determination. The highest CEV of 20.26 MJ/kg was achieved for a ratio of 10:0 (slightly higher than the control experiment with the value of 18.67 MJ/kg), with maximum removal efficiencies of COD (12.19%), BOD (11.72%), TSS (93.94%), and oil reduction of 17.43%. The addition of EFB did not positively increase the CEV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of the Malaysian poultry and palm oil industries has led biomass waste generation in abundance specifically chicken manure and empty fruit bunch (EFB). Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a circular economy-based approach which converts chicken manure and EFB into biogas which can be utilized for heating and power generation. Operating temperature is an imperative consideration for AD hence the objective of the study is to evaluate the effect of different temperature profiles namely, psychrophilic (20 °C), mesophilic (35 °C) and thermophilic (50 °C) on AD of chicken manure and EFB. The kinetic parameters are also evaluated using five kinetic models to enable readers to comprehend the kinetic behaviours of the systems. The volume and composition of biogas is measured every five days for a 50-day retention time. The findings observed that mesophilic condition is the most favourable with cumulative methane, CH4 composition of up to 17.07%, almost two folds that of thermophilic (9.12%) and five folds that of psychrophilic (3.49%). The CH4 generation rate, Rb based on the modified Gompertz model which is deemed the best fit further supports these findings as the Rb under mesophilic condition is significantly higher (0.330 mL/gvs day) compared to psychrophilic (0.088 mL/gvs day) and thermophilic (0.120 mL/gvs day) conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioethanol has become more attractive as an alternative to fossil-based fuel: a biofuel and fuel additive to gasoline. Therefore, people are interested in ethanol from a feedstock that does not compete with the food supply. Oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) are major biomass by-products from the palm oil industry. This study proposes commercial-scale bioethanol production from EFB of 99.5 wt.% at 10,000 L/day ethanol. This bioethanol production was formulated using the commercial simulator and divided into four stages: pre-treatment, Hydrolysis, fermentation, and purification. EFB is pretreated using hot water, hot-compressed water, and alkaline hydrogen peroxide approaches. Simultaneous Saccharification and fermentation are chosen to produce the target of ethanol. At optimum conditions, it can conclude that the ethanol production rate was 13,950 litter per day by using an empty fruit bunch of 47,208 kg per day. Finally, the economic feasibility is also evaluated under techno-economic analysis. From the economic perspective, the net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period (PBP) equate to 9.016 M USD, 15%, and seven years, respectively, based on 20 years of life and a total capital investment of 12.32 M USD. The results show that bioethanol production is profitable.

Purpose: This research aims to investigate the detailed state of adsorption kinetics modelling and research on the application of hydrogen sulfide adsorption by hydrogel derived from empty fruit bunch (EFB), the determination of the kinetics parameters, and the comparison between models in a selection of the best-fit model. Design/methodology/approach: The kinetics modelling used are pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models. The correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the suitability of the equation R2. After obtaining the results, the comparison was made by comparing the R2 of each model. The pseudo-second-order model has a higher value of correlation coefficient, R2, making it the most suitable kinetics model for adsorption systems. Findings: The R2 for pseudo-first-order on the effect of dry bed height was 0.8814, whereas its effect on powder bed height was 0.9537, and that of the wet bed height was 0.9607. Meanwhile, the R2 for pseudo-second-order on the effect of dry bed height was 0.89, on the effect of the powder bed height was 0.99, and on the effect of the bed height of wet was 0.99, the highest among kinetic models. Based on the results, the pseudo-second-order model best describes the adsorption of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) by hydrogel biochar. Research limitations/implications: The kinetics modelling used are pseudo-first-order, and pseudo-second-order models for hydrogen sulfide adsorption by hydrogel originating from empty fruit bunches (EFB). Practical implications: Based on the results, the pseudo-second-order model best describes the adsorption of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) by hydrogel biochar. Kinetic studies are important in understanding the reactions and design of the process. Originality/value: The authenticity results of this article were found to be 17% similar. The novelty of this paper is the kinetics study of the new adsorbent developed based on EFB to adsorb H2S. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sandwich composite panel for heat insulation application were fabricated from two types of agricultural biomass waste, the oil palm empty fruit bunch and spent mushroom substrate. These agricultural biomasses are abundant, renewable, and without proper disposal management, might cause massive environmental pollution. This study investigated the effect of fibrillation degree on EFB fiber through the morphology modification to enhance the properties and thermal characteristic of the sandwich composite panel. Fibrillation is a physical changes that occurred on the surface and internal structure of fiber after undergo excessive physical modification by using refiner machine. Higher fibrillation degree could be achieve by narrowing the space area between two disks of refiner which also known as refining gap. In this research, a composite panel was developed from (SMS) and (EFB) fiber via sandwich hot pressing method. One composite sample using raw EFB fiber and three composite sample at fibrillation degree 191.40%, 211.70% and 271.68% were made at density 0.8 g/cm3. Based on result, the morphological structure of EFB fiber improved in term of formation of small fibril formation, larger surface area, optimum fiber length, optimum fiber diameter and better fiber distribution in composite panel. The mechanical properties of composite was obtained at range 2.77–7.21 MPa for tensile strength, 16.61–18.59 MPa for flexural strength, 2.06–3.18 MPa for internal bond and 4.35–15.79 kJ/m2 for impact strength. For physical properties, value of water absorption and thickness swelling were obtained at range 90.34–142.61% and 18.01–44.80%, respectively. Last but not least, the thermal conductivity value of sandwich composite was obtained at range 0.234–0.282 W/m.K. Overall result found that increasing fibrillation degree on EFB fiber at 211.70% able to contribute in improving the mechanical properties, physical properties and thermal characteristic of sandwich composite panel. This research finding suggested that enhancement of fiber morphology using fibrillation degree approach is considered as an alternative eco-friendly method that could be implemented to improve the properties and thermal characteristic of sandwich composite panel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As world moves toward increasing number of products being produced from renewable lignocellulosic agricultural and forest residues, the major classes of products that will shift to greener routes on priority are energy, fuels, and materials in that order. In materials segment, polyhydroxyalkanoates are an emerging class of biopolyesters with several potential industrial uses. The present work investigates medium chain length polyhydroxyalkanoates (mcl-PHA) producing capabilities of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 from a mixture of compounds produced from lignocellulosic biomass deconstruction. The hydrolysates obtained from nitric acid pretreatment of lignin rich cotton stalk (CS) and palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) were used as substrates for production of mcl-PHA. Presence of 3-hydroxydecanoate and 3-hydroxyocytanoate observed on GC-MS confirmed PHA accumulation in the cells. PHA accumulation was estimated between 20% and 35% of cell dry weight when grown on both model substrates as well as biomass hydrolysates. PHA titers obtained on hydrolysates of CS and EFB were 0.24 g/L and 0.21 g/L, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural fiber‐based materials are widely accepted in the composite sector as a substitute for synthetic fiber, particularly in structural and semi‐structural implementations in the automotive and aerospace industries, reflecting a recent trend and increased awareness of the importance of sustainable product design. Hand lay‐up was used to create natural fiber bilayer hybrid composites with epoxy matrix reinforcing oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) and kenaf fiber matting. The overall effect of this hybridization of the natural fiber and the thermal characterizations were studied experimentally. Both the hybrid combinations kenaf fiber and oil palm EFB were made by maintaining the fiber loading at 50% (weight) and weight ratios at 1:1, 1:4 and 4:1. The Tan delta, loss modulus (E″), storage modulus (E′), and Cole‐Cole plot were found to be useful in investigating dynamic mechanical properties. Dynamic mechanical analysis results like coefficient of performance and Cole‐Cole plot clearly show that hybrid pure kenaf composite has the significant complex modulus because interfacial bond between fiber and matrix is strong. As a result, it has been determined that kenaf fibers have the best mixing ratio for improving the dynamic mechanical properties of these hybrid type composites and can be used for aerospace, automotive, and civil engineering applications requiring high dimensional stability and excellent mechanical properties. The thermal gravimetric analysis data demonstrated that as compared to pure, the kenaf fibers and hybrid oil palm empty fruit bunch composites have the best thermal stability, with the highest beginning and ultimate breakdown temperatures of 200 and 450°C, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research is aimed to investigate the effect of different weight percent of kenaf and empty fruit bunch (EFB) hybrid compositions and fiber fractions (wt%) on the mechanical and thermal properties of unsaturated polyester (UPE)/epoxidized palm oil (EPO) composite. The kenaf and EFB fibers were first treated with an alkali solution before being pressed using a hydraulic hot-pressed machine. In this study, three different kenaf/EFB hybridization compositions were studied which are 100/0, 90/10, 70/30, and 50/50 (wt%) at three different fiber weight fractions (9%, 12%, and 15%) reinforced in UPE/EPO resin. The fiber treatment successfully removed the majority of the moisture, cellulose, and hemicellulose of kenaf and EFB fiber. The mechanical study revealed that the higher composition of EFB in kenaf/EFB hybrid fiber increased Young’s modulus, tensile strength, elongation at break, and impact strength of the resulted composite at 9 and 12 wt% fiber fractions. Thermal analysis proved that the hybridization fibers and higher fiber weight fractions improved the thermal stability by reducing the decomposition rate of the composites. Overall, kenaf/EFB hybridization reinforced in UPE/EPO resin is a good approach toward green composite development.

The heating performance of empty fruit bunch pellets (EFBPs) has been limited by its low energy density, high moisture, and ash content. Hence, microwave co-torrefaction (MCT) was performed with microwave heating unto waste oil mixed EFBP to produce high-energy biofuel. However, the non-homogeneous electromagnetic fields distribution in the microwave cavity results in an uneven heating behavior, producing the hot and cold spots. Hence, MCT coupled with helical lift was examined for its potential to improve heat distribution. The effect of temperature and types of waste oil on the proximate analysis and surface properties were studied. In comparison to the conventional torrefaction using a furnace (>30 min), MCT provided rapid heating (50–80°C·min−1) and a shorter process time (10 min). The use of helical lift with 2-dimensional movement – rotational (24 rpm·min−1) and vertical motion (5 cm·min−1) simultaneously, distributed microwave radiation uniformly for rapid heating. The proximate analysis demonstrated that the ash content was reduced from 8 to 3 wt%, and the highest fuel ratio of 2.0 was achieved. Additionally, the highly porous structure of EFBP biochar can act as an activated carbon precursor. MCT coupled with helical lift represents a promising approach to prevent hot spots during microwave heating.

The palm oil industry produces wastes that are harmful to the environment but can be managed. The empty fruit bunch (EFB) and oil palm mesocarp fibres (OPMF) are used as combustibles in Africa. This research focused on identifying the chemical and physical characteristics of EFB and OPMF ashes in order to develop the richest possible pozzolanic composite for use as cement replacement material (CRM). The effects of calcination temperatures and duration were studied for the different ashes. A suitable combination of the two ashes was determined, and its effects on the properties of fresh cement paste were studied. The results showed that a rich pozzolana meeting the established requirement of ASTM C618-19 class N pozzolan can be obtained by combining OPMF and EFB in a ratio of 80/20. Furthermore, it was found that the reactivity of the ashes could be improved by grinding these ashes to reduce their particle sizes.

Bioethanol has become more attractive as an alternative to fossil-based fuel: a biofuel and fuel additive to gasoline. Therefore, people are interested in ethanol from a feedstock that does not compete with the food supply. Oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) are major biomass by-products from the palm oil industry. This study proposes commercial-scale bioethanol production from EFB of 99.5 wt.% at 10,000 L/day ethanol. This bioethanol production was formulated using the commercial simulator and divided into four stages: pre-treatment, Hydrolysis, fermentation, and purification. EFB is pretreated using hot water, hot-compressed water, and alkaline hydrogen peroxide approaches. Simultaneous Saccharification and fermentation are chosen to produce the target of ethanol. At optimum conditions, it can conclude that the ethanol production rate was 13,950 litter per day by using an empty fruit bunch of 47,208 kg per day. Finally, the economic feasibility is also evaluated under techno-economic analysis. From the economic perspective, the net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period (PBP) equate to 9.016 M USD, 15%, and seven years, respectively, based on 20 years of life and a total capital investment of 12.32 M USD. The results show that bioethanol production is profitable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The carbon dioxide (CO2) torrefaction of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) pellets was investigated at various temperatures from 250 to 300 °C and residence times from 15 to 60 minutes. The objective was to investigate the effects of CO2 torrefaction on the yield and characteristics of the torrefied products. The optimal conditions for maximum mass yield (MY) of CO2 torrefaction were also examined by response surface methodology (RSM) using full factorial design. Results revealed that temperature and time significantly influenced the mass (MY), liquid (LY) and gas (GY) yields. The MY and energy yield (EY) decreased with increasing severity of torrefaction, whereas the LY, GY, energy density (DE) and higher heating value (HHV) increased during the process. Characterisation revealed substantial improvements in the microstructure, pH, hydrophobicity and grindability of the torrefied pellets compared with the raw pellets. The thermal ignition and degradation characteristics of the OPEFB pellets were also significantly transformed after torrefaction. The liquid torrefaction products contained an acidic, turbid and pungent mixture of water and organic compounds. RSM optimisation revealed the optimal conditions: temperature of 275 °C and residence time of 35 minutes with the predicted MY of 50.54%, mass loss of ML = 49.46% and HHV = 24.47 MJ/kg. The findings revealed that CO2 torrefaction is a practical approach to clean energy recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This paper focuses on the synthesis and comparison of hydrogel- and xerogel-based sorbents from EFB. Design/methodology/approach: Hydrogels were synthesised by polymerisation of EFB biochar with acrylamide (AAm) as a monomer, N, N'-Methylenebisacrylamide (MBA) as crosslinker and ammonium persulfate (APS) as initiator, as well as by internal gelation method of sodium alginate, empty fruit bunch (EFB), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and glucono deltalactone (GDL). From the alginate hydrogels obtained, xerogels were synthesised via the ovendrying method. Then, EFB-based hydrogel and xerogel sorbents were analysed and compared based on characterisation analysis by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Findings: The xerogel-based EFB is a better adsorbent than the hydrogel-based EFB because it has a larger pore volume (0.001449 cm3/g), larger pore size (63.7987 nm), higher moisture content (7.97%), lower ash content (12.55%), and is more thermally stable. Research limitations/implications: The research is to compare two new adsorbents, namely Hydrogel and Xerogel, from EFB in terms of their characteristics. Practical implications: Both adsorbents show a highly toxic material uptake, especially EFB xerogel. This adsorbent is comparable with the other commercialised adsorbent. Thus, this product can be a highly potential adsorbent for gas and wastewater adsorption. Originality/value: The authenticity results of this article were found to be 15% similar. The novelty of this paper is to compare the two adsorbents, namely hydrogel and xerogel, that originated from EFB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the effects of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) on the fuel properties of empty fruit bunches (EFB) by varying the reaction temperatures between the range of 180–300 °C. The improved properties of hydrochars following HTC were achieved by analyzing the changes in the physical and chemical properties of EFB. Moreover, it can save energy during treatment processes, in addition to evaluating the improvement of the biofuel stability based on the equilibrium moisture content and agglomeration. The results showed that the chemical structure of EFB decomposed owing to dehydration and decarboxylation reactions, leading to increased carbon and fixed carbon concentrations in the obtained hydrochar; and thus, an increased calorific value. Hydrochar generated during HTC exhibited chemical properties similar to those of conventional coal fuel. The optimal HTC reaction temperature range was ~230–250 °C. Based on the X-ray fluorescence results, hydrochar produced during HTC had smaller K and Cl contents and a smaller degree of agglomeration than the original sample, indicating that clinker production can be reduced by the HTC of EFB. The results of this study have significance in the utilization of unused waste biomass as an energy source that can replace fossil fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The oyster mushroom (Pleurotus species) is a popular and widely cultivated edible mushroom that can be found worldwide, including in Malaysia. However, its local production is unable to fulfil the market demand, partly due to the limited availability of rubber wood sawdust (RWS) as the conventional cultivation substrate. Furthermore, the palm oil industry in Malaysia generates large volumes of organic by-products that have caused environmental concerns. Therefore, the potential utilisation of oil palm waste-based substrates in order to develop a substitute RWS for Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom production is evaluated in this study, based on their agronomic performance and nutritional properties. Empty fruit bunches (EFBs), oil palm fronds (OPFs), and oil palm trunks (OPTs) were used to formulate the substrates. The control used was 100% RWS. Generally, 100% EFB showed a better agronomic performance, and mushroom growth was 1.9 times faster compared to the control, with a comparable mushroom yield. The crude protein and beta glucan content of mushrooms grown on oil palm by-product-formulated substrates were significantly higher than those grown using the control. Additionally, the number of fruiting bodies, crude protein, and beta glucan content of the mushrooms were positively correlated with potassium in the substrate. Therefore, 100% EFB could be used as a potential substitute for RWS for the cultivation and production of P. ostreatus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia produces a large amount of oil palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) that has potency used as media for mushroom cultivation. The research emphasized the use of EFB to grow oyster mushrooms as an alternative for delignification without chemicals. This research aimed to study the growth of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) at EFB based growing media treatments. The media consisted of a mixture of EFB and sawdust at the composition of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. The media were also supplemented with rice bran, CaCO3, and TSP fertilizer. The data were collected on the mycelium growth and the mushroom weight. During cultivation in baglog, there was no difference in mycelium growth rate. The EFB composition of 25% showed faster growth among the other compositions, followed by the EFB composition of 50%, 75%, and 0%. The highest Biological Efficiency Ratio (BER) at 56.25% was obtained at media composition of 50%. The EFB contained in baglog also showed biodelignification process. Biodelignification has the benefit which can reduce the use of chemicals in the delignification process to convert EFB into cellulose. The highest lignin reduction (40.12%) occurred in 75% of EFB media composition, while hemicellulose (49.56%) occurred in 100% EFB media composition.

Driven by the need for solutions to address the global issue of waste accumulation from human activities and industries, this study investigates the thermal behaviors of empty fruit bunch (EFB), tyre waste (TW), and their blends during co-pyrolysis, exploring a potential method to convert waste into useable products. The kinetics mechanism and thermodynamics properties of EFB and TW co-pyrolysis were analysed through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The rate of mass loss for the blend of EFB:TW at a 1:3 mass ratio shows an increase of around 20% due to synergism. However, the blend's average activation energy is higher (298.64 kJ/mol) when compared with single feedstock pyrolysis (EFB = 257.29 kJ/mol and TW = 252.92 kJ/mol). The combination of EFB:TW at a 3:1 ratio does not result in synergistic effects on mass loss. However, a lower activation energy is reported, indicating the decomposition process can be initiated at a lower energy requirement. The reaction model that best describes the pyrolysis of EFB, TW and their blends can be categorised into the diffusion and power model categories. An equal mixture of EFB and TW was the preferred combination for co-management because of the synergistic effect, which significantly impacts the co-pyrolysis process. The mass loss rate experiences an inhibitive effect at an earlier stage (320 °C), followed by a promotional impact at the later stage (380 °C). The activation energy needed for a balanced mixture is the least compared to all tested feedstocks, even lower than the pyrolysis of a single feedstock. The study revealed the potential for increasing decomposition rates using lower energy input through the co-pyrolysis of both feedstocks. These findings evidenced that co-pyrolysis is a promising waste management and valorisation pathway to deal with overwhelming waste accumulation. Future works can be conducted at a larger scale to affirm the feasibility of EFB and TW co-management. • Co-pyrolysis of EFB and TW is the most effective at 1:1 mass ratio. • Interaction of components causes synergism and higher reaction rates. • Positive synergistic effect resulted in a lower energy requirement. • EFB:TW = 1:1 ratio gives the best conversion efficiency and lowest energy requirement. • Reaction model of blends are different from with single feedstock pyrolysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rising demand for food packaging has led to a growing interest in sustainable and eco-friendly food coatings. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), being a versatile cellulose derivative produced from various lignocellulosic sources, has emerged in edible food coatings. This review evaluates the research trends on CMC production from empty fruit bunch (EFB) as a potential edible food coating material by systematic review approach. It explores sustainable pre-treatment for green cellulose and different CMC synthesis methods. The review compares CMC-based coatings to other materials, focusing on formulation processes, coating quality, safety, and commercial feasibility. The bibliometric analysis is performed to correlate food coating and CMC. As a result, the study discovered the rapid growth in research on edible food coatings made from CMC for various food industry applications. The green approach such as ozone pre-treatment appear as promising method for cellulose isolation from EFB to be used as raw material for CMC. The synthesis conditions of the treatment would affect the CMC characteristics and usage. Herein, utilizing CMC from cellulose EFB in coating formulation and on coated food shows different benefits. This review provides a road map for future research with potential to make important contributions to the food industry's long-term evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Green luminescent water-soluble citric acid-carbon dots composite were synthesized from empty fruit bunches (EFB) biochar. The hydrothermal method solves the weakness of the difficult size to control and the large energy. The hydrothermal method has the advantages of being easy, environmentally friendly, not requiring large energy, and the particle size is easy to control. The average size of the composites was 4 nm. The resulting belongs to the n-π* transition of carbonyl groups and C–N bonds. Maximum emission peak was observed at 450 nm excitation wavelength with a gradual decrease in intensity from 350 nm to 310 nm. Purple-blue to the blue region when the excitation wavelength is increased from 300 nm to 350 nm due to the presence of citrazinic acid. The addition of carbon dots with citric acid is effective as an antibacterial. The growth rate of any bacteria co-cultured with citric acid derived carbon dots (CDs-CA) dropped significantly as the concentration of CDs-CA increased, meaning that as the concentration increases, there are more chances for CDs-CA to stick to bacterial cell walls and have an effect on them. It can effectively stop bacteria from growing. The %antimicrobial up to 100% and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the lowest antibacterial agent concentration that shows the value for E. coli and S. aureus is 60 μg/mL.

In this work, mesophilic anaerobic digestion (AD) of empty fruit bunch (EFB) of the date palm tree was investigated in order to evaluate the application for this type of substrate, using a fed-batch process. Several parameters were monitored such as temperature, pH, and methane production throughout the experiments. The biodegradability was calculated by determining the volatile solids (VS) and total solids (TS) and the end of each added load. The process was started up with 8 gVS/L of inoculum, provided from a full-scale reactor from the molasses processing industry. The digester was loaded in fed-batch mode by increasing gradually the load from 1 to 3.5 gVS/L. The results showed that the methane yield coefficient and the organic loading rate (OLR) were 118.5 NmL/gVS and 0.27 gVS/L.d, respectively. Three kinetic models were tested the best fit (modified Gompertz models, modified Richard, and transference equation). The results show that the modified Gompertz model was the most suitable for fitting the EFB substrate and more adjusted to the experimental results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isolation of cellulose in empty fruit bunch (EFB) is hindered by lignin content. EFB was pretreated with Pleurotus ostreatus which has the ability to degrade lignin, in various incubation times (0th, 15th,30th, 45th, and 60th). The result showed lignin and cellulose decreased from 29.3% to 20.3% and from 40.2% to 26.2%, respectively. The optimum degradation time was on 30th day in which lignin and cellulose contents decreased from 29.3% to 20.3% and from 41% to 39.7% respectively. The cellulose to lignin (C/L) ratio increased from 1.40 to 1.99. These data revealed that P. ostreatus have a high potential for EFB delignification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, the use of oil palm wastes has been an interesting approach for the development of sustainable polymer matrix composites. Nevertheless, the water absorption behavior of these materials is one of the most critical factors for their performance over time. In this study, the water uptake characteristics of acrylic thermoplastic matrix composites reinforced separately with oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) and oil palm kernel shell (OPKS) were evaluated through immersion test in distilled water. The specimens of both composites were manufactured using the compression molding technique at three temperatures (80, 100, and 120 °C) using different particle sizes (425–600 and 600–850 µm). The composites, before and after the absorption test, were characterized by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetry, and scanning electron microscopy. The evaluation was complemented by the application of the Fickian diffusion model. Overall results showed that water absorption capacity decreased at a higher processing temperature and a larger particle size. In particular, it was observed that the type of reinforcement also influenced both water absorption and diffusivity. OPKS/acrylic and OPEFB/acrylic composites reached a maximum absorption of 77 and 86%, with diffusivities of 7.3 × 10−9 and 15.2 × 10−9 m2/min, respectively. Experimental evidence suggested that the absorption mechanism of the composites followed a non-Fickian model (n < 1.0). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of inert gases such as nitrogen continuously during torrefaction causes a burden in terms of operational cost. Therefore, a novel concept of mild pressurization has been introduced to eliminate the dependence on the inlet gas completely. In the present study, the torrefaction of fibrous empty fruit bunch (EFB) was performed for various temperatures of 250 °C–300 °C and residence times of 30–90 min. The pressure exerted by the load during torrefaction was 0.0230 MPa. The results show that torrefaction temperature is a dominant parameter in affecting physical and physicochemical properties as well as thermal stability of the torrefied EFB rather than residence time. An increase in temperature causes an improvement in gross calorific value, hydrophobicity, atomic H/C and O/C ratios as well as thermal stability. Besides, it was found that the EFB experiences a significant change after torrefaction at temperature of 300 °C in terms of surface, microstructure, crystallographic structure and functional groups. This is mainly due to the significant decomposition of the main biomass constituents especially hemicellulose and cellulose. Overall, it can be concluded that the best performance was obtained at torrefaction temperature of 300 °C and residence time of 90 min. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Malaysia, palm oil industries have played significant roles in the economic sectors and the nation's developments. One aspect of these industries that is gaining growing interest is oil palm residue management and bio-based product generations. EFB has been identified to be a feasible raw material for the production of bio-energy, bio-chemicals, and bio-materials. In this paper, our previous deterministic mathematical programming model was extended to include decisions for selecting optimal transportation modes and processes at each level of the processing stage in the supply chain. The superstructure of alternatives was extended to show states of produced products whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, and for which truck, train, barge, or pipeline would be possible modes of transportation. The objective function was to maximize profit which accounts for associated costs including the emission treatment costs from production and transportation. The optimal profit was USD 1,561,106,613 per year for single ownership of all facilities in the supply chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]