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There is a current debate about the extent to which ChatGPT, a natural language AI chatbot, can disrupt processes in higher education settings. The chatbot is capable of not only answering queries in a human-like way within seconds but can also provide long tracts of texts which can be in the form of essays, emails, and coding. In this study, in the context of higher education settings, by adopting an experimental design approach, we applied ChatGPT-3 to a traditional form of assessment to determine its capabilities and limitations. Specifically, we tested its ability to produce an essay on a topic of our choice, created a rubric, and assessed the produced work in accordance with the designed rubric. We then evaluated the chatbot's work by assessing ChatGPT's application of its rubric according to a modified version of Paul's (2005) Intellectual Standards rubric. Using Christensen et al.'s (2015) framework on disruptive innovations, our study found that ChatGPT was capable of completing the set tasks competently, quickly, and easily, like a "magic wand". However, our findings also challenge the extent to which all of the ChatGPT's demonstrated capabilities can disrupt this traditional form of assessment, given that there are aspects of its construction and evaluation that the technology is not yet able to replicate as a human expert would. These limitations of the chatbot can provide us with an opportunity for addressing vulnerabilities in traditional forms of assessment in higher education that are subject to academic integrity issues posed by this form of AI. We conclude the article with implications for teachers and higher education institutions by urging them to reconsider and revisit their practices when it comes to assessment.

The objective for beginning writers is to learn how to generate alphabet-letters which are recognisable and easy to read. This study investigated the accuracy of Year 1 and 2 children's alphabet-letter-writing by evaluating their alphabet and orthographic knowledge, following evidence which identifies these skills as important for correctly representing the Latin alphabet-letters in written form. 408 typical children from the first two years of formal schooling were recruited from eight Western Australian schools and asked to write the twenty-six-lowercase alphabet-letters under three different writing conditions: from memory; the initial sounds of words; and copying. Performance was measured using the Perceive, Recall, Plan and Perform (PRPP) System of Task Analysis (Stage One). Analyses revealed the mean average number of the 26- lowercase alphabet-letters correctly written from memory was 8.17 (Year 1) and 12.76 (Year 2). Mean averages were similar across the three writing conditions. Comparative analysis showed children in Year 2 were significantly better than Year 1 children at recalling the alphabet-sequence, sound-letter-translation, and retrieving the letter-shape, letter-case, and letter-orientation. No significant difference was found in name-to-letter translation, letter-formation, or letter-placement skills. The results highlighted that many typical Year 1 and 2 children have difficulty accurately generating all 26- lowercase alphabet-letters. The findings suggested that the way early writers learn to form and place an alphabet-letter, whether it is accurate or not, is how they continue to write the alphabet-letter through their early school journey. Considerations for evaluation and instruction of alphabet-letter-writing are discussed.

This study provides evidence connecting two aspects of visual-orthographic skills (orthographic awareness and delayed copying) to the common variance shared by Chinese word reading and arithmetic calculation, as well as in identifying positional knowledge of numbers as a potential mediator of these connections in Chinese primary school students (N = 155, 81 boys). Nonverbal Intelligent Quotient (IQ), socioeconomic status (SES), working memory, and attentional control were included as covariates. Path analyses demonstrated that both orthographic awareness and delayed copying significantly explained the covariance of word reading and arithmetic calculation. Furthermore, there is an indirect effect via positional knowledge of numbers as indicated by number line estimation and strategic counting on the relations between orthographic awareness and the common variance shared by word reading and arithmetic calculation. In contrast, delayed copying had a direct effect on the common variance. Results suggest that early visual-orthographic skills may be helpful in the development of both word reading and arithmetic ability among Chinese students.

This study examined the cognitive-linguistic and literacy-related correlates of dyslexia in three Chinese cities and the English word reading and mathematics performances of Chinese children with dyslexia. Chinese children with/without dyslexia were measured with an equivalent test battery of literacy and mathematics in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Taipei. Univariate analysis results suggested that phonological sensitivity distinguished those with and without dyslexia across all three cities in group comparisons. In Taipei and Hong Kong, morphological awareness, delayed copying, and spelling also distinguished the groups. Logistic regression analyses demonstrated that Chinese character reading, as directly compared to Chinese word reading, also distinguished the groups particularly well. In addition, in Beijing and Hong Kong, children with dyslexia performed significantly less well in English word reading than those without dyslexia. In Hong Kong and Taipei, children with dyslexia also had difficulties in mathematics performance. Findings highlight the fundamental importance of some cognitive-linguistic skills for explaining Chinese dyslexia across cultures, the utility of recognizing the individual Chinese character as a foundational unit of analysis in Chinese across cultures, and the generalizability of the comorbidity of both English as a second language (L2) and mathematics with dyslexia in Chinese children in both Beijing and Hong Kong.

Cultural heritage is no longer something that can only be experienced in a museum exhibition. Digital tools have facilitated the distribution of material relating to artefacts, both in its representation and in presenting its context. This paper describes how digital modelling techniques can be synthesised with 3D scanning to digitally restore artefacts and create authentic replicas of their original states. The digital artefacts can then be used to assist the process of interpreting these artefacts in diverse forms, both in the museum and outside the museum. The study looks at Pictish sculpture as a case-study, restoring 3D models of two stones, and creating varying opportunities for their interpretation. As part of this study, new interactive tools, a virtual reality environment, and a virtual tour are built to assist immersive interpretation of the Pictish sculpture. The application of these digitised objects serves as an opportunity for informal learning. These applications were evaluated during a drop-in session. Findings show that all participants enjoyed the immersive mode of learning with 89% also showing a willingness to learn more about the topic.

Social studies education (SSE) commonly uses copying pedagogies (e.g., simulations) to help students develop a deeper understanding of self, others, curriculum, and society. This article argues that simulations are eminently mimetic (i.e., a theoretical orientation concerned with understanding the entangled relationships between originals and copies) and abound with overlooked opportunities to engage with double logics that traverse academic disciplines. Primarily, we theorize how mimetic concepts (e.g., "protean", "pharmakon/Janus-faced") can be capacious in providing needed nuance and texture to simulatory approaches to SSE through the demarcation of two specific mimetic registers within simulation(s): mimicry and imitation. Through these two mimetic gestures, this article calls for a more intra-disciplinary framing of SSE, thus offering an alternative corridor for SSE educators, students, and researchers to consider how simulations are used to make sense of the more-than-human world in both historical and contemporary contexts.

This research attempts to examine the role of 3D printer as a learning tool in inclusive education. It examines the quality of verbal and nonverbal interactions between students with disabilities (SWD) and students without disabilities (SWOD) in an inclusive classroom at primary schools, where 3D printers were used as a learning tool. The results presented in this paper are based on qualitative and quantitative analysis of interactions between 7 SWD and 31 SWOD. Even though both occurred, there was no statistical difference in generation of positive and negative verbal and nonverbal interactions between SWD and SWOD. Both, SWD and SWOD are of the opinion that cooperative learning with implementation of 3D printers contributes to their communication with peers, achieving better and durable knowledge in the subject where this learning approach was applied and they would like to learn in this way in the future.

In response to COVID-19, universities worldwide experienced drastic and sudden changes including the need to shift to online teaching and assessment. Following previous research suggesting that individual differences in typing skills could influence text quantity and quality, we investigated whether university students' typing speed is related to their performance in an online written exam, considering that low typing skills could potentially be disadvantageous. To this end, first-year university students participated in a copy-typing task immediately after completing a graded online exam. Results show a trend toward a triangular relationship between typing speed, text length and exam performance. Despite coefficients being small, this approach allows unique insights into externally valid data of university students' typed free text production in an authentic online exam situation. Our findings emphasize the need for more research into this highly variable skill in order to understand and minimize unwanted interindividual differences that could possibly influence exam outcomes.

Veterinary anatomy plays a crucial role in the curriculum for veterinary medicine and surgery. The integration of modern information technology in veterinary education can greatly benefit from innovative tools such as augmented reality (AR) applications. The aim of this study was to develop an accurate and interactive three-dimensional (3D) digital model of an animal skull using AR technology, aiming to enhance the learning of skull anatomy in veterinary anatomy education. In this study, a canine skull specimen was isolated, and the skull bones were scanned using a structured light scanner to create a 3D digital model of the canine skull, which was found to be indistinguishable from the original specimen by measurement of skull proportions. Furthermore, the interactive AR model of the canine skull, displayed using Unity3D, was subjected to testing and evaluation by 60 first-year veterinary medical students attending the gross anatomy of the animal. The students were divided into two groups: the traditional group and AR group. Both groups completed an objective test and a questionnaire. The evaluation of learning effectiveness in the test revealed no significant difference between the traditional group (which learned using textbooks and a canine skull specimen) and AR group (which learned using AR tools). However, in the questionnaire, students displayed high enthusiasm and interest in using the AR tool. Therefore, the application of AR tools can improve students' motivation for learning and enhance the comprehension of anatomical structures in three dimensions. Furthermore, this study exemplifies the use of AR as an auxiliary tool for teaching and learning in veterinary anatomy education.

This study investigated the development of component awareness, semantic radical identification ability, semantic radical knowledge application, Chinese character recognition, and the relationship among these abilities in nonnative speakers. A total of 139 Vietnamese undergraduates majoring in Chinese language who were sorted according to Chinese learning time (second-year, third-year, and fourth-year students) took part in the present study and completed a delayed copy task, a semantic cue searching task, a sentence cloze task, and a Chinese character recognition test. The results showed that (1) semantic radical identification ability, semantic radical knowledge application, and Chinese character recognition improved with additional Chinese language study; (2) there were significant positive correlations among component awareness, semantic radical identification, semantic radical knowledge application, and Chinese character recognition; and (3) semantic radical identification ability and semantic radical knowledge application partially mediated the relationship between component awareness and Chinese character recognition after controlling for Chinese learning time and orthographic awareness. Component awareness impacts semantic radical knowledge application through semantic radical identification, which in turn influences Chinese character recognition. In other words, component awareness positively predicts Chinese character learning for nonnative Chinese learners.

In 1887, the British colonial masters in the Gold Coast implemented an Arts education reform that prioritized the faithful representation of everyday objects in still-life artistic works. This was known as the Hand and Eye curriculum, an Arts education which was geared towards industrialization and functionality rather than innovation and creativity. This study assesses the educational code of 1887, the art during that period, what the legacy offers for creativity in art-making, and how colonialism impacted the Ghanaian art scene. Using a mixed-method approach and drawing on diverse data sources such as audio-visual materials, school visits, archival studies and exhibition histories, the study finds that the intellectual legacy of copying what one sees is still a significant component of the Ghanaian curriculum and educational practice today. While there are examples of exciting developments in Ghanaian artistic education and practice, the country's basic and secondary art education is still steeped in the still-life paradigm of colonial art-making and education.

Relying on shared tasks and stimuli to conduct research can enhance the replicability of findings and allow a community of researchers to collect large data sets across multiple experiments. This approach is particularly relevant for experiments in spatial navigation, which often require the development of unfamiliar large-scale virtual environments to test participants. One challenge with shared platforms is that undetected technical errors, rather than being restricted to individual studies, become pervasive across many studies. Here, we discuss the discovery of a software bug in a virtual environment platform used to investigate individual differences in spatial navigation: Virtual Silcton. The bug, which was difficult to detect for several reasons, resulted in storing the absolute value of a direction in a pointing task rather than the signed direction and rendered the original sign of the direction unrecoverable. To assess the impact of the bug on published findings, we collected a new data set for comparison. Results revealed that although the bug caused suppression in pointing errors and had different effects across people (less accurate navigators had more suppression), the effect of the bug on published data is small, partially explaining the difficulty in detecting the bug. We also used the new data set to develop a tool that allows researchers who have previously used Virtual Silcton to evaluate the impact of the bug on their findings. We summarize the ways that shared open materials, shared data, and collaboration can pave the way for better science to prevent errors in the future.

Studies of 16p11.2 copy number variants (CNVs) provide an avenue to identify mechanisms of impairment and develop targeted treatments for individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders. 16p11.2 deletion and duplication phenotypes are currently being ascertained; however, sleep disturbances are minimally described. In this study, we examine sleep disturbance in a well-characterized national sample of 16p11.2 CNVs, the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI) database of youth and adults (n = 692). Factor analyses and multilevel models of derived sleep questionnaires for youth (n = 345) and adults (n = 347) indicate that 16p11.2 carriers show elevated sleep disturbance relative to community controls. Non-carrier family members also show elevated sleep disturbance. However, sleep duration does not differ between carriers and controls. Further studies of sleep in 16p11.2 are needed.

Previous work has predominantly focused on word reading in studying literacy difficulties; very little work has focused on spelling difficulty instead. The present study adopted spelling (dictation) as the criterion to classify poor literacy skills in Hong Kong Chinese-English bilingual children. We examined the cognitive-linguistic skills profiles across four groups of children with different spelling abilities. Based on performances on Chinese and English dictation (criterion = below 25% in a larger sample), four groups were identified, 21 poor spellers of Chinese (PC), 18 poor spellers of English (PE), 27 poor spellers of both languages (PB), and 30 good spellers of both scripts (GB). Measures on language-specific tests of cognitive-linguistic skills (phonological awareness, lexical decision, morphological awareness, rapid naming, and delayed copying) were included to compare the degree of deficit exhibited by each group. With age, grade, and non-verbal intelligence controlled, one-way ANCOVA results revealed that, compared to GB, PC manifested significant deficits in Chinese-delayed copying but scored similarly on all English cognitive-linguistic skills. PE and PB showed significant deficits in Chinese and English phonological awareness compared to PC; they were significantly weaker in English-delayed copying, morphological awareness, and rapid naming (RAN). The PB group was significantly slower in both Chinese and English RAN compared to GB. Findings highlight the critical role of delayed copying in distinguishing poor spellers in both Chinese and English, the importance of phonological awareness for spelling in English but not in Chinese, and the role of automaticity in bilingual spelling difficulties.

The aim of this study is to determine the evaluations of eighth grade gifted students towards cloning and to examine the argument structures formed by gifted students. The study was carried out using a case study design, which is one of the qualitative research method designs. The study group of the research consists of 24 gifted students studying at a Science and Art Center (SAC) in Turkey in the 2019-2020 academic years. Thirteen of these students were girls and eleven were boys. The data of the research were obtained from the answers given to the questions asked within the scope of the bulletin and scenario related to cloning developed by the researchers. The qualitative data collected in the research were analyzed using inductive content analysis. Based on the students' views, the importance of cloning, positive and negative aspects of cloning and the branches of science which are related to cloning were determined in the study In addition, it was seen that gifted students formed generally moderate and high-level arguments related to cloning. Findings obtained as a result of the research were compared with the related literature and discussed. Finally, suggestions were made for teachers, researchers and program developers.

Copying a text quickly and accurately is important both in school and in daily life. However, this skill has never been systematically studied, either in children with typical development (TD) or in children with specific learning disabilities (SLD). The aim of this research was to study the features of a copy task and its relationship with other writing tasks. For this purpose, 674 children with TD and 65 children with SLD from Grades 6 through 8 in Italy were tested with a copy task and other writing assessment tasks, measuring three aspects of writing: handwriting speed, spelling, and expressive writing. Children with SLD performed worse on the copy task, both in terms of speed and accuracy, than children with TD. Copy speed was predicted by grade level and by all three major writing skills for children with TD but only by handwriting speed and spelling for children with SLD. Copy accuracy was predicted by gender and the three major writing skills for children with TD but only by spelling for children with SLD. These results suggest that children with SLD also have difficulty copying a text and benefit less than children with TD from their other writing skills.

Students often come to college with a limited understanding of how to ethically incorporate and cite source materials in their writing, and this is commonly cited as the leading reason for plagiarism. Studies have shown that students in STEM are more apt to plagiarize as compared to students in the humanities or social sciences, so they are an ideal population for looking at causes of plagiarism. The goal of this study was to examine college STEM student self-reported frequencies of plagiarism, ability to recognize instances of plagiarism, and justifications for why certain acts of plagiarism may or may not be acceptable. Surveys were collected from 965 STEM students taking an introductory biology class. The majority of freshmen surveyed admitted to some degree of plagiarism and found it difficult to recognize certain types of plagiarism. Juniors and seniors were less likely to report any form of plagiarism and are better able to recognize specific types, supporting previous work that point at lack of experience as the reason for most plagiarism in college. However, students at all levels were confused about the acceptability of some examples of plagiarism, such as reusing the same paper in multiple classes and some students point to external factors like grading practices in previous courses as motivators for certain types of plagiarism. Fully understanding where students still struggle to recognize plagiarism and their motivations for committing certain types of plagiarism will help in creating strategies to mitigate this common problem.

The aim of the study is to bring a critical perspective to the use of projection and copy technologies, which have become widespread and degenerate by developing technology, in the art of painting. The data were evaluated by methods such as literature review, sample analysis, observation and experience. Projection technologies and the history of the camera obscura were examined. The effects of technologies on the art of painting have been questioned: reflection technologies such as photography, video, projection; printing technologies as blueprints and digital printing. The technical process on the basis of reproduction by projection consists of tracing the image and its repetition. Thanks to the printing technologies, this is not even necessary. This method which undermines the creative process, weakening hand-brain-eye coordination, perception development, imagination and composition design; can bring impersonality and uniformity. Wide range of uses and causes of projection technologies, concept confusion and discourses, the dimension that threatens creativity and mastery , encouraging use to support creativity; the subject has been interpreted on the basis of art ethics and aesthetics. One of our most important problems as a country is that we cannot be productive and creative enough to compete with the world market. The origins of the gradual decrease in the importance given to art and creative thinking and the loss of inventive ability can be found in the wrongness of education and cultural policies. We need research and studies that try to bring creativity and inventiveness to the fore, not imitation, and prioritize creativity in art and education through art.

This study aims to determine the ways how the 5th grade (ages 10-11) students interpret historical knowledge based on historical sources. To study this student were given a worksheet containing historical sources and an open-ended question based on the historical sources. The data of this study is collected through one of the answers provided to the question by 150 students in elementary school. The data has been categorized under themes which have been created after study of students answers and related literature. The analysis of data demonstrate that pupils can interpret historical knowledge in the sources. Also it has been found that most of the pupils were able to synthesis their prior knowledge and information in the historical sources presented to them and were able reach personal conclusion. Yet some of the students tend to copy the information as is written on the historical source or respond emotionally. This study supports the idea that 5th grade (ages 10-11) students can read historical written sources and acquire historical information. Also this study gives information to social studies teachers on what consider when they prepare historical task for elementary school. Keywords Teaching history, social studies education, elementary school students, primary sources, historical reading.

Copying characters presented previously (delayed copying) is an important skill in Chinese literacy acquisition. The relations of delayed copying and a set of literacy-related skills (including vocabulary knowledge, rapid automatized naming, phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and orthographic awareness), visual-orthographic judgment, motor coordination, pure copying of foreign scripts, and delayed copying to Chinese spelling were examined among 294 typically developing Hong Kong kindergarteners. With all other variables statistically controlled, rapid automatized naming, phonological awareness, morphological awareness, orthographic awareness, motor coordination, and delayed copying all uniquely explained Chinese spelling. To further investigate how delayed copying interacts with other skills, path analyses were conducted. The final model showed that vocabulary knowledge, visual-orthographic judgment, and pure copying had indirect effects on spelling through delayed copying. These findings partly support spelling models developed in alphabetic writing systems, but also reflect the uniqueness of Chinese. In addition, results suggest that delayed copying is a unique window into how children learn to write words in Chinese. The potentially critical role of delayed copying in Chinese spelling makes it a potentially good clinical indicator of early spelling proficiency and spelling difficulties.

Spatial construction--the activity of creating novel spatial arrangements or copying existing ones--is a hallmark of human spatial cognition. Spatial construction abilities predict math and other academic outcomes and are regularly used in IQ testing, but we know little about the cognitive processes that underlie them. In part, this lack of understanding is due to both the complex nature of construction tasks and the tendency to limit measurement to the overall accuracy of the end goal. Using an automated recording and coding system, we examined in detail adults' performance on a block copying task, specifying their step-by-step actions, culminating in all steps in the full construction of the build-path. The results revealed the consistent use of a structured plan that unfolded in an organized way, layer by layer (bottom to top). We also observed that complete layers served as "convergence points," where the most agreement among participants occurred, whereas the specific steps taken to achieve each of those layers diverged, or varied, both across and even within individuals. This pattern of convergence and divergence suggests that the layers themselves were serving as the common subgoals across both inter and intraindividual builds of the same model, reflecting cognitive "chunking." This structured use of layers as subgoals was functionally related to better performance among builders. Our findings offer a foundation for further exploration that may yield insights into the development and training of block-construction as well as other complex cognitive-motor skills. In addition, this work offers proof-of-concept for systematic investigation into a wide range of complex action-based cognitive tasks.

There are many grey areas in the interpretation of academic integrity in the course on Introduction to Programming, commonly known as CS1. Copying, for example, is a method of learning, a method of cheating and a reuse method in professional practice. Many institutions in India publish the code in the lab course manual. The students are expected to practice the programs in the manual and write them in the final examination without looking at the reference code. Many institutions apportion some marks for copying the program from the manual to record books. The system thus, inherently encourages copying. The student listens to the program's explanation in the lecture, practices the same program in the lab, writes the same program in the record book and again studies the same program for the final examination conducted at the end of the semester. This process facilitates students, to some extent, to understand the concepts. However, a significant disadvantage of this system is that most students do not acquire the ability to write programs for authentic tasks. In the context of very rigid laboratory protocols that exist in CS1 courses across most of the Institutes in India, an additional lab protocol that focuses on students' integrity can potentially improve the quality of learning. This article presents a method of using technology tools to improve integrity without disturbing the existing system.

We investigated the correlates of word reading and spelling as well as the relations of word reading and spelling in Hong Kong Chinese children. A set of literacy-related skills and delayed copying were administered in kindergarten, and Chinese word reading and dictation were tested at kindergarten as well as in first and second grade. The final preferred model in cross-lagged analysis showed that reading performance at kindergarten and first grade predicted spelling performance at first grade and second grade, respectively. However, the relations were not bidirectional. This study underscores the critical roles of morphological awareness, RAN, and delayed copying for early literacy performance in Chinese. In addition, it demonstrates that earlier reading performance predicts later spelling performance in Chinese, but early spelling does not predict subsequent reading in Chinese in the early grades.

Programming learning has become an essential literacy for computer science (CS) and non-CS students in the digital age. Researchers have addressed that students' conceptions of learning influence their approaches to learning, and thus impact their learning outcomes. Therefore, we aimed to uncover students' conceptions of programming learning (CoPL) and approaches to programming learning (APL), and analyzed the differences between CS and non-CS students. Phenomenographic analysis was adopted to analyze 31 college students (20 CS-related, and 11 not) from northern Taiwan. Results revealed six categories of CoPL hierarchically: (1) memorizing concepts, logic, and syntax; (2) computing and practicing programming writing; (3) expressing programmers' ideas and relieving pressure; (4) applying and understanding; (5) increasing one's knowledge and improving one's competence; and (6) seeing in a new way. Four categories of APL were also found, namely: (1) copying from the textbook, teachers, or others; (2) rote memory; (3) multiple exploration attempts; and (4) online or offline community interactions. Furthermore, we found that most CS students held higher level CoPL (e.g., seeing in a new way) than non-CS students. However, compared with non-CS students, CS students adopted more surface approaches to learning programming, such as copying and rote memory. Implications are discussed.

This paper reports on results of empirical research investigating written summaries of first-year Japanese university students, their task representations of summary writing, and the relationships between their representations and task performance. Data for this study were obtained by asking 108 students to read an English text and write a summary of it. Afterwards, the students answered survey questions which examined their task representations of English summary writing. The results reveal the following: 1) High copy rates with an average copy rate of 72.2% (SD 20.5%) were found, 2) Students did not seem to think that writing in their own words is required, 3) Students tended to look at the source text and use expressions from it in their summaries, 4) Positive correlations between copy rate and students' task representations regarding the use of expressions from the source were found, and 5) Negative correlations between copy rate and task representations regarding the use of their own words were also found. Though various sources of student plagiarism have been found and discussed in previous research, this paper attempts to propose task representations of summary writing as another possible source of excessive copying, which is regarded as plagiarism in English-speaking countries.

In this study Type I Error and the power rates of omega (?) and GBT (generalized binomial test) indices were investigated for several nominal alpha levels and for 40 and 80-item test lengths with 10,000-examinee sample size under several test level restrictions. As a result, Type I error rates of both indices were found to be below the acceptable nominal alpha levels. The power study showed that average test difficulty was very effective for power (true detection) rates of indices. Clear patterns were observed for the increase of test difficulty in favor of both ? and GBT power rate. Contrary to expectations; average test discrimination was not as effective as average test difficulty. The results of the interaction effects of item discrimination and difficulty showed that for the cases whose b parameters were lower than 0 with weak discrimination, indices had weak power for both ? and GBT. In addition, for the cases whose b parameter levels were below zero with high discrimination indices, the power performance of both answer-copying indices were very weak. Results for test length showed that with the increase of test length the power rate of both ? and GBT tended to increase. Also, ? performed slightly better than GBT or very close to GBT for 80-item test length however, ? performed better than GBT in terms of power rate for the cases with 40-item test length.

Pure copying skill (copying of unfamiliar scripts) and delayed copying (copying of unfamiliar Chinese characters presented previously) can both be important correlates in learning to write Chinese. The present study tested both traditional literacy-related skills and copying skills among 267 Chinese kindergarteners (mean age = 5.52) to examine the relations between these skills and Chinese beginning word dictation, or spelling, both concurrently and one year later. A series of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that both pure and delayed copying skills contributed a relatively large amount of unique variance to Chinese spelling both concurrently and subsequently. Mediation analyses showed that with the auto-regressor effect included, delayed copying had both significant direct and indirect effects on Time 2 spelling performance, while morphological awareness, phonological awareness, orthographic awareness, and pure copying contributed to subsequent Chinese spelling mainly through their influence on Time 1 spelling performance. This study highlights the importance of copying for Chinese dictation/spelling acquisition.

The present study investigated cognitive effort of handwriting and typing of undergraduate students. In Experiment 1, we used a secondary reaction time task to assess the cognitive effort required by undergraduates when carrying out handwriting and typing copying tasks. Students had longer reaction times, indicating greater cognitive effort, when typing than when handwriting. In experiments 2a and 2b, we investigated whether the additional cost of typing affected an ongoing activity. Participants performed a short-term memory task that required them to type or write by hand words to recall. As Experiment 1 suggested that typewriting was more effortful than handwriting, so it should leave fewer resources to devote to memorizing words, which would result in a better handwritten than typed recall. Overall, handwriting led to better recall than typing, particularly with the longest lists of words. This implies that, even in undergraduates, typing is still more effortful than handwriting and therefore has a negative impact on performance on an ongoing activity. The educational implications of the findings are discussed.

When writing journal articles, science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) researchers produce a number of other genres such as grant proposals and conference posters, and their new articles routinely build directly on their own prior work. As a result, STEM authors often reuse material from their completed documents in producing new documents. While this practice, known as text recycling (or "self-plagiarism"), is a debated issue in publishing and research ethics, little is known about researchers' beliefs about what constitutes appropriate practice. This article presents results of from an exploratory, survey-based study on beliefs and attitudes toward text recycling among STEM "experts" (faculty researchers) and "novices" (graduate students and post docs). While expert and novice researchers are fairly consistent in distinguishing between text recycling and plagiarism, there is considerable disagreement about appropriate text recycling practice.

This study aims to determine the Type I error rates and power of S[subscript 1] , S[subscript 2] indices and kappa statistic at detecting copying on multiple-choice tests under various conditions. It also aims to determine how copying groups are created in order to calculate how kappa statistics affect Type I error rates and power. In this study, option-matrices were obtained by using five choices of multiple choice test data generation. R-3.0 software was used for data generation and analysis. The effects of sample size, test length, and source ability level on Type I error rates and also amount of copying on power according to nominal a-levels were investigated. The findings indicated that Type I error rates for S[subscript 1] and S[subscript 2] indices were lower in all conditions, while the same error rates were relatively higher for copy detection using kappa statistics. Kappa statistics were seen to be more powerful than S[subscript 1] and S[subscript 2] indices under all conditions. As sample size, test length, and amount of copying increased, the S[subscript 2] index was also revealed to be more sensitive than the S[subscript 1] index. Type I error rates and power results of the kappa statistics were similar to each other.

While copying skills are used daily at school and involve spelling abilities, studies examining copying performance in children with dyslexia are very scarce. The present study aims to determine whether children with dyslexia present a specific deficit in their copying processes or if their difficulties in copying are a consequence of their spelling deficit. Nineteen children with dyslexia were compared to two groups of typically developing children: 19 chronological age matched children and 19 spelling age matched children. All children were asked to perform a copying task of 40 words, varying in orthographic complexity. This task was scored on spelling accuracy, handwriting quality and speed, and gaze lifts. Our main results showed that children with dyslexia do have difficulties in copying. They made more spelling errors than their age-matched peers, despite the model provided by the task. Gaze lift analyses revealed that children with dyslexia used different copying strategies compared to their classmates. Globally, children with dyslexia seem to behave like younger children, suggesting that their difficulties arise from their spelling deficit. These findings may have practical implications. Given that children with dyslexia face copying difficulties, one possible way to help them could be to enable them to improve their copying strategies, and not just their spelling skills.

Plagiarism is not an issue observed only among students; rather, it also occurs in the publications of researchers in academic journals. The current study explored how Nobel laureates, with the highest possible academic status in the world, engage in text borrowing. A list of 91 laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, and economics from 2006 to 2015 were identified and their publications were collected and analysed using Turnitin software. The findings of the current study revealed that Nobel laureates' journal publications outperform those of their counterparts in terms of text borrowing, even though there are still incidences of extensive text borrowing and the lack of appropriate citations observed in their publications. Most of the text borrowing in question consists of self-plagiarism and methods section text, in agreement of earlier research findings. In addition, papers by authors whose affiliated institutions are located in English-speaking countries exhibit fewer incidences of text borrowing than papers by authors whose affiliated institutions are located in non-English-speaking countries, whereas the number of authors does not play a significant role in text borrowing.

Symbols are a cornerstone of the written language of physics and mathematics but inconsistencies in their use pose a challenge to students. This article reports on interviews held with first-year undergraduate physics students, focused on their early experiences with symbols in university physics. Students reported being confused by the symbolic aspects of their studies in physics over and above the concepts being taught. Many students commented on experiencing difficulties, as the symbolic notation used in high school mathematics and physics differed to their tertiary experiences. Additionally, the extent of the multiple uses of a single symbol, and the multiple symbols used for a single concept were at times problematic for students. These experiences highlight the need for greater attention to be focused on early undergraduate students' prior symbolic knowledge, and the formation of explicit connections between the varied nomenclature both within physics, and between physics and mathematics.

In academia, plagiarism adheres to the traditional definition: utilizing another person's words or ideas without proper credit. Students are taught to cite everything, while instructors are given tools to detect plagiarism. This ultimately creates an atmosphere of paranoia, where students fear accusation and teachers are convinced that plagiarism will occur unless they remain ever vigilant. At the same time, technical writers create, reuse, remix, and remarket content on a regular basis in the form of instruction manuals, boilerplates, and other technical, factual, straightforward texts. In academia, the technical writer would be accused of (self-) plagiarism, which would not--given the context--be the case. In the professional world, where the majority of writing will be technical, students will find themselves creating content based on already-existing texts, a direct contradiction of their academic training. This teaching case asks students to consider not only plagiarism but also the concepts of copying and remixing, two ideas closely related to plagiarism, and develop their own conclusions, both personal and professional, about what is and is not ethical communication. It also seeks to demonstrate the importance of recognizing that difference and adjusting accordingly so that professional communications not only meet ethical standards but are also produced in an efficient and cost-effective manner.

This article explores how student behaviour and interactions change when teachers use "producing" as a primary pedagogical strategy (Papert, 1980; Ejsing-Duun and Karoff, 2014). Based on observed student and teacher actions and responses, as well as students' production, this paper emphasizes the importance of understanding how students explore creativity and playfulness while producing in learning situations. This paper is based on a large research project called "Children as Learning Designers in a Digital School (2013-2015)", funded by Denmark's Ministry of Education, which included fieldwork in five Danish public schools, involved about 500 students, and comprised six interventions in the first, second, fifth, sixth, and tenth grades. The project's empirical data consist of observations, participatory observation, and productions students created during the interventions. This paper presents an analysis of how students were creative and playful while producing learning material as games during three of the project's interventions. The study is based on a specific understanding of the creativity with a point of departure (Boden, 2004; Tanggaard and Wegener, 2015) and playfulness (Karoff, 2013) that occur in learning situations. We approach creativity and playfulness as new methods of learning, through six areas of change that inform "[…]how today's kids play and learn, and, more generally, how they see themselves, relate to others, dwell in place, and treat things" (Ackermann, 2013: 119). This paper investigates how educators handle children's productive processes in a school setting and how teachers can conceptualize and nurture play and creativity as drivers for learning. In this context, the importance of skills and acknowledgement of reproducing and remixing existing materials is discussed. We further argue that playfulness is necessary for creativity to occur. From this point of view, it is possible to understand how learning activities can support creativity--an essential twenty-first century skill (Levinsen and Sørensen, 2015).

Distraction is a typical component of any classroom environment. For effective instruction and learning to take place, it is critical for students to eventually return to task and maintain task vigilance (i.e., returning to the task at hand) when a distraction occurs. Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), by definition, are more distractible than students without ADHD. However, studies showing specific variability of task vigilance between students with and without ADHD are limited. This correlational study examined the differences in distractibility on task vigilance between students with and without ADHD under conditions of distraction. Two groups of participants, ranging in age from 7 to 11 years, were identified. The participants with existing diagnoses of ADHD were matched to participants without ADHD by gender, age, grade, race, school performance, and ability to help maintain group equivalence. The procedure called for all students to complete simple math computations and copying tasks while exposed to a distracting stimulus. Results showed a marked, statistically significant difference in task completion rates for both tasks between groups. Secondly, students with ADHD had considerable difficulties disengaging from the distracting stimulus and returning to task (i.e., maintaining task vigilance). These findings, rather than generic deficits, may account for a large portion of underachievement suffered by students with ADHD. Treatment recommendations and implications for teaching students with ADHD are discussed.

This article examines how written feedback is used to support the production of texts for purposes of reuse. The case study refers to an entrepreneur training program at the University of Texas at Austin. In the program, Korean startups are trained in understanding the US market, and developing pitches that convince US investors. They are supported by Quicklook® reports. A Quicklook report delivers snapshots of the market receptivity for the startup's product. Market analysts write the reports. In the final stage of drafting, program staff members supervise the report author. This study investigates how supervisors use commenting and how the goal of creating a highly reusable text source guides the feedback process. The database was examined quantitatively (frequency of drafting and commenting) and qualitatively (functional comment types). The results offer valuable insights into actual writing processes in business settings and how professionals interact to ensure a reusable product. The findings indicate a broad range of comment functions. Overall, we distinguish two main categories: feedback activities focusing on Quicklook reports as reusable resource, and feedback activities focusing on collaboration and workflow. Each category includes functional comment types. Further research is needed to learn more about professional strategies of reflecting on text quality, the quality of assessments, or the ratio between detected and real deficiencies of a document.

Text recycling (hereafter TR), sometimes problematically called "self-plagiarism," involves the verbatim reuse of text from one's own existing documents in a newly created text -- such as the duplication of a paragraph or section from a published article in a new article. Although plagiarism is widely eschewed across academia and the publishing industry, the ethics of TR are not agreed upon and are currently being vigorously debated. As part of a federally funded (US) National Science Foundation grant, we have been studying TR patterns using several methodologies, including interviews with editors about TR values and practices (Pemberton, Hall, Moskovitz, & Anson, 2019) and digitally mediated text-analytic processes to determine the extent of TR in academic publications in the biological sciences, engineering, mathematical and physical sciences, and social, behavioral, and economic sciences (Anson, Moskovitz, & Anson, 2019). In this article, we first describe and illustrate TR in the context of academic writing. We then explain and document several themes that emerged from interviews with publishers of peer-reviewed academic journals. These themes demonstrate the vexed and unsettled nature of TR as a discursive phenomenon in academic writing and publishing. In doing so, we focus on the complex relationships between personal (role-based) and social (norm-based) aspects of scientific publication, complicating conventional models of the writing process that have inadequately accounted for authorial decisions about accuracy, efficiency, self-representation, adherence to existing or imagined rules and norms, perceptions of ownership and copyright, and fears of impropriety.

This study assessed the effects of four types of teaching instruction for Hangul learning in Korean kindergartners. Forty-five four-year-old children participated in a Hangul learning experiment where they were taught 6 new Korean Guljas (Korean written syllable) in each of four conditions--whole Gulja, alphabet letter, CV (consonant + vowel) body and coda subsyllabic units, and copying. Participants were separated across three reading levels, namely, emergent readers, novice readers who could read regular Hangul words, and good readers who could read regular and irregular words. Effective training methods were different depending on children's reading level. Holistic whole Gulja instructions were effective for Hangul Gulja learning in emergent readers, whereas copying and analytic CV-coda instructions facilitated Hangul learning in novices. However, there were no differences among the four types of instructions among good readers. Copying apparently facilitates learning to read Hangul, but the effect of letter instruction is limited to the beginning level of Hangul learning. These results highlight the effectiveness of teaching instructions depending on children's reading level and the characteristics of Hangul.

When students are solving problems they often turn to examples when they need assistance. Examples are helpful because they illustrate how a problem can be solved. However, when examples are very similar to the problems, students default to copying the example solutions, which hinders learning. To address this, prior work has investigated the effect of manipulating problem--example similarity, showing that learning can be increased by reducing the assistance provided by examples. We contribute to this literature by comparing two types of assistance mechanisms in the context of problem-solving activities: (1) "fade-out assistance," where initially the examples are similar to the problems but over time the problem--example similarity is reduced, and (2) "fade-in assistance" where the opposite is the case (initially the problem--example pairs have reduced similarity but the similarity is increased as more problems are solved). The fade-in assistance condition produced significantly higher learning gains than the fade-out condition and based on eye-tracking data, the fade-in group spent longer attending to the problem, particularly early on in the problem-solving session. Our conjecture that the fade-in group was engaged in more autonomous problem solving instead of copying was confirmed by exploratory analysis on a subset of the data showing that copying was initially reduced in the fade-in condition, as compared to high in the fade-out condition. Overall, our results highlight that initially struggling in a problem-solving activity results in more learning.

Research Findings: This study evaluated the impact of Chinese literacy interventions on Chinese language learning of South Asian children and their mothers in Hong Kong. A total of 44 children and eight of their mothers participated in Chinese literacy interventions that consisted of two approaches -- Copying and Morphological Awareness Training (CMAT) and Integrative Perceptual Approach (IPA). Children in the intervention group who underwent four weeks of CMAT followed by four weeks of IPA were compared to a control group of 29 children who only attended regular Chinese classes in their preschools. After controlling for non-verbal intelligence, ANCOVA analyses revealed that the intervention group did significantly better than the control group at posttest in (i) morphological awareness, word reading and writing when taught using CMAT; and (ii) word reading when taught using IPA. Mothers made gains on most Chinese literacy measures and children whose mothers participated in the intervention had higher gains in mean scores relative to their pretest scores on most measures than those whose mothers did not, suggesting the effectiveness of combined child and parent interventions. Practice or Policy: Findings support the development of evidence-based interventions to cater to the language learning needs of SA children and parents.