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This development of the framework and approach for a Cumulative Effects Assessment (CEA) is based on a literature review. The literature identified some key challenges that need to be addressed for CEA to evolve into a consistent, appropriate tool to assist decision-making. These challenges included • A clear distinction of the receptor-led CEA from the dominating stressor-led Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) approaches and • Enabling CEA to provide ecosystem-relevant information at an appropriate regional scale. Therefore this CEA is explicitly developed to be a receptor-led and fully integrated framework, i.e. involving multiple occurrences of multiple pressures (from single and/or different sources) on multiple receptors, as opposed to other existing approaches dealing with only a subset of those pressures or receptors, hence our use of the phrase iCEA for integrated CEA. As a proof of concept for this iCEA we selected one receptor, the ecosystem component marine mammals. The main conclusions of this exercise (see Chapter 6) are that the iCEA framework and approach presented in this study appear suitable to fulfil its main purpose and ultimately inform the policy process as described in the conception phase. However it should be acknowledged this is only the very first step in a process where through many iterations new information can be introduced and assessed (relative to existing information) based on the criteria provided resulting in an improved iCEA with increasing confidence levels. As more information becomes available the relative importance of impact chains and its corresponding information modules may change giving direction to new areas for research. For further development of this iCEA towards its intended applications we can distinguish between the first purpose, i.e. identification of the main impact chains contributing to the risk that a specific ecosystem component is impacted, which can be achieved with the approach presented here focussing on one specific ecosystem component and the second purpose, i.e. an evaluation of the performance of possible management strategies, which would require all ecosystem components to be included as would be required for ecosystem-based management. Thus to further the development and application of this iCEA towards its (two) purpose(s) the recommendation is to: • Include the available information presented in this report into the iCEA and develop the Bayesian Belief Network such that it can process this information and its associated confidence into an assessment that identifies the main impact chains for the marine mammals. • Extend the framework and approach to (all) the other ecosystem components so that a truly integrated CEA is possible. Note that this is likely to affect the identification of what should be considered the main pressures to guide management. • Improve the information modules that emerged from the evaluation as the most promising to increase the confidence in the outcome of the iCEA. Note that the previous two steps may result in a different prioritisation of the information modules as the importance of pressures and hence impact chains changes.

Currently, fungicides are necessary to protect potato crops against late blight, Phytophthora infestans, one of the world’s most damaging crop pathogens. The introgression of plant resistance genes from wild potato species targeted specifically to the late blight pathogen into susceptible potato varieties may alleviate the environmental impact of chemical control. Genetically modified plants are subject to an environmental risk assessment, and this includes testing for risks to the non-target arthropod community associated with the crop. The thesis begins with a review about the main plant defense responses and their role in influencing sequential interactions between herbivores and plant pathogens. The experimental chapters each focus on different aspects of the interaction between potato plants (both resistant and susceptible), the target pathogen (P. infestans) and several non-target insects. With each chapter, the scope widens: from the molecular gene expression in potato leaves in response to sequential attacks, to field scale biodiversity analyses. At the molecular level, one of the main findings was that the genomic position of the Rpi-vnt1 insertion conferring resistance to P. infestans influenced potato gene expression measured in leaves, when interacting with the non-target insect pests Myzus persicae (Green peach aphid) and Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Colorado potato beetle). Insect performance differed between the resistant GM and susceptible non-GM comparator. In the following chapter, the differences in insect performance were tested across a range of conventionally bred cultivars varying in resistance to P. infestans. Differences in M. persicae performance between several cultivars greatly outweighed the differences previously detected between the GM and non-GM comparator. These results are crucial in shaping the way risk is assessed in the context of GM crops, and these results are supported in our experiments assessing effects on biodiversity with pitfall traps in the field. The third trophic level was also addressed by comparing the performance of the parasitoid Aphidius colemani reared on GM and non-GM fed aphids, both with an without exposure to P. infestans. Differences in parasitoid performance were only found on the susceptible cultivar when inoculated with P. infestans. In the last experimental chapter the risk assessment is taken to the field comparing pitfall trap catches over two years and in two countries. Different methods for statistical analysis of biodiversity data were compared to arrive at recommendations for such analysis in the framework of environmental risk assessments. Drawing on these lessons, the discussion ends with ideas for the development of protocols for environmental risk assessments in the light of expected scientific progress in agricultural biotechnology.

Currently, fungicides are necessary to protect potato crops against late blight, Phytophthora infestans, one of the world’s most damaging crop pathogens. The introgression of plant resistance genes from wild potato species targeted specifically to the late blight pathogen into susceptible potato varieties may alleviate the environmental impact of chemical control. Genetically modified plants are subject to an environmental risk assessment, and this includes testing for risks to the non-target arthropod community associated with the crop. The thesis begins with a review about the main plant defense responses and their role in influencing sequential interactions between herbivores and plant pathogens. The experimental chapters each focus on different aspects of the interaction between potato plants (both resistant and susceptible), the target pathogen (P. infestans) and several non-target insects. With each chapter, the scope widens: from the molecular gene expression in potato leaves in response to sequential attacks, to field scale biodiversity analyses. At the molecular level, one of the main findings was that the genomic position of the Rpi-vnt1 insertion conferring resistance to P. infestans influenced potato gene expression measured in leaves, when interacting with the non-target insect pests Myzus persicae (Green peach aphid) and Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Colorado potato beetle). Insect performance differed between the resistant GM and susceptible non-GM comparator. In the following chapter, the differences in insect performance were tested across a range of conventionally bred cultivars varying in resistance to P. infestans. Differences in M. persicae performance between several cultivars greatly outweighed the differences previously detected between the GM and non-GM comparator. These results are crucial in shaping the way risk is assessed in the context of GM crops, and these results are supported in our experiments assessing effects on biodiversity with pitfall traps in the field. The third trophic level was also addressed by comparing the performance of the parasitoid Aphidius colemani reared on GM and non-GM fed aphids, both with an without exposure to P. infestans. Differences in parasitoid performance were only found on the susceptible cultivar when inoculated with P. infestans. In the last experimental chapter the risk assessment is taken to the field comparing pitfall trap catches over two years and in two countries. Different methods for statistical analysis of biodiversity data were compared to arrive at recommendations for such analysis in the framework of environmental risk assessments. Drawing on these lessons, the discussion ends with ideas for the development of protocols for environmental risk assessments in the light of expected scientific progress in agricultural biotechnology.

In de Krimpenerwaard liggen circa 6500 slootdempingen en vuilstorten. Het dempingsmateriaal bevatregelmatig verontreinigingen, zodat voor de hele regio sprake is van een geval van ernstigebodemverontreiniging. Het gebiedsgericht bodembeheerplan voorziet in het afdekken van deverontreinigde slootdempingen met gebiedseigen schone grond. De effectiviteit van de sanering wordtgeëvalueerd op basis van monitoring van ecologische risico’s. Dit rapport beschrijft de resultaten vande T1-monitoring, waarin in een relatief korte tijd na afdekken (twee tot vier jaar) de effectiviteit vande maatregel wordt beoordeeld. De saneringsmaatregel blijkt de meeste nadelige effecten van deslootdemping op soortensamenstelling en aantallen regenwormen te hebben weggenomen. Degehalten zware metalen in twee onderzochte regenwormsoorten zijn na sanering over het algemeenlager dan de gebiedseigen referentie in de T0-monitoring. De saneringsmaatregel is dus op de kortetermijn effectief om de risico’s voor doorvergiftiging van zware metalen terug te brengen totgebiedseigen niveau. De PCB-gehalten in de twee soorten regenwormen vertonen veel variatie tussende jaren. De tendens is dat de gehalten in dempingmonsters lager zijn dan in referentiemonsters.Vanwege de grote variatie en het beperkt aantal onderzochte locaties zijn deze conclusies alleen metvoorzichtigheid te trekken. Het PCB-gehalte in mollen bleek ook sterk variabel, in ruimte en in tijd.Mollen die in de T1-monitoring gevangen zijn op afgedekte Shredder en Huishoudelijk afvaldempingen hebben significant hogere PCB-gehalten dan de dieren op de referentiepercelen. Hetafdekken van de demping heeft voor deze dempingcategorieën de ecologische risico’s onvoldoendeweggenomen. De effectiviteit op langere termijn met betrekking tot het al dan niet optreden vanherverontreiniging als gevolg van bioturbatie en capillaire opstijging werd niet onderzocht

The current increase in application rate and usage frequency of application of pesticides in Ethiopia pose direct risks to surface water aquatic organisms and humans and cattle using surface water as a source of drinking water in rural parts of the country. A model based risk assessment as currently being used in Europe and elsewhere in the world is tailored to the Ethiopian situation to quantify the risks. Suitability of toxicity data used as an input for risk assessment usually taken from the temperate world was checked through simple toxicity testing of Ethiopian aquatic macroinvertebrates. Subsequent monitoring activities to see the actual residue levels of pesticides in rivers and temporary ponds adjacent to extensive farming activities was also done and results compared with model prediction values. Combining all this knowledge is believed to bring the current pesticide registration system in Ethiopia one step closer to be a more reliable method, protecting non-target organisms as well as the health of humans at risk.

The sheep tick (Ixodes ricinus) is widespread throughout Europe and can transmit Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.), which can cause Lyme borreliosis and B. miyamotoi, the agent of Borrelia miyamotoi disease in humans. Borrelia afzelii is the most common genospecies of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in western Europe and it circulates between I. ricinus and rodents. The density of infected nymphs determines disease risk and is affected by complex multi-trophic interactions between factors that are not well understood. The aim of this thesis was, therefore, to gain insight into the multi-trophic interactions that affect the density of B. afzelii-infected and B. miyamotoi-infected I. ricinus nymphs. Interactions between I. ricinus, rodents (wood mice and bank voles) and B. afzelii were reviewed to elucidate knowledge gaps concerning these interactions. The effect of rodent density on the density of infected nymphs and the factors that affect the contribution of a rodent to the density of infected nymphs were investigated in field experiments. The effects of a B. afzelii infection on larval tick burden of bank voles and nymphal body weight were investigated in the laboratory. The effects of CO2 and host odour on the host-seeking behaviour of I. ricinus were investigated in a Y-tube olfactometer. Finally, the ability of field-collected I. ricinus larvae to transmit B. afzelii and B. miyamotoi was analysed. The review showed that rodent density, rodent infection rate, and larval tick burden are the major factors affecting the density of B. afzelii-infected nymphs one year later. The field experiments showed that rodent density can positively affect the density of B. burgdorferi s.l.- infected nymphs one year later. However, the effect of rodent density was small when the density of infected nymphs was limited by the density of questing larvae in the previous year. Rodent density had, however, no effect on the density of B. miyamotoi-infected nymphs. The field studies also showed that tick burdens are 2.4 times higher on wood mice than on bank voles and that body weight of emerged nymphs was 36% higher for ticks that fed on wood mice compared to ticks that fed on bank voles. Bank voles infected with B. afzelii acquired a larger larval tick burden, resulting in a 27% increase in nymphal infection prevalence. Furthermore, infected nymphs had a 10% greater the body weight. Ixodes ricinus nymphs are activated by but not attracted to CO2, whereas they are attracted to and not activated by host odour. Ixodes ricinus larvae transmitted both B. afzelii and B. miyamotoi to rodents and it was calculated that rodents have a chance of about 25-75% of acquiring B. afzelii from larvae relative to the chance of acquiring B. afzelii from nymphs. The main conclusions of this thesis are discussed and suggestions are made for future research.

In de Krimpenerwaard liggen circa 6500 slootdempingen en vuilstorten. Het dempingsmateriaal bevatregelmatig verontreinigingen, zodat voor de hele regio sprake is van een geval van ernstigebodemverontreiniging. Het gebiedsgericht bodembeheerplan voorziet in het afdekken van deverontreinigde slootdempingen met gebiedseigen schone grond. De effectiviteit van de sanering wordtgeëvalueerd op basis van monitoring van ecologische risico’s. Dit rapport beschrijft de resultaten vande T1-monitoring, waarin in een relatief korte tijd na afdekken (twee tot vier jaar) de effectiviteit vande maatregel wordt beoordeeld. De saneringsmaatregel blijkt de meeste nadelige effecten van deslootdemping op soortensamenstelling en aantallen regenwormen te hebben weggenomen. Degehalten zware metalen in twee onderzochte regenwormsoorten zijn na sanering over het algemeenlager dan de gebiedseigen referentie in de T0-monitoring. De saneringsmaatregel is dus op de kortetermijn effectief om de risico’s voor doorvergiftiging van zware metalen terug te brengen totgebiedseigen niveau. De PCB-gehalten in de twee soorten regenwormen vertonen veel variatie tussende jaren. De tendens is dat de gehalten in dempingmonsters lager zijn dan in referentiemonsters.Vanwege de grote variatie en het beperkt aantal onderzochte locaties zijn deze conclusies alleen metvoorzichtigheid te trekken. Het PCB-gehalte in mollen bleek ook sterk variabel, in ruimte en in tijd.Mollen die in de T1-monitoring gevangen zijn op afgedekte Shredder en Huishoudelijk afvaldempingen hebben significant hogere PCB-gehalten dan de dieren op de referentiepercelen. Hetafdekken van de demping heeft voor deze dempingcategorieën de ecologische risico’s onvoldoendeweggenomen. De effectiviteit op langere termijn met betrekking tot het al dan niet optreden vanherverontreiniging als gevolg van bioturbatie en capillaire opstijging werd niet onderzocht

De laatste decennia kent de Nederlandse flora een sterke toename van exoten. Soorten die door een sterke uitbreiding of verdichting van hun areaal overlast veroorzaken, worden invasieve soorten genoemd. De overlast van invasieve soorten (vaak kortweg invasieven genoemd) kan bestaan uit economische schade en gezondheids- en/of veiligheidsproblemen. Het Ministerie van Landbouw, Natuur en Voedselkwaliteit heeft daarom het Uitvoeringsconsortium Invasieve Plantensoorten een FES‑subsidie verleend om in vier jaar tijd een informatiesysteem over potentieel invasieve exotische plantensoorten op te zetten. Doel is informatie aan te leveren op basis waarvan ingeschat kan worden hoe groot de kans is dat exotische soorten zich bij introductie in Nederland invasief zullen gaan gedragen. Daarnaast is het doel hulp te bieden bij het herkennen van zulke soorten als ze worden geïmporteerd. Het informatiesysteem is ondergebracht in Q-bank.

Sinds tientallen jaren zijn er weer meer bruinvissen waargenomen in de Noordzee rond Nederland. De dieren drongen onlangs ook door in estuaria, zoals de Oosterschelde. Maar is het habitat in de Oosterschelde eigenlijk wel geschikt voor de bruinvis en is er voldoende voedselaanbod en rust? En welke impact heeft de stormvloedkering op deze kleine walvisachtige? Informatie die bijdraagt aan een antwoord op bovenstaande vragen kwam boven water gedurende het onderzoek van Okka Jansen, waarop zij begin 2013 promoveerde.

One of the major constraints for the development and expansion of the Asian aquaculture industry has been the proliferation of disease outbreaks. To overcome this issue, a wide range of veterinary medicines including antibiotics, parasiticides and medical disinfectants have been recently developed. Residual concentrations of veterinary medicines applied in aquaculture farms may enter the environment by waste-water discharges, posing a risk for the biodiversity of surrounding ecosystems. The main objective of this thesis was to assess the current use of veterinary medicinal products in Asian aquaculture production and to investigate their environmental fate and toxicological risks for tropical and sub-tropical aquatic ecosystems. For this, extensive surveys were performed to assess chemical use practices in four Asian countries: China, Vietnam, Thailand and Bangladesh. Models were developed to assess chemical exposure and ecological risks, as well as to quantify antibiotic resistance development risks in aquaculture production systems and surrounding environments. Furthermore, the toxicological risks of aquaculture antibiotics for tropical aquatic ecosystems were evaluated by performing experiments at the molecular, individual and community level. This thesis shows that intensive aquaculture production constitutes an important source of environmental contamination. Antiparasitic treatments generally pose the greatest ecological risks as compared to the other compound groups. Aquaculture antibiotics were found to pose minimal short-term risks for pelagic communities, but are relatively persistent in aquatic sediments, posing a risk for some microorganism groups and probably increasing the prevalence of antibiotic resistance. This thesis also provides recommendations to improve the regulatory control on chemical use, to reduce their environmental discharge, and to continue developing the knowledge and tools that underpin the environmental risk assessment of veterinary medicines applied in Asian aquaculture.

On behalf of the Office of Research and Risk Assessments (BuRO) of the Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safey Authority (NVWA), IMARES conducted a species inventory in the Oyster basins in Yerseke and the surrounding area in the Eastern Scheldt, known to be subject to shellfish related activities. This inventory that was performed in September/October 2013 revealed 21 macro invertebrate species that are regarded as alien species. Five of these are assumed not to be present in the Wadden Sea and one species was discovered there once very recently. For all six alien species an assessment was performed to define the potential risk that they will reach the Wadden Sea and affect the local native ecosystem, which is described in this report.

One of the major constraints for the development and expansion of the Asian aquaculture industry has been the proliferation of disease outbreaks. To overcome this issue, a wide range of veterinary medicines including antibiotics, parasiticides and medical disinfectants have been recently developed. Residual concentrations of veterinary medicines applied in aquaculture farms may enter the environment by waste-water discharges, posing a risk for the biodiversity of surrounding ecosystems. The main objective of this thesis was to assess the current use of veterinary medicinal products in Asian aquaculture production and to investigate their environmental fate and toxicological risks for tropical and sub-tropical aquatic ecosystems. For this, extensive surveys were performed to assess chemical use practices in four Asian countries: China, Vietnam, Thailand and Bangladesh. Models were developed to assess chemical exposure and ecological risks, as well as to quantify antibiotic resistance development risks in aquaculture production systems and surrounding environments. Furthermore, the toxicological risks of aquaculture antibiotics for tropical aquatic ecosystems were evaluated by performing experiments at the molecular, individual and community level. This thesis shows that intensive aquaculture production constitutes an important source of environmental contamination. Antiparasitic treatments generally pose the greatest ecological risks as compared to the other compound groups. Aquaculture antibiotics were found to pose minimal short-term risks for pelagic communities, but are relatively persistent in aquatic sediments, posing a risk for some microorganism groups and probably increasing the prevalence of antibiotic resistance. This thesis also provides recommendations to improve the regulatory control on chemical use, to reduce their environmental discharge, and to continue developing the knowledge and tools that underpin the environmental risk assessment of veterinary medicines applied in Asian aquaculture.