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This article investigates the issue of duals, which differ from their singulars called al-muthannā al-talqībī, in the context of their inclusion as lexical items in general Arabic dictionaries. The study is limited to a modern dictionary: al-Mu'jam al-wasīt. The research is based on two interconnected assumptions: al-muthannā al-talqībīs are lexical items, and lexical items should be included in the dictionary entries. The research corpus comprises al-muthannā al-lughawī compilations with their bibliographies and al-Mu'jam al-wasīt entries. Although al-Mu'jam al-wasīt is one of the Arabic dictionaries written in recent history and is a modern dictionary in terms of form, it is known for following the classical sources in terms of content. In Arabic morphology, Muthannā is formed by adding a suffix to the end of the word to indicate that the entity it denotes is two in number. In other words, the structure of the noun+duality suffix signifies noun+noun, where each noun is identical to the other. Apart from the mentioned grammatical meaning, the muthannā form has been used to express ungrammatical meanings where each singular of the word is different from the other. These non-grammatical uses of muthannā called al-muthannā al-lughawī. The knowledge of non-grammatical muthannā is derived from the works of philologists. The philologists of the classical period wrote works compiling and classifying al-muthannā al-lughawī and its subcategories. al-Muthannā al-talqībī is one of these subcategories, describing a dual form in which two separate nouns are expressed via entirely different nouns. Since the meanings of such duals cannot be accessed from their singulars, it is logical for these words to appear in dictionary entries. Another reason why these words are expected to be included as entries in dictionaries is that they are very likely to be used in both classical and modern literature. Accordingly, there is a need for al-muthannā al-lughawī in general and al-muthannā al-talqībī in particular to be included as entries in general dictionaries. This research investigates the presence of these words in one of the largest dictionaries currently available: al-Mu'jam al-wasīt. Before collecting the data, a theoretical framework was established, including the general term muthannā, the place of al-muthannā al-lughawī in the literature, and the distinctive features of al-muthannā al-talqībī. Since very early times, alMuthannā al-lughawī has been considered a lexical item in independent works or in some comprehensive philological works, though the definitions and classifications of these words are seen in independent lexical collections. Based on these definitions, the distinctive features of almuthannā al-talqībī were determined. Recognizing the distinctive features of al-muthannā altalqībī has helped to resolve certain ambiguities and classification complexities that are found in the collections of al-muthannā al-lughawī. The data collection process of the research consisted of two steps. In the first step, a corpus was created by gathering the words in al-muthannā allughawī compilations, and the words were categorized and listed in terms of the relevance that formed the muthannā. Two types of relevance were found to be decisive in the formation of almuthannā al-talqībī forms: epithet relevance and attributive relevance. In the second step, the presence of these corpus words in al-Muʽjam al-wasīt was investigated. The data was mainly analyzed quantitatively. The most striking result of the study is that the presence of al-muthannā al-talqībī in al-Muʽjam al-wasīt is quite limited. Only 44 out of the 614 words in the corpus were included in dictionary entries. The main reason for this scarcity appears to be that most al-muthannā al-talqībī are proper nouns which formed according to the epithet relevance between the two singulars. In this case, it is expected that the rate of the words that are not proper nouns, which are al-muthannā al-talqībī, established according to the relevance of common attribute, to be found in the dictionary is high. However, even in this category, their presence is relatively low. Of the 83 al-muthannā al-talqībīs in this category, only 28 are found in al-Muʽjam al-wasīt entries. However, this rate, which corresponds to one-third of all the words in the mentioned category, shows that there is an opinion that al-muthannā al-talqībī is considered a lexical item and should be added to the dictionaries. Moreover, a significant number of these words were considered as an independent entry from the word root entry. As for proper nouns, it is not possible to separate the issue of including al-muthannā al-talqībī, which corresponds to proper nouns, into the dictionary from the discussion of including proper nouns in the dictionary in general. Considering that the proper names in question pertain to individuals from ancient times, it seems more appropriate to include such muthannās in special dictionaries rather than in general dictionaries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses the issues of enhancing the lexicographic representation of confessionally marked urbanonyms. The objective of the study is to substantiate parametric models for dictionary entries that allow for a comprehensive presentation of the confessional component of urbanonymy in both culturalhistorical and functional aspects. The research material is drawn from the database of the Experimental Laboratory of Educational Lexicography at Pskov State University, which contains 3,000 urbanonyms, including more than 200 ecclesionims (official, colloquial, and slang), forming the core of the urbanonymconfessionalism dataset. Through structuralsemantic and contextual analysis, the study identifies the denotative correlations, lexical composition of these urbanonyms, and various types of their variations in contemporary speech. Historical-etymological analysis aids in uncovering the motivations behind nomination. The method of linguocultural interpretation is employed in developing the commentary section of the dictionary entry. Lexicographic construction techniques are utilized in creating an improved model for entries in a general alphabetical urbanonym dictionary and an innovative discourse-type entry for an urbanonym guide dictionary. Samples of dictionary entries with accompanying comments are presented.

The term system of cognitive science is interdisciplinary in nature and is formed from different areas of scientific discourse. The terminological meaning is also developed in commonly used lexemes. The words attention, perception, memory, knowledge, consciousness, impact, when they call cognitive abilities, functions, mental processes, human behavioral reactions, become terms. The purpose of this article is to analyze the process of terminology of commonly used lexemes with a perceptual meaning, which include the lexemes attention, perception and the lexeme memory associated with the result of perceptual activity by causation relations (component ‘see’→’remember’). The material for the study was the definitions of these lexemes in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, phraseological dictionaries, linguoculturological, word-formation dictionaries. This made it possible to determine the features of their national word usage and a set of semes that could become the basis for the emerging terminological meaning. The second stage of the study included the analysis of the use of these words as terms in works on cognitive linguistics (publications in the periodicals “Issues of Cognitive Linguistics”, “Cognitive Studies of Language”, “Bulletin of Moscow State University, Series 19: Linguistics and Intercultural Communication, section Cognitive Studies ). Based on the materials of publications, a corpus was created, including 752 texts, 8,062,613 word usages. The discovered collocats showed intrasystemic connections of lexemes attention, perception, memory. An associative experiment was also conducted, in which 1-4 year students enrolled in the program Fundamental and Applied Linguistics of the National Research University Higher School of Economics. The results of the experiment confirmed the assumption about the influence of commonly used semantic components of the meanings of Russian words on the formation of a new terminological meaning in such lexemes. The data obtained were summarized in the form of prototype articles of the Project Dictionary of Cognitive Terms

The study describes the principles of designing a morpheme-grammar dictionary of Russian verbs within the framework of systemic linguistics. As a working hypothesis for the creation of the dictionary the concept of G.P. Mel’nikov was chosen according to which the Russian verb, in addition to the binary category of aspect, also has a gradual “quantitative” category, which he proposed to name the category of action degree (CAD). The formal indicators of the grammatical meaning of the CAD are the suffixes -ну-, -Ø-, -e-, -и-, -ыва- . G.P. Mel’nikov believed that taking into account the CAD and highlighting a single stem in the verb paradigm after restoring the actual morphemic composition of each verb form would explain many irregularities in verb inflection and derivation. The analysis of the functioning of the CAD in modern Russian has shown that it has a great applied significance. Suffixes of CAD turned out to be a convenient criterion for dividing Russian verbs into morphological classes, which in turn have made it possible to present Russian verbs in an orderly manner in a lexicographic description. The article reveals the principles of morphemic analysis for identification of root and suffix allomorphs, provides a brief overview of morphological classes of verbs, and explains the structure of the dictionary entry which is a matrix. Matrix notation allows us to compactly represent all suffix and prefix forms of the verb in a systematic way, makes it possible to graphically show grammatical and morphological information as well as etymological and word-formation relationships within the verb system. Morphemic matrices have a high explanatory potential because they offer rich material for studying the mechanisms of word formation and observing the peculiarities of morpheme combinations. Morphemic matrices significantly expand the potential vocabulary, contribute to the development of a feeling for language, and facilitate the acquisition of morpheme-semantic intuition.

The article explores issues related to the lexicographic development of biblical proverbs and phraseological units, which are typically represented in dictionaries solely in their canonical form, without taking into account the peculiarities of their contemporary usage. The aim of the research is to develop a dictionary concept that, alongside traditional forms, reflects the structural and semantic transformations of biblicisms in the media space and live communication. Phraseological units and proverbs, selected from biblical dictionaries and encyclopedias, as well as those documented in internet forums, chats, and blogs (from 2013 to 2023), and recorded in spoken language, have become the subject of structural-semantic, componential, and contextual analysis prior to their lexicographic treatment. Special attention is paid to transformational mechanisms of phonetic mimicry and playful variants of phraseological units and proverbs created on this basis. During lexicographic modeling, parameters for an innovative dictionary entry combining elements characteristic of explanatory and axiological dictionaries have been developed. The implementation of the developed parametric model is demonstrated using the example of the proverb ‘Eyes are the mirror of the soul.’ It is emphasized that the proposed lexicographic concept will allow for the reflection of dynamic processes affecting the corpus of biblicisms in their sociocultural context, prediction of trends in this field, and utilization of dictionary materials for language teaching purposes.

This paper considers the peculiarities of the lexicographic fixation of nationally marked units of minority languages in Scotland, in particular Scots and Scottish Gaelic. The aim of this paper is to analyse dictionary entries and to determine the features of lexicographic representation of nationally-marked units at the microstructural level by identifying common and distinctive features. The source base is represented by such online dictionaries as The Dictionaries of Scots Language and Am Faclair Beag. The paper presents a brief overview of the creation of dictionaries, which constitute the source base of the research, and also provides a brief overview of their macrostrcture. The common features include the presence of interpretation (translation), transcription and grammatical commentary, while the differences include different formats of illustrating the usage of a lexical item (territorial - in Scottish Gaelic, situational - in Scots). Methods used in the study: general scientific (analysis and synthesis), critical dictionary research, diachronic and synchronic methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though political discourse is in the mainstream of modern studies, scholars haven’t so far paid much attention to compiling political discourse-oriented dictionaries. The need to further develop lexicographic theory and practice for specific purposes and advance new methods to dictionary making is a challenge that linguists are facing today. The aim of the case study is twofold: to work out the principles for making an Explanatory Combinatorial Dictionary (ECD) of English political conflict lexis and the microstructure of an ECD entry. The source of the data is the NOW corpus; the material is current American political discourse (2022). The ECD is generally consistent with Mel'čuk’s Meaning-Text theory (MTT). The authors describe a process of collecting and processing the data: corpus search and analysis, automatic and manual text processing, glossary compilation with the use of lexicographic, semasiological, and etymological methods and present an example of an ECD entry consisting of semantic, phonological, and cooccurrence zones. The findings prove that the use of electronic text corpora offers an effective way for compiling a specialized discourse-based dictionary. The research illustrates the validity of MTT: though based on the data of “language in context” , the dictionary is synthesis-oriented: it aims at speech production. The paper is the first result of a bigger project sketching the overall framework of the discursive ECD of political conflict lexis, which subsequent studies will hopefully develop with more precision and detail. The dictionary will be helpful for scholars in linguistics, discourse analysis, media and communication, political science, and conflict studies.

The term system of cognitive linguistics is formed from different areas of knowledge and discursive practices. These terms are usually of English origin. But this system also includes Russian-language words of a commonly used nature, which, as a result of systemthesaurus connections with other terms in scientific communication, acquire the status of a cognitive term. The paper discusses the methodological foundations for understanding these integration processes, which is possible only when considering a system of terms as a form of explication of knowledge at the mental and linguistic levels. The nationwide existence of Russian-language words, possible shades of meaning, which allowed such lexemes to move into a group of terms and replenish the cognitive terminological system, are analyzed. The object of analysis is the original Russian lexemes knowledge and consciousness. The subject of analysis is the components of semantics that have become the basis of the terminological meaning of the indicated lexemes; new systemic connections that arose in the words knowledge and consciousness already as in terms of Russian origin when entering the cognitive terminological system: synonymous, antonymic, hyper- and hyponymic, derivational-epidigmatic. Observation of the functioning of the lexemes knowledge and consciousness in popular and scientific discourses, as well as analysis of the interpretation of these terms in scientific discourse, made it possible to clarify the process of terminology of the commonly used vocabulary of the Russian language. The paper presents the results of using corpus and software tools for modeling the functionality of this knowledge format. The collected information is supported by the results of an associative experiment to verify the data sources obtained through automatic processing. The revealed frequency and specificity of the use of cognitive terms on modern material will allow us to draw meaningful conclusions about a qualitatively new state of cognitive terminology.

This article continues the publication of certain parts of the Systematic French-Russian Dictionary of Religious Lexis and represents a section of the larger chapter which includes the topics. As in the previous topics, the main problem in establishing equivalents was the fact that French lexemes are used in the Catholic context, which — in order to identify the degree of their equivalence — made it necessary to compare the concepts of the Catholic and Orthodox creeds. The ideas about sinful urges of human soul are generally the same in Catholicism and Orthodoxy, though there are dissimilarities too, e.g. in the understanding and the number of sins which are characterised as “cardinal”. In 590, St. Gregory the Great proposed a list of seven main sins, i.e. vanity, envy, wrath, sadness, greed, gluttony, lust. Historically, their number fluctuated between seven and eight. Pride often occupies a separate position. Sadness is sometimes united with despondency and is sometimes seen as a specific sin. Envy is not always listed specifically. In the 13th c., blasphemy was added to the Catholic list. There is a notion of “seven cardinal sins”. In Orthodoxy, these are sometimes called “basic” (or primary): avarice, fornication, pride, wrath, envy, gluttony, despondency (sadness). They are general categories divided into more specific manifestations, e.g. love of profit, love of money, excessive accumulating of property, self-interest, greed, avarice. Lust also includes fornication. Pride is self-reliance, excessive self-confidence, wilfulness, disobedience, etc. The deadly vice in Orthodoxy is a sinful passion which man is unable to get rid of up to the negation of God. In Catholicism, a list of seven péchés capitaux was in the 13th century proposed by St. Thomas Aquinas: orgueil, gourmandise, luxure, avarice, jalousie (envie), colère, paresse. These are regarded as fundamental and generating other sins. Catholics clearly distinguish péchés véniels and péchés mortels. The former are insignificant and forgivable. The latter are deadly sins committed deliberately (en connaissance de cause) and with full consent (avec un consentement délibéré). In our list, the cardinal sins are italicised. As in the preceding articles, our main aim is to present the relevant vocabulary without offering a theological interpretation.

This work is a continuation of the publication of separate parts of the Systematic French-Russian Dictionary of Religious Vocabulary. This article is part of a larger section, Protagonistes de la religion chretienne, which includes the topics Dieu, Etres crees, Condition pecheresse de l'homme Attitudes et qualites requises des croyants, Fideles de Dieu (de l'Eglise). As with previous posts, the main goal is to present vocabulary relevant to the topic (without pretensions to theological interpretation). In some cases, we gave as a Russian equivalent not only the lexeme of the modern Russian language, but also Church Slavonicism (if it is found among the authors of the XX-XXI centuries), which has the mark church-arch. The general topic is quite extensive, so the publication is divided into two parts: the second part will begin with the fifth paragraph, and it will include lexemes and lexical expressions denoting specific manifestations of human sinfulness. As in previous publications, examples for individual items (phrases in quotation marks), as a rule, reveal the content of the concept and illustrate the use of the lexeme in the language. In most cases, they are composed of elements (both individual lexemes and phrases) appearing in French and Russian sources, but are not direct quotations. This work has been proofread by Ph.D. Comparative Theologian, vv. teacher of the Moscow Theological Academy, Archpriest Igor Vyzhanov, to whom I express my gratitude for the thoughtful reading and comments that I took into account.

The aim of this article is to complete and systematize affixal meaning definitions by examining the Old English derived nominal and adjectival lexicon from a structuralfunctional framework. The main dictionaries of reference in this language have proven to contribute limited affixal information; besides, one and the same dictionary organizes its affixal entries quite dissimilarly both formally and content-wise. Given this background, the present work offers an insight into the derived lexicon and suggests more accurate definitions based on an approach that explains form and meaning associations in terms of lexical functions and macrofunctions. The data of analysis have been retrieved from the lexical database of Old English Nerthus, which has supplied the inventory of affixes and of affixed nouns and adjectives performing a lexical function belonging to the semantic categories quantity, size or rank, which apply whenever an entity or a property experience an increase or a decrease in quantity, quality or status respectively. Each affix is defined conforming to the different meanings it conveys, the source and target categories involved in the derivation process and the predicates that fit the rule in each case. An approach based on form and meaning associations in the definition of affixal meaning has demonstrated to have major implications not only in the field of lexicology but also of lexicography inasmuch as it permits to revise, complete and enhance dictionary entries and gain systematicity in the manner the information is rendered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work is devoted to description of the microstructure (dictionary entry) of the Beserman dictionary, which is compiled based on the materials of T. I. Teplyashina. Besermans are small people who live compactly in the North West of Udmurtia. From the point of view of linguistics they speak a special dialect of the Udmurt language. The Besermans have a stable ethnic and linguistic identity, which is different from the Udmurt. At the beginning of the 21st century, the language of Besermans has become an object of considerable interest for linguists. Field materials were embodied in two dictionaries, a monograph and scientific articles. The most significant contribution to the study of the Beserman dialect was made by T. I. Teplyashina, who published the monograph “The Language of the Besermans”. Most of her materials, which were systematized in a field file, remained unused. The scientist's field file representing the Beserman speech of speakers born in the century before last can be called a unique linguistic heritage, waiting to be processed and implemented as a dictionary. Our dictionary will contain lexical and textual materials published in monographs and previously unpublished. This article examines in detail the structure of the dictionary, which has no analogues, at least in the lexicography of the Ural-Volga region.

The article presents the dictionary entry booster, which was additionally incorporated into the Academic Dictionary of Contemporary Czech. One of its meanings, 'a dose of a vaccine that increases or renews the effect of an earlier one,' has expanded in Czech rather widely in connection with the covid pandemic; however, four other meanings of this lexeme were identified on the basis of data from the Czech National Corpus. First the semantic structure of the entry is introduced, then I focus on how users of Czech orient themselves to the fact that the lexeme is a neologism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the experience of developing and using an automatic tool for optimizing linguagraphic work on the creating of comprehnsive dictionaries. Despite the high level of automatic processing of linguistic information in modern lexicography, a number of issues remain unresolved. The main problem in creating comprehnsive lexicographic sources is the combination of different dictionaries, since the heading units in them can be present in different forms, but at the same time refer to one lexeme; lexicographers spend a lot of time on the matching procedure, and this material has to be processed manually. The aim of the study was to solve the problem of identifying non-standard words by using a morphological analyzer. The program developed by the authors is designed to automatically select non-standard words from the list of heading units, which can significantly reduce the chance of errors, the time spent on creating a summary dictionary, and also minimize the necessity to process and interpret units manually. The development was carried out in Python 3.8.2 using the pymorphy2 morphological analyzer library version 0.9.1. The algorithm and program developed by the authors can be used for any list of words from which it is necessary to automatically select non-initial word forms. The created program was tested on a list of 22738 words from Comprehnsive etymological dictionary, 979 non-standard units were identified among them. The average processing time for the specified amount of words was 1.5 seconds, which proves the effectiveness of the created algorithm and the expediency of its further use in lexicographic practice.

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This article continues to publish parts of the Systematic French-Russian Dictionary of Religious Terms. It covers the lexical fi eld of church buidings of various purposes and status as well as their architecture, namely the internal and external structures, church-related purpose of their various parts, styles, furniture items and cult objects, both in Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The aim is to cover the relevant vocabulary used in both denominations. The terms for church buildings and objects used in church services or simply employed in religious everyday life partly coincide. However, there are certain buildings, architectural elements, items — both found in the church and employed in church services — that diff er due to the diff erences between the denominations. The notion of church utensils includes items used in various services as well as other items usually contained in a church building, i.e.various reliquaries, retables, icons, light fi ttings, gonfalons, bells, receptacles for alms,etc. To summarise, this is everything which makes up an item in a church and which belongs to Christian routines (beads, lockets, fi gurines, pious paintings, holy oil, etc.). Like other articles in the dictionary, this article has its specifi c logic. It groups items of the same category: light fi ttings, seats, etc. Lexical items pertaining to the Mass (liturgy) are italicised. Some lemmas are accompanied by usage examples.

The practical experience of the vocabulary representation of the mechanisms of game phraseology is described, the difficulties of lexicography of phraseological units built on the game paradox are listed, the ways to solve the problem of etymologization of phraseological games in the educational dictionary are showed. The main positions of the innovative technology for constructing educational phraseological dictionaries in paper format are presented. The relevance of the research is due to the great developmental impact of phraseological games on the addressee-child and the need to improve the system of their lexicographic description for educational purposes. The novelty of the research lies in the appeal to the unexplored problematic of describing phraseological games and the development of a technique for etymological paraphrasing, including interpretive and plot-compositional techniques, which are implemented in a twolevel configurative structure of etymological paraphrase. Special attention is paid to lexicographic techniques that allow revealing the specifics of phraseological games built on false imagery, as well as phraseological games, the content plan of which is not opposed to the expression plan, and their actual meaning is logically justified and motivated. Examples of dictionary entries of new phraseographic projects of the Experimental Laboratory of Educational Lexicography of Pskov University are given — a quest dictionary and a phraseological puzzle dictionary, the genres of which adequately reveal the specifics of phraseological games.

The present article addresses the two contemporary Italian dictionaries of abbreviations Malossini (1999) and Righini (2001) and outlines the position of the Italian abbreviations in some other Italian dictionaries, namely the monolingual Zingarelli (2000) and Garzanti (2021) and bilingual Slovene–Italian (Šlenc 2006) and Italian–Slovene (Šlenc 1997). The aim of the paper is to give an insight into the compilation of the abbreviation dictionary entries in monolingual Italian, bilingual in tandem with the Slovene language and specialised abbreviation dictionaries; highlight the elements present within the dictionary entries; present the deficiencies in compiling and examples of good practice; with the aim of introducing the outcomes in the compilation of the bilingual Italian–Slovene dictionary entries of the Slovene Contemporary Dictionary of Abbreviations. Within the paper we present the composition of the bilingual dictionary entries giving the reader an insight into the elements of the dictionary entry, namely the usage of language and field qualifiers, articulated prepositions, i.e. preposizioni articolate (composed of prepositions and definite articles), official translations and additional descriptions.

The scope of research in the article includes author’s vocabulary, or the vocabulary of the language of O. E. Mandelstam (based on the book of poems “Stone”). The research object is an author’s vocabulary entry as a system that has a structure and its own units. The basic research method is the method of poetic ideography as a kind of literary ideography and a type of general ideography in lexicographical perspective. The units under study are heterogeneous and diverse: these are units of a quantum and metafunctional nature. The former include units of prosody, lexical and conceptual units; the latter comprise units of a poetological and prosodic nature, as well as conceptual formations. The study reveals and characterizes typological features of the author’s vocabulary (of the language of O. Mandelstam), and introduces new features: poetological, prosodic, and interpretative. In general, the investigation is carried out within the framework of lexicography, ideography, textual studies, text linguistics, text hermeneutics, and text decoding (interpretation). The article establishes the operational order of description of poem units (the arrangement of the material in the author’s vocabulary is text-related), which corresponds to the set of systemic areas of the poetic text analyzed in the vocabulary entry: textual, poetological, prosodic, lexico-semantic, denotative, ideographic, and interpretative (based on the analysis of the system of functi- onal-semantic field of vocabulary in a particular poem as the title unit of a vocabulary entry) spheres. The results of poetic-ideographical analysis correlate with the specific features of the poetic worldview of O. Mandelstam. The study suggests, illustrates, and analyzes a model and structure of a vocabulary entry of O. Mandelstam’s language. The degree of subjectivity/objectivity of the content of the interpretation sphere of a vocabulary entry is also determined. Furthermore, the authors conceptualize the nature, character, and structure of the interpretative sphere of a vocabulary entry. They analyze O. Mandelstam’s poem “Silentium”. The vocabulary entry contains eight structural elements. The logic of description and analysis of the units of the poetic text (by stanzas) is as follows: the title unit of the vocabulary entry – the poem → poetological information → prosodic information → semantic-denotative-ideographic information → interpretative sphere of the vocabulary entry. Interpretation of textual, general lexicographic, and ideographic information is performed with reference to the identification and analysis of paradigmatic (causative) series of conceptual formations implemented in the text word by word, line by line, and stanza by stanza (the units of interpretative analysis – vocabulary, phrase, utterance, complex syntactic construction and complex syntactic unity). Interpretation of conceptual formations is carried out taking into account the polysemy of the vocabulary. The interpretative sphere is the result of functioning of such a feature of the text as interpretability, or poliinterpretability, and also an outcome or generalized conclusion of the poetic and lexicographic study of O. Mandelstam’s poems.

By utilising the descriptive method, in this paper we have presented the current state of Serbian lexicography. Specifically, we emphasised the quantity and quality of free digital dictionaries. We based our research on the fact that dictionaries are an essential learning tool in a language classroom and that there is a wide choice of online dictionaries for many foreign languages. By viewing the data synchronically and analysing monolingual online Serbian dictionaries, we can conclude the following: 1) the supply, number and quality of available digital Serbian dictionaries is not satisfactory, especially ones that are free of charge; 2) Serbian lexicography lacks one solid, reliable online dictionary that is founded on scientific and lexicological methods; 3) in the existing dictionaries all the elements of a dictionary entry are not present (part of speech, case, grammatical gender, grammatical number, audio recording of pronunciation, synonyms, idioms, and even full-fledged definitions and contexts of use). By using dictionaries in the classroom we can improve not only a student’s knowledge of lexicography, but we can also enrich their vocabulary, develop their wording and ways to express themselves, and improve their functional literacy. Thus, the role, importance and need for online dictionaries is vital.

In this paper, an analysis of the semantic structures of the English verb play and the Serbian verb igrati has been carried out according to the principles of the prototype theory as well as an analysis of the lexicographic representation of these structures in Oxford Dictionary of English (in its online version) and Rečnik srpskoga jezika Matice srpske (2011) as leading representatives of the lexicographic practice of the two languages. Since it has been observed that relations among senses of each of the two verbs are not all quite obvious and clear, the aim of the analysis has been to examine mutual semantic-derivational relatedness of these senses and, simultaneously, to answer the question whether semantic structures of these verbs are polysemous and, consequently, whether displaying all senses of each of these verbs within the same dictionary entry is justified. Also, the analysis has aimed at discovering how faithfully and precisely the structure and organization of entries in the two dictionaries reflect the internal organization of the given semantic structures and mutual relatedness of their senses taking into account the results of the analysis. An inventory of senses of the two verbs has been collected on the basis of their entries in the analysed dictionaries. For each sense, its derivational path has been identified including the sense which it has been derived from as well as the mechanism employed in this semantic derivation. This analysis has revealed that there are four motivated semantic networks within the semantic structure of the verb play and three such networks in the semantic structure of the verb igrati. Each of these networks includes senses which are derived from the common basic or prototypical sense directly or indirectly and, therefore, related on the basis of the family resemblance principle. The basic senses of all the networks identified within the structure of each of the verbs are also mutually related due to the fact that they share the same prototype. Hence, the identified networks, in the case of both verbs, form a unified semantic structure, which can be regarded as polysemous. This observation leads to the conclusion that the representation of these structures in the analysed dictionaries within one entry is justified. It has also been observed that the structure and organization of the entry for the verb play in the analysed dictionary of English quite precisely reflect the internal organization of the given polysemous structure since it adequately groups senses according to their semantic-derivational relatedness within the identified motivated networks and clearly emphasizes the basic sense of each network. The faithfulness of this reflection is achieved to a great extent, though not completely. However, the structure and organization of the entry for the verb igrati in the analysed dictionary of Serbian does not match the internal organization of the given polysemous structure.

The article tackles current problems of onomastic data presentation and correct delivering of its typological and semantic features in a modern dialectal dictionary. This particularly refers to a comprehensive electronic dialectal dictionary which covers a whole set of lexicographic fields of an article’s microstructure, including paradigmatic, syntagmatic, and additional ethnocultural information. The case is observed with the currently developed electronic Dictionary of the Russian Sub-dialect of Loyma Village of the Priluzsky District of the Komi Republic that builds on a machine-based version of the original dictionary. The authors proceed from describing the composition and the main categories of the onomastic vocabulary of the target (Loyma) sub-dialect: major groups of personal names (individual and social), toponyms (including names of cities, water bodies, and various microtoponyms), as well as some peripheral categories of proper names (names of peoples, local residents, etc.). It is noted that the onomastic vocabulary of the Loyma dialect shows a number of peculiar traits, such as extensive variability and synonymy, high incidence of emotional, evaluative, expressive, and stylistic features which reflect the specificity of the sub-dialect’s stylistic system distinctive from that of the standard Russian language. It is concluded that dealing with “living” Russian dialects, the task of creating computer-based versions of hard-copy dictionaries relates not only to the preservation of existing dialectal material but also to the addition and restructuring of these dictionaries to create multi-purpose lexicographic products, tapping cultural potential of the entire dialect, both the onomastic and the lexical.

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The problem of the development and codification of spelling norms of the Yakut literary language is considered. The relevance of the article is determined by the attention of researchers to the deep development of spelling issues in the languages of small nationalities. The purpose of the article is to study the history of the focused activities of Yakut philologists in developing and fixing the spelling norms of the Yakut literary language. The author used the synchronous-descriptive method including observation, interpretation, comparison, generalization. A review of the codes of the Yakut spelling and spelling publications for practical purposes, approved by official institutions. Attention is paid to the features of the codification of modern Yakut spelling carried out in 2001, the “Spelling Dictionary of the Yakut Language” (2002), as well as the new version of the Rules of the Yakut Spelling and Punctuation (2016). The spelling dictionary is considered as an experimental publication on the spelling of borrowed words from the Russian language in two versions - in phoneticized form and in the Russian outline of the basics of borrowed language units. The material presented allows us to conclude that the current Yakut spelling can successfully provide a uniform and stable spelling of all Yakut words, including borrowed ones, transmitted in phoneticized letters.

The article presents the possibilities of the representation of the regional specificity of phraseology in the synoptic dictionary on a broad all-Russian and inter-regional background. The main provisions of the concept of such dictionary developed by lexicographers of Saint Petersburg and Pskov universities are formulated. The research urgency is caused by necessity of improvement of the system of dictionary description of regional phraseological material. The novelty of the study is to identify the optimal lexicographic techniques to show the features of the component composition of dialect proverbs and sayings, phraseological activity and metaphorical potential of their core components, to reveal the mechanism of development of phraseological meaning and to explicate its regional component. It is proved that the complex description of national proverbs and their regional variants in one dictionary article will allow to reveal universal and specific figurative motives and structural-semantic models of phraseological units. Particular attention is paid to the construction of linguistic and cultural commentary in a separate parametric zone of the dictionary entry and the inclusion of cultural and historical information in the definition of the headline. The expediency of attracting foreign-language phraseological parallels in the etymologization of dialect phraseological units functioning in the areas of cross-border interlanguage contacts is shown. The author’s approach to the dictionary representation of the transformations of proverbs and sayings in folk dialects, modern speech of citizens and media texts is innovative, it gives the opportunity to see the results of the linguistic creative activity of the national linguistic consciousness in various socio-cultural conditions.

The article offers a methodology for the lexicographic description of personification in the 6th volume of the "Materials for the Dictionary of Metaphors and Similes of the 19-21 st Centuries Russian Literature. Human". Personification is considered as constructions of metaphors and similes with the meaning of personalization, that is, comparative tropes with the vehicles belonging to the "Human" semantic category. The methodology is based on ideographic and chronological principles which allow us to summarize the information on the composition of comparative trope system and its development in the course of time. While grouping the material, the authors take into account the semantic relations of units in the language lexical system: "genus–species", "action–actor", "action–instrument", synonymy, antonymy, conversion, derivation, etc. The main source of the dictionary is poetry and prose of the Russian writers of the 19-21 st centuries (about 500 authors). The paper presents the dictionary description methodology on the example of the dictionary entry titled "Death", which serves as a pilot design for testing the ideographic classification of the entire volume. The prop words of tropes personifying death are divided into the following classes: "Units naming persons", "Movement", "Speech", "Actions of death with a person", "Physical states and processes in the body", "Parts of the body", "Emotions and emotional actions", "Attributes of death". The classification is developed on the basis of analyzing 2 500 figurative contexts personifying death taking into account already existing ideographic classifications. The article shows that evolution of semantic classes of vehicles is observed in the direction of increasing diversity of names of actions, functions, properties, characteristics, states, instruments of death.

The project of “School spelling dictionary of the Yakut language” for secondary school students is considered. The relevance of the study is linked with the approval in 2015 in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) of new spelling and punctuation rules of the Yakut language, which in turn is determined by the decrease in the prestige of literacy in the eyes of young speakers of the Yakut language. It is noted that in the same year, taking into account the innovations, “Spelling dictionary of the Yakut language” was reissued, on the basis of which the school version of the spelling dictionary is developed. It is indicated that the need for the introduction of the latter is due to the school tasks of studying spelling, a large spelling dictionary being beyond them. The author substantiates the necessity of compiling a dictionary focused on the student, describes its concept and objectives, features of content and structure. The features of inclusion in the school dictionary of various lexical units, including obsolete words, dialect words, some terms, homonyms, proper names, are shown. The author demonstrates the system of marks accepted in the dictionary and the conditions for inclusion of a meaning in the dictionary entry. It is noted that the words borrowed from the Russian language are represented in the new dictionary phonetically, differently than it was accepted by tradition in the Soviet period.

The polysemy of an adjective as a semantic and grammatical phenomenon is studied. The semantic structure of a polysemantic adjective and the character of motivational relations between its lexico-semantic variants are analyzed. The connection between the method of semantic derivation, the semantic type of lexical meaning generated by it and the lexeme belonging to a particular lexico-grammatical category is investigated. The representation of adjectival polysemy in a dictionary entry is described. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that the author sets the task of inventory and systematization of ways of semantic derivation of an adjective, among which metaphorical transfer, metonymic transfer, specialization of relations are distinguished. It is proved that in the semantic structure of polysemantic adjective two types of motivational relations between meanings are possible: direct motivation and parallel (mediated) motivation. The types of relations between initial and secondary meanings according to their discharge affiliation are revealed: relative - relative; qualitative - qualitative; relative - qualitative; qualitative - relative. Adjectival semantic neologisms are described. It is noted that most of them are not fixed in explanatory dictionaries, only in the dictionaries of the 21st century it is possible to identify some adjectives formed by specialization, which is an active way of secondary qualitativeness derivation.

The article examines the specifics of the preparation of dialect dictionaries – the goal and purpose, the principles of material selection and presentation. The research carried out shows that a comprehensive dialect dictionary must present the totality of words used in a dialect and reflect the most important distinguishing features of the dialect – phonetic, accentual, morphological, syntactic, semantic and stylistic fields of data. Therefore, when collecting material for a future dictionary, it is necessary to take into account three important things: 1) method of data collection, 2) themes of oral and written texts, 3) principles of compiling a database. Properly selected illustrative sentences of a comprehensive dialectal dictionary are meant to reveal the so-called microstructure of a dictionary entry, and show a broader structure of the concepts researched than demonstrated in the lexicographic definition of words. A dialect dictionary is a cultural and historical phenomenon that records the level and peculiarities of the knowledge of the world of an ethnic group at a certain period of time. Texts reveals people’s ethnic values, their attitudes towards social and religious relationships, everyday phenomena, etc. Therefore, a comprehensive dialect dictionary is to be considered as a multi-layered text of ethnic knowledge, revealing the heritage of material and spiritual culture passed down from generation to generation by a particular ethnic group. A dictionary like this regulates the most important areas of man’s life: establishes the rules of behaviour and etiquette, describes customs, provides knowledge about folk remedies and economic activities, explains world phenomena, provides fragments of mythical worldviews and so forth.

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Dictionary notes play an important role in description of a title unit. A note is an abbreviated word or phrase which gives a certain characteristic to the language unit. Traditionally, different types of notes are distinguished: grammatical, stylistic, sectoral, chronological, etc. The object of this research is a lexicographic note which can be justified if it demarks the usage sphere and language peculiarities of the title unit. The material for the research is bilingual (Russian-Tatar and Russian-Chinese) dictionaries of various types of the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries. The paper presents the results of comparative analysis of the notes system in bilingual dictionaries. The study revealed the following: 1) when lexical units are supplied with notes, the authors and compilers of bilingual dictionaries, as a rule, use the data from thesauri of the entry language, though not always consistently; 2) stylistic notes (разг., груб., бранн., сниж., пренебр., презр., etc.) do not have distinct boundaries, thus, a user may have difficulties seeing the difference between the properties; 3) the problem of singularia tantum and pluralia tantum words should be specially highlighted, namely, if one meaning of a word is singularia tantum and another is pluralia tantum; 4) a certain group of notes is rare in the analyzed dictionaries, for example, statistical notes, the notes pointing out the dialectical character of the described unites, etc. Terminological notes should be used only for describing polysemantic words to distinguish between their meanings and homonyms; 5) when using lexicographic notes, one of the linguography principles is often violated - to describe similar things in a similar way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the thematic group ‘Names of Cooking Wares and Utensils’ in the context of the creation of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Kalmyk heroic epic of Jangar (EDJ). The work reveals some peculiarities and distinct features of names of wares and utensils, examines the lexemes хәәсн ‘cauldron’, ааһ ‘bowl; cup’, шанһ ‘ladle’, and provides examples of concise dictionary entries with the mentioned lexical units acting as header words. In general, names of cooking wares and utensils are poorly represented in the Jangar Epic. This is likely to have been determined by the nomadic lifestyle of the Oirats — ancestors of the Kalmyks — which required universal minimalism, including in household activities. The epic narratives contain no detailed descriptions of such wares or utensils, and to restore some missing distinct features during the compilation of corresponding definitions authors of EDJ turn to lexicographic, ethnographic, and other sources to clarify the meanings of certain words.

The reviewed book analyzes the toponymic vocabulary of the Republic of Kalmykia — a Russian region that retains a number of historical, geographical, administrative and territorial peculiarities. A centuries-old history of the region mapped since Herodotus times, around 5th century BC, its unique position on the plane in the semi-desert zone, the richness of its flora and fauna, as well the nomadic life of the K almyks which remained true until quite recently — have cumulatively left their mark on the specificity of geographical names included into this dictionary of more than 300 entries. The dictionary contains names of cities and towns, working-class settlements, villages, and other habitats, as well as names of rivers, lakes, elevations, ravines, gullies and other geographical objects of the Republic of Kalmykia. The structure of the dictionary is rather simple. It opens with an extended preface followed by the lexicographic part that is alphabetically arranged, the list of sources and a few elaborative lists to help using the dictionary. An appendix containing data on the numbers of residents in various localities of Kalmykia according to the 2017 census is presented in the end. Each entry includes physical, economic and geographical characteristic of the named object complete with linguistic and linguocultural information about the toponym and its etymological interpretations. The dictionary presents an exemplary case for the description of toponymic vocabulary of other Russian regions, including that of various nations residing on the territory of the Russian Federation. The edition itself represents a considerable contribution to the regional onomastic lexicography.

The macro- and microstructures of Russian-Tatar and Tatar-Russian dictionaries published in the second half of the 20th century have been considered. The detailed analysis of the dictionaries published in the Soviet period and Post-Soviet periods has been performed. The concepts of macro- and microstructures have been thoroughly studied. Their components have been described: using both lexical material and macro- and microstructural organization of bilingual Tatar dictionaries. Special attention has been paid to the development and modification of the macro- and microstructure concepts of bilingual Russian-Tatar and Tatar-Russian dictionaries for learners published in the second half of the 20th century. The social changes provoked the change in the attitude and needs of users to the dictionaries under study. Thus, the change in requirements and needs of dictionary users favored the development at the macro- and microstructural level of lexicographic works of that time. The following conclusion has been made: the dictionaries of the Post-Soviet lexicographic sphere were structured according to the practical necessities of language learners of that epoch – they placed a lower emphasis on the encyclopedic presentation of lexical information.

The article is devoted to the unique dictionary of Russian dialects of Bashkiria, created at the Department of General and Comparative Historical Linguistics of the Bashkir State University under the guidance of Professor Zoya Petrovna Zdobnova. The work of the team of authors over the compilation of the dictionary continued for fifty years – starting in 1960. Since the publication of the first volume of the dictionary in 1997, 20 years have passed, convincingly demonstrating the importance of the dictionary in the development of Russian dialectology in Bashkortostan and the preservation of Russian national culture, reflected in an original word. In the preface to the dictionary it is noted that the territory of Bashkortostan was beginning to be populated by the Russians rather late – the main stream of migrants is associated with the abolition of serfdom in 1861, which determined the diversity of the population. The northern part of Bashkortostan, the Brisk and adjacent areas are inhabited mainly by immigrants from the neighboring provinces – Perm and Vyatka. In the central and southern parts of the republic, immigrants from the South Russian provinces predominate: Tambov, Kursk, Orel, Saratov, and others. At some points the population is mixed, consisting of carriers of North Russian, South Russian and Central Russian dialects. In some villages, along with the Russians live representatives of other nationalities: Ukrainians, Byelorussians, Mordvins, Tatars, Bashkirs, etc. In all settlements, the speech of the Russian population was recorded. In accordance with the modern lexicographic classification, the dictionary is an explanatory dictionary with elements of encyclopedic: the semantics of local words is described by the principle of explanatory dictionaries, in the presence of a literary language equivalent in meaning to a word – translation into a literary language, for describing realities absent in general life, encyclopedic way of description. The coverage of dialects is a consolidated dictionary of dissimilar dialects, but the dictionary is dominated by materials on the Middle Russian dialects of the Vladimir-Volga type. On the selection of vocabulary – this is a differential dictionary, which covers only the vocabulary that distinguishes dialects from the literary language represented in the Great and Small academic dictionaries and the explanatory dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov. The vocabulary includes the common vocabulary, including the commonly used terminology of crafts and crafts developed in Bashkortostan (weaving, fishing, hunting, semi-nomadic cattle breeding, beekeeping, arts and crafts), words marked in explanatory dictionaries as obsolete, but not so in dialects, vocabulary active and passive, for example, archaisms from the speech of representatives of the older generation. The author of the article believes that after the lapse of 20 years from the publication of the first volume of the Dictionary of Russian Dialects of Bashkiria, a re-release of this unique collection is necessary, especially now that the folk dialects are on the verge of extinction and a whole layer of Russian culture is a thing of the past but does not go away irrevocably – it is preserved by the invaluable works of devotees-dialectologists. To their cohort, of course, belongs and Z.P. Zdobnova.

The semantic characteristics of speech formulas of apology in the English language are considered. The article presents the results of seme analysis, with the help of which dictionary entries of verbs and adjectives, which form the basis of verbal formulas of apology, are investigated. Distinctive semantic features of each speech formula are established. The research urgency is caused by necessity of revealing the semantic framework in the study of linguistic and semiotic characteristics of the considered speech formulas of apology. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that by the date, a detailed analysis of the semantic characteristics of these speech formulas has not been carried out. There are differences in the semantics of the verbal formulas of apology in the English language: an apology with the word sorry is neutral, and it is the main way of expressing apology; the apology with the verb to excuse is given for the negative action; the apology from the verb to forgive is given for the negative state; the apology with the verb to apologise/ze additionally includes such semes as ‘official’ and ‘emphatic’; the apology with the verb regret includes semes of ‘regret’ and ‘formality’; the apology with the speech formula of I’m afraid includes seme ‘courtesy’ and is used to mitigate the subsequent unfavourable message. Functions in which the studied formulas can be used are revealed.

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The article considers the problem of lexicographical fixation of uncodified vocabulary in a professional dictionary. The oil sublanguage, being one of the variants of common language realization used by a limited group of its medium in conditions of official and also non-official communication, provides interaction of people employed in the oil industry. The authors conclude that the creation of a dictionary requires a special approach to the interpretation of words and the engagement of extralinguistic information, contexts and illustrative material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The problem of description of nominative sets in dictionary of social vocabulary of ideographic type is discussed. The purpose of creation of such dictionary is seen in the development of a comprehensive description of the words, calling the facts, objects, relations, interactions from the social sphere. The author reports that for this purpose linguistic units are extracted from the dictionaries of literary language, slang and dialects in different historical periods. It is indicated that the value of forming ideography is in the search and description of linguistic facts, not yet committed to existing dictionaries. The new material is taken primarily from newspaper journalism, which refers to important social and political issues. The rules for the selection of social categories on the basis of the analysis of assertive and presuppositional zones of word meaning are described. The methods of compiling dictionary entries and including illustrative material is explained. It is shown that the analysis of contexts identifies the examples of actualization of shades of meaning, connotations, optional semes, marking the belonging to the category of social vocabulary. In other cases, “social” forms nuclear part in the structure of language unit meaning. A fragment of the nominations of ideograph “mass action against the official authorities,” including linguistic facts from different time periods and linguistic idioms.

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