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Dual‐atom catalysts (DACs) have garnered significant interest due to their remarkable catalytic reactivity. However, achieving atomically precise control in the fabrication of DACs remains a major challenge. Herein, we developed a straightforward and direct sublimation transformation synthesis strategy for dual‐atom Fe catalysts (Fe2/NC) by utilizing in situ generated Fe2Cl6(g) dimers from FeCl3(s). The structure of Fe2/NC was investigated by aberration‐corrected transmission electron microscopy and X‐ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy. As‐obtained Fe2/NC, with a Fe−Fe distance of 0.3 nm inherited from Fe2Cl6, displayed superior oxygen reduction performance with a half‐wave potential of 0.90 V (vs. RHE), surpassing commercial Pt/C catalysts, Fe single‐atom catalyst (Fe1/NC), and its counterpart with a common and shorter Fe−Fe distance of ~0.25 nm (Fe2/NC‐S). Density functional theory (DFT) calculations and microkinetic analysis revealed the extended Fe−Fe distance in Fe2/NC is crucial for the O2 adsorption on catalytic sites and facilitating the subsequent protonation process, thereby boosting catalytic performance. This work not only introduces a new approach for fabricating atomically precise DACs, but also offers a deeper understanding of the intermetallic distance effect on dual‐site catalysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract While general cognitive skills decline during aging, numerical skills seem to be mainly preserved. Such skills are essential for an independent life up to old age, e.g., when dealing with money or time. Operating with numbers usually requires number magnitude and place-value processing. The question is whether these processes are negatively affected by aging due to the general cognitive decline or positively affected due to lifelong experience with numbers. Therefore, we investigated age-related changes in the distance and compatibility effects in single-digit, two-digit, and four-digit number comparison. On the one hand, older adults took longer for number processing and showed a smaller distance effect, indicating altered number magnitude representations. On the other hand, older adults were better in place-value processing as indicated by a smaller compatibility effect than in younger adults. We conclude that aging differentially affects basic numerical skills.

While general cognitive skills decline during aging, numerical skills seem to be mainly preserved. Such skills are essential for an independent life up to old age, e.g., when dealing with money or time. Operating with numbers usually requires number magnitude and place-value processing. The question is whether these processes are negatively affected by aging due to the general cognitive decline or positively affected due to lifelong experience with numbers. Therefore, we investigated age-related changes in the distance and compatibility effects in single-digit, two-digit, and four-digit number comparison. On the one hand, older adults took longer for number processing and showed a smaller distance effect, indicating altered number magnitude representations. On the other hand, older adults were better in place-value processing as indicated by a smaller compatibility effect than in younger adults. We conclude that aging differentially affects basic numerical skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distance effect of the doped heteroatoms away from the catalytic centers has rarely been reported. In this work, we conducted density functional theory calculations to thoroughly investigate the influence of heteroatom (N, P, B, and S atoms) doping distance on the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity of graphene-based FeN4 sites. We uncovered a Sabatier-like relationship between heteroatom doping distance and ORR activity of FeN4 sites. The nearest doping does not significantly improve and even block the ORR activity of FeN4 sites. Optimal ORR activity is achieved when the heteroatoms are 4–5 Å (N, P, and S atoms) or 6–7 Å (B atoms) away from the Fe atoms. Analysis of electronic structure indicates that distance effect can modulate the local chemical environment of Fe atoms, thereby account for the changes in ORR activity along with the doping distance and doping atoms. This study provides insights into the influence of heteroatom doping on the chemical environment of reaction active centers, and provides the theoretical guidance for controlling the doping distance of heteroatoms to achieve optimal catalytic activity and selectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural intensification is a major threat to farmland biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. Semi-natural habitats are integral to the preservation of farmland biodiversity and ecosystem services, however, the extent in which they contribute to specific services is largely unclear. We studied predation rates of ground-dwelling predatory arthropods, and pollination success within old permanent grasslands, newly established grasslands and arable fields near and far from new grasslands. We evaluated whether grassland restoration can enhance pollination and biological control in crop fields. For this purpose, we established new grassland strips within cereal fields, which directly bordered existing permanent grasslands. We evaluated if the distance to these old and new grasslands affects the delivery of the two ecosystem services within crop fields. We found significantly higher seed numbers and seed weight in sentinel plants placed in old grasslands, new grasslands and nearby arable fields compared to distant arable fields. We also found significantly decreasing seed numbers and seed weight in sentinel plants placed in distant arable fields with increasing distance from old grasslands, while pollination success was not affected by distance in nearby arable fields. Contrary, we did not find any significant effects of new grasslands on biological control. Our study showed that 3 years after establishing grasslands arable fields benefited from the proximity of flower-rich new grasslands through increased pollination success though not regarding biological control. This indicates that, on a short term, establishing new grasslands can support beneficial arthropods in providing ecosystem services such as pollination. Predators, in contrast, might take longer to establish effective populations that denote higher predation rates. Our study provides a baseline for future long-term studies to better evaluate pollination and pest control patterns within arable fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emerging single‐atom catalysts (SACs) are promising in water remediation through Fenton‐like reactions. Despite the notable enhancement of catalytic activity through increasing the density of single‐atom active sites, the performance improvement is not solely attributed to the increase in the number of active sites. The variation of catalytic behaviors stemming from the increased atomic density is particularly elusive and deserves an in‐depth study. Herein, single‐atom Fe catalysts (FeSA‐CN) with different distances (dsite) between the adjacent single‐atom Fe sites are constructed by controlling Fe loading. With the decrease in dsite value, remarkably enhanced catalytic activity of FeSA‐CN is realized via the electron transfer regime with peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation. The decrease in dsite value promotes electronic communication and further alters the electronic structure in favor of PMS activation. Moreover, the two adjacent single‐atom Fe sites collectively adsorb PMS and achieve single‐site desorption of the PMS decomposition products, maintaining continuous PMS activation and contaminant removal. Moreover, the FeSA‐CN/PMS system exhibits excellent anti‐interference performance for various aquatic systems and good durability in continuous‐flow experiments, indicating its great potential for water treatment applications. This study provides an in‐depth understanding of the distance effect of single‐atom active sites on water remediation by designing densely populated SACs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using nearly 200 countries' bilateral trade data and the gravity equation, this paper provides evidence that COVID‐19 has led countries to trade more with their closer countries. The negative distance effect is greater during the pandemic period, with a greater number of infected cases, deaths or stricter control policies. A simple model of a transportation sector that was affected by the pandemic was built to explain our empirical findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Emerging single‐atom catalysts (SACs) are promising in water remediation through Fenton‐like reactions. Despite the notable enhancement of catalytic activity through increasing the density of single‐atom active sites, the performance improvement is not solely attributed to the increase in the number of active sites. The variation of catalytic behaviors stemming from the increased atomic density is particularly elusive and deserves an in‐depth study. Herein, single‐atom Fe catalysts (FeSA‐CN) with different distances (dsite) between the adjacent single‐atom Fe sites are constructed by controlling Fe loading. With the decrease in dsite value, remarkably enhanced catalytic activity of FeSA‐CN is realized via the electron transfer regime with peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation. The decrease in dsite value promotes electronic communication and further alters the electronic structure in favor of PMS activation. Moreover, the two adjacent single‐atom Fe sites collectively adsorb PMS and achieve single‐site desorption of the PMS decomposition products, maintaining continuous PMS activation and contaminant removal. Moreover, the FeSA‐CN/PMS system exhibits excellent anti‐interference performance for various aquatic systems and good durability in continuous‐flow experiments, indicating its great potential for water treatment applications. This study provides an in‐depth understanding of the distance effect of single‐atom active sites on water remediation by designing densely populated SACs.

A growing body of research suggests that basic numerical abilities such as number magnitude and number parity processing are influenced by cognitive control. So far, however, evidence for number processing being influenced by cognitive control came primarily from observed adaptations to stimulus set characteristics (e.g., ratio or order of specific stimulus types) and switches between a numerical and non-numerical task. Complementing this previous research, the present study employed a task switching paradigm exclusively involving numerical tasks (i.e., magnitude comparisons and parity judgements) to examine how cognitive control processes influence number processing. Participants were presented with a single-digit number and had to either judge its parity or compare its magnitude with a standard of 5, depending on a preceding cue. Based on previous results, we expected the numerical distance effect and the spatial–numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect to be modulated in switch trials requiring the exertion of cognitive control. Partly in line with our expectations, the numerical distance effect was reduced in switch trials. However, no modulation of the SNARC effect was observed. The results pattern suggests that number processing is influenced by cognitive control, depending on task requirements and the type of numerical information (i.e., numerical magnitude vs spatial association of numbers) that is processed. To reconcile the present and previous results, we propose an information prioritisation account, suggesting that cognitive control primarily influences the processing of the information type that requires the most explicit processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the potential seismicity of the region, transportation infrastructure projects in Jammu and Kashmir require resilient design. In the present study, structural integrity and possible seismic hazard are taken into account while modelling seismic loss of tunnelling projects in the Himalayas. For the predicted hazard and vulnerability functions, the impact of seismic exposure, tunnel lining aging, and construction quality are evaluated. The Pir Panjal tunnel is also assessed for seismic risk and structural damage in post-seismic situations while taking source-to-distance effects into account. The proposed vulnerability parameters will be helpful for monitoring, logistical operations, and post-disaster route functionality. For disaster prevention cells in any nation, decision-making and risk assessment are the two key activities that can profit from the findings of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can influence the behavior of insects but distance and contact effects are rarely distinguished. We aimed to identify VOCs that mediate attraction and oviposition behaviors of the cabbage root fly, and to distinguish whether their effect applies at distance or at contact. Headspace collections of host-emitted VOCs were performed and analyzed in combination with electro-antennogram detection. The behavioral effect of the electrophysiologically-active VOCs was assessed in behavioral experiments. We show that VOCs act mainly when in mixtures, and have effects either at distance or at contact, but not both.

Ferial Fanian,1 Valerie Philippon,2 Mihai Gorj,3 Elena Rumyantseva Mathey,3 Maxence Caillens,4 Ranesha Goorochurn,5 Shannel Curic,1 Philippe Humbert6 1FILLMED Laboratories, Paris, France; 2Private Clinic, Boulogne Billancourt, France; 3Private Clinic, Paris, France; 4Private Clinic, Sarcelles, France; 5Dermo Dev Partners, Paris, France; 6Private Clinic, Ornans, FranceCorrespondence: Ferial Fanian, Scientific Department, FILLMED Laboratories, 2 rue de Lisbonne, Paris, 75008, France, Tel +33 6 73 76 18 20, Email fanian@gmail.comBackground: Biorevitalization solutions contain numerous nutritive compounds to improve skin quality. Dermal fillers like HA (hyaluronic acid), depending on rheological characteristics, are used to fill large static defaults with a sustained long-term efficacy. Treatments with either dermal filler or biorevitalization solutions alone are not enough to bring a global facial aging approach.Objective: To demonstrate the anti-aging performance and safety of a new protocol, BIONUTRILIFT, which combined an HA-based filler with Tri-Hyal technology and a skin biorevitalizer, to target the skin quality and wrinkles correction at the same time.Materials and Methods: Eligible subjects were enrolled based on a score of 2, 3, 4, or 5 on Bazin cheek folds wrinkle scale. Safety outcomes measured were immediate and local tolerability. Performance outcomes measured included: proportion of subjects in whom the severity of cheeks folds, nasolabial folds, marionette lines, upper lip wrinkles and skin radiance remained at least one point below the baseline measurement (Bazin scale) Global Aesthetic Improvement Scale scores by subjects and investigators.Results: In performance analyses with the combined protocol, skin radiance and cheek folds wrinkle correction sustained during the four-month study and decrease by 61% and 55%, respectively. 96% and 77% of subjects respectively showed at least a one-point decrease in the mean skin radiance score and Bazin score compared with baseline. Interestingly, the BIONUTRILIFT protocol showed the distance effect of vector A (cheek injection) and vector B (mandibular injection) on perioral zone and remained significant even 120 days after injections. Adverse events (AEs) were consistent with the expected AEsthat occurred after dermal injections. No serious AEswere recorded.Conclusion: BIONUTRILIFT may satisfy the subjects’ demand by obtaining in the same session a simple, personalized, noninvasive, atraumatic, and reproductible technique.Keywords: dermal filler, biorevitalization, combined protocol, distance effect

Monitoring the spatial distribution and sources of heavy metals (HM) in soil is essential for avoiding health risks and achieving sustainable soil utilization. Multiple geospatial data, including remote sensing, climate, soil and topography data, were used to extract environmental covariates. Additionally, the spatial scene was employed as the alternative data of land use/land cover to describe the urban functions and human activity intensity in more detail. After converting to a uniform resolution of 30 m, these environmental covariates were adopted to characterize several common HM in soil, including copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn). The RReliefF algorithm was used to identify several important variables. The quantification models of HM were established using back-propagation neural network (BPNN) and deep neural network (DNN). Besides, the impact of distance from the spatial scenes on HM were analyzed. The result demonstrated that the spatial scene is a key environmental covariate in estimating HM in soil. Compared with BPNN, the DNN model provided better accuracy (R2 = 0.67–0.75) for estimation of five HM elements. Therefore, the DNN model was used to map HM concentrations at a grid scale of 30 m. The spatial scenes with the highest risk of HM pollution are industrial areas, residential areas, road, and commercial areas, and the concentration of HM is negatively correlated with the distance from these spatial scenes. The effective impact distances of industrial and residential areas are about 2000 m, and the effective impact distances of road and commercial areas are 500 m.

The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) on transition single‐atom catalysts (SACs) is sustainable in energy‐conversion devices. However, the atomically controllable fabrication of single‐atom sites and the sluggish kinetics of ORR have remained challenging. Here, we accelerate the kinetics of acid ORR through a direct O−O cleavage pathway through using a bi‐functional ligand‐assisted strategy to pre‐control the distance of hetero‐metal atoms. Concretely, the as‐synthesized Fe−Zn diatomic pairs on carbon substrates exhibited an outstanding ORR performance with the ultrahigh half‐wave potential of 0.86 V vs. RHE in acid electrolyte. Experimental evidence and density functional theory calculations confirmed that the Fe−Zn diatomic pairs with a specific distance range of around 3 Å, which is the key to their ultrahigh activity, average the interaction between hetero‐diatomic active sites and oxygen molecules. This work offers new insight into atomically controllable SACs synthesis and addresses the limitations of the ORR dissociative mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Spatial–Numerical Association of Response Code (SNARC) effect refers to the finding that people respond to small numbers faster with the left hand and to large numbers faster with the right hand. This effect is often explained by hypothesizing that the mental representation of quantities has a spatial component: left to right in ascending order (Mental Number Line). Here we assess the relation between quantity and spatial representation by investigating mirror numbers. Although mirror numbers denote quantity, they are not generally encountered in a left-to-right spatial organization. In Experiments 1 and 2, we assessed whether numerical distance and SNARC effects were present for both mirror and normal numbers when participants were required to process semantic information in a magnitude classification task. In Experiment 3, we assessed whether the SNARC effect was present for both mirror and normal numbers when participants were not required to process semantic information in a mirror judgment task. Results show that participants access the quantity of both normal and mirror numbers, but only normal numbers are spatially organized from left to right. In addition, we show that the physical similarity between numbers successfully predicted the performance of participants. We concluded that the Working Memory account of the SNARC effect best explains our data. Public Significance Statement: This study highlights how the physical structure of numerical symbols influences how people understand and use numbers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intra-specific genomic diversity is well documented in microbes. The question, however, remains whether natural selection or neutral evolution is the major contributor to this diversity. We undertook this study to estimate genomic diversity in Pseudoalteromonas atlantica populations and whether the diversity, if present, could be attributed to environmental factors or distance effects. We isolated and sequenced twenty-three strains of P. atlantica from three geographically distant deep marine basins and performed comparative genomic analyses to study the genomic diversity of populations among these basins. Average nucleotide identity followed a strictly geographical pattern. In two out of three locations, the strains within the location exhibited >99.5% identity, whereas, among locations, the strains showed <98.11% identity. Phylogenetic and pan-genome analysis also reflected the biogeographical separation of the strains. Strains from the same location shared many accessory genes and clustered closely on the phylogenetic tree. Phenotypic diversity between populations was studied in ten out of twenty-three strains testing carbon and nitrogen source utilization and osmotolerance. A genetic basis for phenotypic diversity could be established in most cases but was apparently not influenced by local environmental conditions. Our study suggests that neutral evolution may have a substantial role in the biodiversity of P. atlantica. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many wild bee species are threatened across Europe, and with them the pollination function they provide. While numerous studies have assessed the value of bees as pollinators of crops, little is known about the non-marked value of bees. Using a choice modelling experiment, we examine these non-market values in Germany by identifying citizens' willingness to pay (WTP) for wild bee conservation initiatives in four states. Effects of distance, state and regional affiliation are scrutinised, as previous research found these to affect respondents' choices. Random parameter logit and latent class models are used to capture preference heterogeneity. Overall, we find strong support of wild bee conservation and a clear preference for improvement relative to the status quo, particularly in natural areas and for rare or endangered species. The yearly WTP for conservation initiatives ranges from 227 to 447€ per household. Our results show distance and regional effects on WTP. Initiatives in respondents' home states are preferred, and increasing distance to initiatives in other states result in a slightly reduced WTP. Additionally, we observe regional preferences within an eastern and a western home region. These preferences are not explainable by socio-demographic characteristics, home state or distance and probably linked to social and cultural affiliations. We conclude that for widespread support in society and effective conservation initiatives, policy proposals must address this spatial heterogeneity from distance and regional effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a number comparison task, the size effect (i.e, smaller values are easier to compare than larger values) is usually attributed to a psychophysics-based representation. However, alternative models assume that the size effect is a frequency effect: Smaller numbers are easier to process because they are observed more frequently. Previous studies have demonstrated that the frequency of the digits fundamentally influences the comparison size effect: In new number symbols, the frequency entirely determines the size effect. In contrast, in Arabic notation, the size effect aggregates the frequency in the actual session and the previous regular size effect. Here, we investigate whether the previously acquired regular size effect can depend on the frequency of the stimuli as well or on a psychophysics-based representation that is not yet active in new symbols. Participants in the study compared numbers that were denoted with new symbols, with the frequency of the symbols being changed throughout the session. We found that the frequency of the stimuli in both halves of the session was aggregated in the size effect. In addition, no psychophysics-based size effect was found throughout the session. These results confirm that the size effect can be created and shaped purely by the frequency of the symbols, while a psychophysics-based representation is not necessary to account for these size effect-related phenomena.

Coastal erosion is widespread under conditions of changing hydrodynamics and diminishing sediment supply, and exposure assessment to erosion hazard has received increasing attention. In this study, we explore the impact of spatial heterogeneity of land use within administrative units on exposure assessment of land use value to erosional hazard. We illustrate land use diversity using the Shannon's diversity index (SHDI) and consider the distance effect by comparing five different buffer zones according to the distance to the coast (i.e., 0–1 km, 0–2 km, 0–3 km, 0–4 km, 0–5 km). Our results show that coastline change and socio-economic development are responsible for land use heterogeneity within the administrative units. Using a buffer zone of 1-km along the coast as the assessment unit leads to an increase in the number of townships that have high and very high exposure of land use value when compared with the assessment result that is based on the whole township area. Furthermore, the 1-km buffer zone can be divided into subunits if very high SHDI values exist within the administrative boundary. This study demonstrates that heterogeneity in land use identified at a fine spatial scale should be given full consideration in carrying out exposure assessment to hazards in a dynamic deltaic coast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The p-electron-dominated main-group metals (Sb, Se, In, etc.) have recently been reported to possess excellent oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity by means of heteroatom doping into graphene. However, on these main group metal surfaces, other approaches especially the distance effect to modulate catalytic activity are rarely involved. In this work, the origin of excellent 2e− ORR catalytic activity of graphene-supported InN4 moiety by tuning the distance between metallic In atoms is thoroughly investigated by employing the first-principles calculations. Our DFT calculations show that the 2e− ORR catalytic activity strongly depends on the crystal orbital Hamilton population (COHP) between In and O atoms. This work is useful for the rational design of main group metal single atom electrocatalysts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies have shown that focusing on an intended movement effect that is farther away from the body (distal external focus) results in performance benefits relative to focusing on an effect that is closer to the body (proximal external focus) or focusing on the body itself (internal focus) (see, Chua, Jimenez-Diaz, Lewthwaite, Kim & Wulf, 2021). Furthermore, the advantages of a distal external focus seem to be particularly pronounced in skilled performers (Singh & Wulf, 2020). The present study examined whether such benefits of more distal attentional focus may be associated with enhanced functional variability. Volleyball players (n = 20) performed 60 overhand volleyball serves to a target. Using a within-participants design, the effects of a distal external focus (bullseye), proximal external focus (ball) and an internal focus (hand) were compared. The distal focus condition resulted in significantly higher accuracy scores than did the proximal and internal focus conditions. In addition, uncontrolled manifold analysis showed that functional variability (as measured by the index of synergy) was greatest in the distal focus condition. These findings suggest that a distal external focus on the task goal may enhance movement outcomes by optimising compensatory coordination of body parts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the numerical Stroop task, participants are presented with two digits that differ in their numerical and physical size and are requested to respond to which digit is numerically larger. Commonly, slower responses are observed when the numerical distance between the digits is small (the distance effect) and when the numerical and physical size are incongruent (the size-congruency effect). The current study will use proportion manipulation, which consists of two experimental lists with high versus low frequency of trials belonging to different conditions, as a tool to reduce these effects. Specifically, it will be used to examine how these two interference effects depend on each other, and how a reduction of one effect will affect the other. In Experiment 1, the size-congruency proportions were manipulated; in Experiment 2, the distance proportions were manipulated. The results show that manipulating size-congruency proportions modulates the size-congruency effect but not the distance effect, while manipulating the distance proportions modulates the distance effect but not the size-congruency effect. These results demonstrate for the first time that the distance effect can be modulated by the distance proportions. Furthermore, these results indicate that proportion manipulation is specific and only modulates the variable being manipulated. Together, these results shed new light on the specificity of proportion manipulation in the context of numerical information processing. These results are further discussed in the context of various numerical models that suggest a different relationship between these effects and demonstrate how proportion manipulation can aid to investigate numerical processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, wind turbines are increasingly being built at forest sites to meet the goals of national climate strategies. Yet, the impact on biodiversity is barely understood. Bats may be heavily affected by wind turbines in forests, because many species depend on forest ecosystems for roosting and hunting and can experience high fatality rates at wind turbines.We performed acoustic surveys in 24 temperate forests in the low mountain ranges of Central Germany to monitor changes in the acoustic activity of bats in relation to wind turbine proximity, rotor size, vegetation structure and season. Call sequences were identified and assigned to one of three functional guilds: open‐space, edge‐space and narrow‐space foragers, the latter being mainly forest specialists.Based on the response behaviour of bats towards wind turbines in open landscapes, we predicted decreasing bat activity towards wind turbines at forest sites, especially for narrow‐space foragers.Vertical vegetation heterogeneity had a strong positive effect on all bats, yet responses to wind turbines in forests varied across foraging guilds. Activity of narrow‐space foragers decreased towards turbines over distances of several hundred metres, especially towards turbines with large rotors and during mid‐summer months. The activity of edge‐space foragers did not change with distance to turbines or season, whereas the activity of open‐space foragers increased close to turbines in late summer.Synthesis and applications. Forest specialist bats avoid wind turbines in forests over distances of several hundred metres. This avoidance was most apparent towards turbines with large rotors. Since forests are an important habitat for these bats, we advise to exclude forests with diverse vegetation structure as potential wind turbine sites and to consider compensation measures to account for habitat degradation associated with the operation of wind turbines in forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The symbolic number comparison task has been widely used to investigate the cognitive representation and underlying processes of multi-digit number processing. The standard procedure to establish numerical distance and compatibility effects in such number comparison paradigms usually entails asking participants to indicate the larger of two presented multi-digit Arabic numbers rather than to indicate the smaller number. In terms of linguistic markedness, this procedure includes the unmarked/base form in the task instruction (i.e., large). Here we evaluate distance and compatibility effects in a three-digit number comparison task observed in Bahnmueller et al. (2015, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01216) using a marked task instruction (i.e., ‘pick the smaller number’). Moreover, we aimed at clarifying whether the markedness of task instruction influences common numerical effects and especially componential processing as indexed by compatibility effects. We instructed German- and English-speaking adults (N = 52) to indicate the smaller number in a three-digit number comparison task as opposed to indicating the larger number in Bahnmueller et al. (2015). We replicated standard effects of distance and compatibility in the new pick the smaller number experiment. Moreover, when comparing our findings to Bahnmueller et al. (2015), numerical effects did not differ significantly between the two studies as indicated by both frequentist and Bayesian analysis. Taken together our data suggest that distance and compatibility effects alongside componential processing of multi-digit numbers are rather robust against variations of linguistic markedness of task instructions.

Coastal farmers earn their living by the sea, and their willingness to pay (WTP) is particularly important for coastal zone ecological protection (CZEP). What are the specific impacts of livelihood capital and distance effect on farmers' WTP for CZEP? And what are the impact paths of these effects? To answer these questions, taking the coastal zone of the Beibu Gulf of China as an example, this paper constructs an index system based on sustainable livelihood theory, carries out research and design combined with the contingent valuation method (CVM), and conducts an empirical study on the relationship between livelihood capital, distance effect and WTP for ecological protection with the help of the entropy method, ordinary least squares (OLS) linear regression model and bootstrap method. The results show that (1) only 56.23% of the respondents have a WTP for CZEP, while 43.77% of the respondents refuse to pay. (2) The scores of each dimension of farmers' livelihood capital are as follows: risk perception (0.635) > natural capital (0.531) > financial capital (0.406) > human capital (0.299) > social capital (0.130) > physical capital (0.110), and farmers' livelihood capital and distance effect have an inverted U-shaped relationship with the WTP for ecological protection. (3) The ecological protection payments of pure farmers, type 1 farmers, type 2 farmers and nonfarmers were 151.83, 112.73, 78.87 and 95.58 RMB/year, respectively, and the influencing factors are heterogeneous. (4) We found that the mediating effects of natural capital, physical capital and financial capital are negative, social capital and risk perception are positive, while the mediating effects of human capital are not significant. Therefore, the government should establish a comprehensive management system that is cross-regional, cross-departmental, coordinated, systematic and efficient across the coastal zone.

Newborn animals, such as 4-month-old infants, 4-day-old chicks, and 1-day-old guppies, exhibit sensitivity to an approximate number of items in the visual array. These findings are often interpreted as evidence for an innate "number sense." However, number sense is typically investigated using explicit behavioral tasks, which require a form of calibration (e.g., habituation or reward-based training) in experimental studies. Therefore, the generation of number sense may be the result of calibration. We built a number-sense neural network model on the basis of lateral inhibition to explore whether animals demonstrate an innate "number sense" and determine important factors affecting this competence. The proposed model can reproduce size and distance effects of output responses of number-selective neurons when network connection weights are set randomly without an adjustment. Results showed that number sense can be produced under the influence of lateral inhibition, which is one of the fundamental mechanisms of the nervous system, and independent of learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Newborn animals, such as 4-month-old infants, 4-day-old chicks, and 1-day-old guppies, exhibit sensitivity to an approximate number of items in the visual array. These findings are often interpreted as evidence for an innate “number sense.” However, number sense is typically investigated using explicit behavioral tasks, which require a form of calibration (e.g., habituation or reward-based training) in experimental studies. Therefore, the generation of number sense may be the result of calibration. We built a number-sense neural network model on the basis of lateral inhibition to explore whether animals demonstrate an innate “number sense” and determine important factors affecting this competence. The proposed model can reproduce size and distance effects of output responses of number-selective neurons when network connection weights are set randomly without an adjustment. Results showed that number sense can be produced under the influence of lateral inhibition, which is one of the fundamental mechanisms of the nervous system, and independent of learning.

In adults, longitudinal external focus benefits the motor performance of high-skilled performers. While low-skilled performers benefit from a proximal external focus. Children seem to respond differently to adults regarding the effects of attentional focus on motor learning, and the cause of this difference remains unclear. The present study investigated the effects of the attentional focus distance on motor performance and learning of high-skilled children. Forty-five 8-years-old high-skilled children were divided into three groups with different attentional focus distances (internal, proximal external and distal external). All participants practiced an inside-of-the-foot kick soccer task in 5 blocks of 10 trials. Motor performance was assessed through absolute and variable errors before the practice (pre-test), immediately after the practice (post-test), and after 24-hours (retention test). As inferential analyses, we run an ANOVA two-way (3 groups x 3 times) for absolute and variable errors. For absolute error, there was an effect in time (p < .0001), with improvement across practice and retention; also, the distal external group demonstrated lower absolute error than other groups (p < .0001). In contrast, proximal external focus provides a lower variability inter-trials (but with a lower score) (p < .001). Our findings suggested that distal external attentional focus benefits motor performance and learning of skilled children. Practice and experience are the predominant factors in this interaction, as it happens in adults. Childhood characteristics seem not to influence this process.

One debate in mathematical cognition centers on the single-representation model versus the two-representation model. Using an improved number Stroop paradigm (i.e., systematically manipulating physical size distance), in the present study we tested the predictions of the two models for number magnitude processing. The results supported the single-representation model and, more importantly, explained how a design problem (failure to manipulate physical size distance) and an analytical problem (failure to consider the interaction between congruity and task-irrelevant numerical distance) might have contributed to the evidence used to support the two-representation model. This study, therefore, can help settle the debate between the single-representation and two-representation models.

Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, the present study examined whether the comparison distance effect (CDE) and the priming distance effect (PDE) in number processing had the same underlying neural mechanisms. 24 healthy participants completed a number comparison task and a number priming task in the scanner. Imaging data were examined for brain regions selected based on a meta-analysis of previous studies of number processing. Results revealed robust CDE and PDE at both behavioral and neural levels. The CDE had a significant hemodynamic signature in the right parietal cortex but not in the left parietal cortex, although a direct test of this hemispheric laterality did not reach statistical significance. In contrast, the PDE showed significant left-hemisphere laterality with a significant hemodynamic signature in the left parietal cortex but not in the right parietal cortex. These results suggested that the CDE and PDE had different underlying neural mechanisms.

We examine the impact of geographic distance, economic size, and jurisdictional borders on Canadian interprovincial trade in services at the industry level. Using a gravity model, we find that the average elasticity of service trade with respect to distance is − 1.1, which coincides with the median estimate of average elasticity of merchandise trade with respect to distance. However, the point estimates of the elasticity of distance are significantly higher in magnitude in Arts and Health, while distance matters much less for Telecommunications and Information Technology. We also find that the elasticity of trade with respect to exporter and importer gross domestic product is highly industry specific. Our findings suggest that distance is still a key determinant of service trade and the income elasticity of demand is heterogeneous within the service sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerosity comparison for regular patterns shows different features compared with that for random ones in previous studies, suggesting an underlying mechanism distinct from numerosity. In this study, we went further to compare the event-related potentials (ERP) components in numerosity processing of random and regular patterns, which are identical in all aspects of texture features except for the distribution. ERP components were recorded and analyzed while participants compared which of the two successively presented sets was more numerous. P2p amplitude was revealed to be significantly weaker for regular patterns compared with that for random patterns over right occipital-parietal cites, whereas no difference was found for P1 or N1 components. The difference in P2p amplitude, which is consistent with the behavior dissociation revealed in our previous studies, suggests that regular distribution can trigger distinct processing in numeral comparison tasks. Processing of continuous magnitudes or configuration cannot explain the decrease in P2p amplitude for regular distributed patterns. Therefore, this study further supports that P2p is mediated by numerosity processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Number sense refers to the ability to easily understand, approximate and manipulate numerical quantities. In solving numerical problems, children use exact, respectively approximate calculation strategies. Unfortunately, some persons encounter difficulties in acquiring basic mathematical skills, and this condition represent a specific learning disability called developmental discalculia. The aim of the present study was to compare normal and adapted curriculum pupils in terms of subitization ability and efectiveness of number sense. The presence of magnitude and distance effects was tested in four distinct formats: 3D objects, 2D figures, verbal and visual Arabic numerical representation. The sample consisted of 111 normal and adapted curriculum pupils. Both number of errors and reaction times were registered. Adapted curriculum pupils registered more erroneous answers in the 2D, verbal, and arabic tasks and bigger reaction times in the 3D, tasks with Arabic or verbal numerals. Both normal and adapted curriculum pupils registered the best performances in the visual Arabic numerical representation task. Contrary to the expectations, the magnitude effect was not outlined in terms of reaction times, perhaps due to the calculation strategies which pupils adopted in different tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In adults, longitudinal external focus benefits the motor performance of high-skilled performers. While low-skilled performers benefit from a proximal external focus. Children seem to respond differently to adults regarding the effects of attentional focus on motor learning, and the cause of this difference remains unclear. The present study investigated the effects of the attentional focus distance on motor performance and learning of high-skilled children. Fortyfive 8-years-old high-skilled children were divided into three groups with different attentional focus distances (internal, proximal external and distal external). All participants practiced an inside-of-the-foot kick soccer task in 5 blocks of 10 trials. Motor performance was assessed through absolute and variable errors before the practice (pre-test), immediately after the practice (post-test), and after 24-hours (retention test). As inferential analyses, we run an ANOVA twoway (3 groups x 3 times) for absolute and variable errors. For absolute error, there was an effect in time (p < .0001), with improvement across practice and retention; also, the distal external group demonstrated lower absolute error than other groups (p < .0001). In contrast, proximal external focus provides a lower variability inter-trials (but with a lower score) (p < .001). Our findings suggested that distal external attentional focus benefits motor performance and learning of skilled children. Practice and experience are the predominant factors in this interaction, as it happens in adults. Childhood characteristics seem not to influence this process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A perspective distortion modelling for monocular view that is based on the fundamentals of perspective projection is presented in this work. Perspective projection is considered to be the most ideal and realistic model among others, which depicts image formation in monocular vision. There are many approaches trying to model and estimate the perspective effects in images. Some approaches try to learn and model the distortion parameters from a set of training data that work only for a predefined structure. None of the existing methods provide deep understanding of the nature of perspective problems. Perspective distortions, in fact, can be described by three different perspective effects. These effects are pose, distance and foreshortening. They are the cause of the aberrant appearance of object shapes in images. Understanding these phenomena have long been an interesting topic for artists, designers and scientists. In many cases, this problem has to be necessarily taken into consideration when dealing with image diagnostics, high and accurate image measurement, as well as accurate pose estimation from images. In this work, a perspective distortion model for every effect is developed while elaborating the nature of perspective effects. A distortion factor for every effect is derived, then followed by proposed methods, which allows extracting the true target pose and distance, and correcting image measurements.

Numerosity comparison for regular patterns shows different features compared with that for random ones in previous studies, suggesting an underlying mechanism distinct from numerosity. In this study, we went further to compare the event-related potentials (ERP) components in numerosity processing of random and regular patterns, which are identical in all aspects of texture features except for the distribution. ERP components were recorded and analyzed while participants compared which of the two successively presented sets was more numerous. P2p amplitude was revealed to be significantly weaker for regular patterns compared with that for random patterns over right occipital-parietal cites, whereas no difference was found for P1 or N1 components. The difference in P2p amplitude, which is consistent with the behavior dissociation revealed in our previous studies, suggests that regular distribution can trigger distinct processing in numeral comparison tasks. Processing of continuous magnitudes or configuration cannot explain the decrease in P2p amplitude for regular distributed patterns. Therefore, this study further supports that P2p is mediated by numerosity processing.

Determining scale and variable effects have critical importance in developing an energy resource policy. This study aims to explore the relationships in heterogeneous lignite sites using different scale models, spatial weighting as well as error-based pair-wise identification. From a statistical learning framework, the relationships among the quality variables such as geochemical variables and the contributions of the coordinates to quality measures have been exhibited by generalized additive models. In this way, the critical roles of spatial weights provided by the coordinates have been specified at a global scale. The experimental studies reveal that incorporating the geological weighting in the models as the additional information improves both accuracy and transparency. Because relationships among lignite quality variables and sampling locations are spatially non-stationary, the local structure and interdependencies among the variables were analyzed by geographically weighting regression. The local analyses including spatial patterns of bandwidths, search domains as well as residual-based areal dependencies provided not only the critical zones but also availability of pair-wise model alternatives by calibrating a model at each point for location-specific parameter learning. The results completely show that the weighting models applied at different scales can take spatial heterogeneity into consideration and these abilities provide some meta-data and specific information using in sustainable energy planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The p-electron-dominated main-group metals (Sb, Se, In, etc.) have recently been reported to possess excellent oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) activity by means of heteroatom doping into graphene. However, on these main group metal surfaces, other approaches especially the distance effect to modulate catalytic activity are rarely involved. In this work, the origin of excellent 2e− ORR catalytic activity of graphene-supported InN4 moiety by tuning the distance between metallic In atoms is thoroughly investigated by employing the first-principles calculations. Our DFT calculations show that the 2e− ORR catalytic activity strongly depends on the crystal orbital Hamilton population (COHP) between In and O atoms. This work is useful for the rational design of main group metal single atom electrocatalysts.

A previous study failed to find evidence that dogs could use olfactory cues to discriminate between 1 and 5 hot dog slices presented on a single trial (Horowitz et al., Learning and Motivation, 44, 207–217, 2013). In the experiments reported here, multiple trials were used to test dogs' ability to use olfaction to choose one of two opaque containers under which a larger number of food items was placed. In Experiment 1, dogs chose between 1 and 5 hot dog slices. In Experiments 2 and 3, we examined dogs' ability to discriminate between numbers of hot dog slices that varied in the numerical distance and the ratio between the smaller and larger quantities. Experiment 4 explored olfactory discrimination between quantities of a different food, dog kibble. Experiments 1–3 all showed that dogs used olfactory stimuli to choose the larger number of hot dog slices, but Experiments 2 and 3 revealed no effects of distance or ratio between numerical quantities. In Experiment 4, dogs failed to discriminate between 1 and 5 pieces of dog kibble. Factors that allow dogs to use olfactory cues to discriminate between quantities are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distance effect is the change in the performance during numerical magnitude comparison, depending on the numerical distance between the compared numbers (Moyer & Landauer, Nature, 215[5109], 1519–1520, 1967). This effect is generally accepted as evidence for the mental number line (MNL) hypothesis, which proposes that the mental representation of the numbers align in an increasing linear (or monotone) order. The majority of studies investigating the distance effect are focused on the reaction time (RT) findings, which show slower responses for closer numbers. In the present study, we examined the distance effect by applying signal detection theory (SDT) to a magnitude comparison task. We aimed to reveal whether discrimination ability and the response bias measures were affected by the location of numbers on the MNL. To accomplish this, we developed a magnitude comparison task using a go/no-go procedure in which participants performed a magnitude comparison based on a reference number (i.e., 5). Results revealed a substantial distance effect in both sensitivity and response bias measures—a better discrimination performance for far numbers, and a larger response bias for close numbers. In addition, an RT distribution analysis revealed that the distance effect seems to originate mainly from slower responses. Based on the current data, we suggest that sensitivity and response bias measures could offer comprehensive information in the understanding of number-based decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important issue in understanding mathematical cognition involves the similarities and differences between the magnitude representations associated with various types of rational numbers. For single-digit integers, evidence indicates that magnitudes are represented as analog values on a mental number line, such that magnitude comparisons are made more quickly and accurately as the numerical distance between numbers increases (the distance effect). Evidence concerning a distance effect for compositional numbers (e.g., multidigit whole numbers, fractions and decimals) is mixed. We compared the patterns of response times and errors for college students in magnitude comparison tasks across closely matched sets of rational numbers (e.g., 22/37, 0.595, 595). In Experiment 1, a distance effect was found for both fractions and decimals, but response times were dramatically slower for fractions than for decimals. Experiments 2 and 3 compared performance across fractions, decimals, and 3-digit integers. Response patterns for decimals and integers were extremely similar but, as in Experiment 1, magnitude comparisons based on fractions were dramatically slower, even when the decimals varied in precision (i.e., number of place digits) and could not be compared in the same way as multidigit integers (Experiment 3). Our findings indicate that comparisons of all three types of numbers exhibit a distance effect, but that processing often involves strategic focus on components of numbers. Fractions impose an especially high processing burden due to their bipartite (a/b) structure. In contrast to the other number types, the magnitude values associated with fractions appear to be less precise, and more dependent on explicit calculation.

Learning mathematics requires fluency with symbols that convey numerical magnitude. Algebra and higher-level mathematics involve literal symbols, such as "x", that often represent numerical magnitude. Compared to other symbols, such as Arabic numerals, literal symbols may require more complex processing because they have strong pre-existing associations in literacy. The present study tested this notion using same-different tasks that produce less efficient judgments for different magnitudes that are closer together compared to farther apart (i.e., same-different distance effects). Twenty-four adolescents completed three same-different tasks using Arabic numerals, literal symbols, and artificial symbols. All three symbolic formats produced same-different distance effects, showing literal and artificial symbol processing of numerical magnitude. Importantly, judgments took longer for literal symbols than artificial symbols on average, suggesting a cost specific to literal symbol processing. Taken together, results suggest that literal symbol processing differs from processing of other symbols that represent numerical magnitude.

There has been increasing interest in the spatial mapping of various perceptual and cognitive magnitudes, such as expanding the spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) effect into domains outside of numerical cognition. Recently, De Tommaso and Prpic (Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 82, 2765–2773, 2020) reported in this journal that only fast tempos over 104 beats per minute have spatial associations, with more right-sided associations and faster responses for faster tempos. After discussing the role of perceived loudness and possible response strategies, we propose and recommend methodological improvements for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Localizing somatosensory stimuli is an important process, as it allows us to spatially guide our actions toward the object entering in contact with the body. Accordingly, the positions of tactile inputs are coded according to both somatotopic and spatiotopic representations, the latter one considering the position of the stimulated limbs in external space. The spatiotopic representation has often been evidenced by means of temporal order judgment (TOJ) tasks. Participants' judgments about the order of appearance of two successive somatosensory stimuli are less accurate when the hands are crossed over the body midline than uncrossed but also when participants' hands are placed close together when compared with farther away. Moreover, these postural effects might depend on the vision of the stimulated limbs. The aim of this study was to test the influence of seeing the hands, on the modulation of tactile TOJ by the spatial distance between the stimulated limbs. The results showed no influence of the distance between the stimulated hands on TOJ performance and prevent us from concluding whether vision of the hands affects TOJ performance, or whether these variables interact. The reliability of such distance effect to investigate the spatial representations of tactile inputs is questioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The question whether human beings process empty sets as zero has received little research attention. In this study, we used the distance and end effects as indicators for treating empty sets as a numerical entity that represents an absence of quantity. In a series of experiments, participants performed a magnitude comparison task. They were presented with empty sets and other numerosities from 1 to 9, presented as dot arrays. We manipulated task instructions relevant to the target (i.e., “choose the target that contains more/less dots” in Experiment 1) or the given numerical range mentioned in the instructions (i.e., 0–9 or 1–9 in Experiment 2) to create conditions in which an empty set would be perceived as the smallest value of the experimental numerical range. The results revealed distance effects for comparisons to empty sets, irrespective of task instructions. In Experiment 3, we manipulated the response mode. Two groups of participants responded to target location, one group with a key-press and the other vocally, while the third group responded vocally to target color. The results revealed distance effects for comparisons to empty sets only when responding to target location, regardless of the response mode, indicating that spatial features should be primed in order to perceive an empty set as a numerical entity. These findings show that perceiving an empty set as nothing or as zero depends on the context in which it is presented.