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Insufficient compaction of the subgrade can result in nonuniform deformation, leading to severe subgrade distress. To address this issue and find a new method for rapid detection and evaluation of subgrade compaction, we used the lightweight deflectometer (LWD) to analyze the dynamic deformation modulus (Evd) of subgrades filled with four types of soils—silt (ML), well-graded gravel (GW), lean clay (CL), and poorly graded sand (SP)—in different regions of Gansu province, China. Concurrently, we measured the degree of compaction (Doc) using the sand replacement method (SRM) to establish its correlation with dynamic deformation modulus (Evd). A strong correlation between the degree of compaction and dynamic deformation modulus was established for soils ML, GW, CL, and SP, and suitable formulas were selected based on curve variations. The developed formulas enabled back-calculation of the dynamic deformation modulus requirements corresponding to different degrees of compaction ranging from 90 to 100, facilitating direct queries and quick field checks. Results demonstrated that the LWD, as a reliable rapid detection method, effectively controlled subgrade compaction quality in field construction. Moreover, it extended the testing area and increased measurement frequency, thus providing a practical means for quickly evaluating the qualification rate and uniformity of subgrade compaction. When we build roads, most subgrade underneath the roads needs to be filled with soil. If we don't pack the soil properly in the filling process, the subgrade can crack and become uneven over time. It's hard to fix this problem once the road is open, so it's important to make sure the soil is packed tightly enough before the road is finished. There are two ways to check if the soil is packed properly: one is a traditional method called the sand replacement method, and the other is a machine called the lightweight deflectometer. These methods help identify insufficient compaction of the subgrade and prevent uneven deformation problems during the filling process. What's more, the lightweight deflectometer is a fast, convenient, and reliable tool that can assist or serve as an alternative to the traditional sand replacement method for controlling subgrade construction quality. This study is important because it helps us understand how to evaluate compaction of the filled subgrade in a different way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Strength characteristics of graded gravels are essential in the construction of roadway and railway substructures. Traditional constitutive models, primarily nonlinear elastic and plastic types, fall short in accurately capturing the strain-softening properties of such materials. To address this limitation, the current study introduces a statistical damage model designed to outline the stress–strain behavior of densely compacted graded gravels in transport infrastructures. Utilizing medium-sized triaxial tests, the model examines variations in strength and deformation parameters in relation to compaction levels and incorporates a unique damage-softening index (DSI) along with a threshold axial strain to improve accuracy. The study establishes that the DSI and threshold axial strain effectively regulate stress–strain relations in the postpeak segment, the model's statistical parameters and threshold axial strain can be precisely determined through the introduction of DSI, and the model closely aligns with experimental data across multiple compaction levels. These findings are especially relevant for engineering design in the context of roadway and railway construction and indicate potential for further refinement, such as the incorporation of loading rate considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to develop an appropriate machine learning model for predicting soil compaction degree while also examining the contribution rates of three influential factors: moisture content, electrical conductivity and temperature, towards the prediction of soil compaction degree. Design/methodology/approach: Taking fine-grained soil A and B as the research object, this paper utilized the laboratory test data, including compaction parameter (moisture content), electrical parameter (electrical conductivity) and temperature, to predict soil degree of compaction based on five types of commonly used machine learning models (19 models in total). According to the prediction results, these models were preliminarily compared and further evaluated. Findings: The Gaussian process regression model has a good effect on the prediction of degree of compaction of the two kinds of soils: the error rates of the prediction of degree of compaction for fine-grained soil A and B are within 6 and 8%, respectively. As per the order, the contribution rates manifest as: moisture content > electrical conductivity >> temperature. Originality/value: By using moisture content, electrical conductivity, temperature to predict the compaction degree directly, the predicted value of the compaction degree can be obtained with higher accuracy and the detection efficiency of the compaction degree can be improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given copper and lead mine enrichment and the high yield of North-Western China, the metallurgical industry attains prosperity. Metallurgical industrial waste which contains heavy metals can cause contamination and threaten the fragile loess environment. The disposal of hazardous waste is becoming a challenging and unavoidable task when land contamination consistently raises environmental concerns. Electrokinetic (EK) technology is an increasingly popular alternative to traditional approaches for contaminated soil remediation because of its high time effectiveness and low risk of secondary pollution. This study investigates the effect of degree of compaction, initial water content, and electric field intensity on the percentage removal of heavy metals in the loess. An EK reactor applied to the EK experiments is set up to measure pH, electric conductivity (EC), and electromigration of cation and heavy metal ions. The experimental results indicate that the lower degree of compaction promoted the formation of the agglomerate structure, and therefore, caused the electromigration path wider and straighter towards elevating the percentage removal of heavy metals. Furthermore, the slippage of the Gouy layer aggravated the electromigration of the cations and heavy metal ions when subjected to the higher initial water content, thereby enhancing the percentage removal of heavy metals. Moreover, the electromigration of the cations and heavy metal ions was notably accelerated by the higher electric current resulting from the higher electric field intensity. The removal of heavy metals was improved accordingly. These results, however, also highlighted the deteriorated percentage removal by the precipitation of heavy metal compounds at the cathode, induced by the alkaline front. A dynamic pH regulation during the EK remediation and a permeable reactive barrier to separate the heavy metal ions from the hydroxide ions are deemed as of great necessity for optimising the removal of heavy metals in the loess. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Freeze–thaw (F-T) cycles are one of the main deterioration factors for the performance of expansive clay in seasonally frozen soil regions. This study designed a unidirectional environmental boundary loading device for F-T cycle tests. Laboratory tests were conducted to quantitatively evaluate the effects of the F-T cycle on volume change behavior and mechanical properties of expansive clay with different degrees of compaction below the canal in Xinjiang. The SEM image processing was performed with the Image-Pro Plus image processing software to get pore parameters. The results showed that during the F-T cycle, the volume change of the sample gradually changes from contraction to expansion as the degree of compaction increases. As the degree of compaction increases, the hardening characteristics of the expansive clay are weakened, and the F-T cycle promotes the softening of the stress–strain relationship. The first F-T cycle resulted in a significant decrease of failure strength, and the failure strength of different compaction degrees decreased by 56.07%–67.54% after seven cycles. The failure strain and resilient modulus of the samples are attenuated to varying degrees after F-T cycles. The correlation rate between the porosity and the attenuation rate of the failure strength is 0.719–0.882, the corresponding weight reaches 0.419–0.445, and there is an excellent linear relationship between them. The research offers some important insights into the construction and maintenance of expansive clay engineering such as the Xinjiang Canal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of compaction degree on engineering properties of saline soil under freeze-thaw was studied, explain the mechanism of salt swelling, laws of development and influencing factors, and provide theoretical guidance for the study of regional engineering construction, the typical soda saline soil in Daqing area was selected, based on the analysis of its physical and chemical properties, three groups of samples with compactness of 85%, 90% and 95% were designed, and the freeze-thaw cycle test of soda saline soil in Daqing area was carried out with the help of the frost heave test box. The results showed that when the degree of compaction was 85%, frost heave(salt heave) was the main factor, and when the degree of compaction was 90%, thaw settlement was significant, while 95% of the degree of compaction can restrain frost heave and thaw settlement. The first freeze-thaw cycle had the greatest influence on the deformation of soda saline soil. Due to the high groundwater level in the study area, in order to simulate the actual working condition and carry out water replenishment test, the results showed that sodic saline soil was more sensitive to temperature change under the condition of water supplement, the problem of soil thawing settlement was more prominent than that of frost heaving, and groundwater treatment should be done in actual projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Relationship between compaction degree and tensile strength is found. • Evolution of 3D fractal dimension of air voids is determined. • Tensile strength is related to complexity of air void morphology. The compaction of asphalt mixtures creates different tensile strengths throughout the asphalt mixture and is thus of importance to ensure durable pavement performance. Asphalt mixtures are composite materials. Therefore, it is necessary to analyse the relationship between the microstructural characteristics and the mechanical performance of asphalt mixtures at different DoCs. In this paper, the 3D microstructures of the asphalt specimens were reconstructed by means of Digital Image Processing (DIP) techniques based on X-ray Computed Tomography (X-ray CT) scanning. Results from the Indirect Tensile Test (ITT) were used to determine the tensile strength of the asphalt specimens. The results show that the relationships between the DoC and the tensile strength as well as the fracture energy are not linear for asphalt specimens at the same testing temperature. This indicates the occurrence of over-compaction during the compaction process. In order to reveal the mechanism of the over compaction at the microscale, the 3D fractal dimension of air voids and aggregates were derived. The 3D fractal dimension of the air voids is variable and constant at first and then becomes smaller during the compaction process. The complexity of the air void morphology is related to the tensile strengths and a hypothesis based on the evolution of 3D fractal dimension of the air voids is proposed in this paper to explain this phenomenon. The results of this research help to increase the understanding regarding the mechanism of over compaction based on the microstructure of the asphalt specimens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Compaction effects on soil properties 30–90 cm were investigated for a sandy loam. • Visual evaluation of soil profiles showed detrimental impacts to >50 cm. • Laboratory measurements quantified detrimental effects on soil pore characteristics. • A single pass of 12 Mg loaded self-propelled machine wheel had only minor effects. • Multiple pass of 8 Mg loaded wheels with high traction had major impacts. Abstract Traffic in agricultural fields with very high wheel loads imposes a risk of severe structural damage deep into the subsoil. However, there is a paucity of studies quantifying these effects. This study focuses on heavy traffic-induced changes in soil structure for a sandy loam soil in a temperate region. The treatments included no compaction (Control), compaction with ∼3 Mg (M3) and ∼8 Mg (M8) wheel loads with multiple (4–5) wheel passes, and compaction with a single-pass wheel load of ∼12 Mg (S12). The compaction treatments were replicated four consecutive years. Subsoil structural quality was evaluated visually by the SubVESS method, and soil pore characteristics were quantified for minimally disturbed soil cores sampled at 30, 50, 70 and 90 cm depth two years after the end of the experiment. Our results indicate that M8 significantly affected soil structural properties to >50 cm depth in terms of reduced subsoil structural quality, air-filled pore space, air permeability, gas diffusivity, pore volume and increased bulk density. Results also showed that the degree of compactness was ≥95% for M8 at 30 and 50 cm depth. Even though a pre-existing dense soil matrix was described in the studied soil, results confirmed that high wheel loads may cause significant subsoil compaction at >50 cm depth. Surprisingly, the S12 treatment did not show marked signs of decreasing structural quality at depth. Thus, our results indicate that primarily traffic applying multiple passes with high wheel loads compromises soil structure at depth. The S12 results further suggest the need to investigate the influence of factors other than wheel load and inflation pressure on the risk of subsoil compaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Clinker ash is regarded as a granular waste of coal combustion but potentially employed as a recycled and light-weight backfill material for retaining wall and embankment in recent years. The physical, particle, compaction and mechanical properties of six selected types of clinker ash were thoroughly examined in this experimental investigation. Clinker ash owns very complex and angular shapes and it gives rise to the larger difference between the maximum and minimum void ratios. The single particle crushing strength of clinker ash is around 1/5–1/10 lower than natural sands and it indicates high crushability in nature. With similarity to natural sands, the mean crushing strength of clinker ash displays a decreasing tendency with the increase in grain diameter. A series of triaxial compression tests were performed on different types of clinker ash to examine the influences of particle characteristics, degree of compaction and effective confining pressure on their shear behaviour and deformation characteristics. Test results demonstrate that clinker ash possesses a higher peak friction angle at low effective confining pressures and gradually loses its shear strength with the rise in effective confining pressure. The great shear strength dependence on the stress level for clinker ash is confirmed. The stress-dilatancy behaviour of a given type of clinker ash is minimally affected by the degree of compaction and level of effective confining pressure. The stress ratios at the critical state of clinker ash are well correlated with the mean crushing strengths. A larger N value for clinker ash determined using Nova's rule indicates its higher crushability. The downward shift of critical state line of clinker ash due to grain crushing is identified on the void ratio and logarithm of effective mean stress plane. Additionally, grain crushing was confirmed by the comparison of the variation in grain size distribution curves and the observation of colored particles previously seeded in the tested samples before and after shearing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • DOC showed different influences on As and Sb leached concentrations. • Increasing DOC increased the UCS while decreased the k w of specimen. • The D obs of metalloids decreased orders of magnitude as increased DOC. • Compaction caused the reduction of As(V) to As(III) and Sb(V) to Sb(III) The current research and engineering practice lack adequate consideration of the influence of degree of compaction (DOC) on the stabilization efficiency and the long-term performance of stabilized contaminated soil. This study investigated the influence of DOC on the characteristics of an iron-based stabilizer amended As and Sb contaminated soil. The stabilizer was labelled as PFSC and was a mixture of polymerized ferric sulfate (PFS) and hydrated lime with a dry mass ratio of 2:1. Various tests were conducted to determine the metalloids leachability (HJ 557), unconfined compressive strength (UCS) (ASTM D1633), and hydraulic conductivity (k w) (ASTM D5084) of stabilized contaminated soil with different DOC (ranged from 75% to 96%). A semi-dynamic leaching test following US EPA Method 1315 was performed on soil specimens to explore the leaching controlling mechanisms and determine the observed diffusion coefficients (D obs) of metalloids releases when diffusion was the controlling mechanism. The influence of DOC on soil pore characteristics and elements' valence states were investigated by X-ray computed tomography (CT) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscope (XPS). As the DOC increased, the UCS of soil specimens increased from 4.26 to 43.78 kPa, while the k w decreased form 1.33 × 10−7 to 2.81 × 10−9 m s−1. DOC shows different influences on As and Sb leached concentrations. The mean D obs for As and Sb released form soil specimen with DOC of 96% were 3 and 2 orders of magnitude lower than that of 75%. CT analysis results indicated the macropore number and macropore size in soil specimens were reduced with the increasing DOC. XPS analysis results suggested compaction promoted the specie transformation of As, Sb, and Fe from As(V) to As(III), from Sb(V) to Sb(III), and Fe(III) to Fe(II)., respectively. The pore filling and chemical specie transformation jointly determined the releases of metalloids from stabilized contaminated soil specimen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The thickness estimation of the top surface layer and surface layer, as well as the detection of road defects, are of great importance to the quality conditions of asphalt pavement. Although ground penetrating radar (GPR) methods have been widely used in non-destructive detection of pavements, the thickness estimation of the thin top surface layer is still a difficult problem due to the limitations of GPR resolution and the similar permittivity of asphalt sub-layers. Besides, the detection of some road defects, including inadequate compaction and delamination at interfaces, require further practical study. In this paper, a newly-developed vehicle-mounted GPR detection system is introduced. We used a horizontal high-pass filter and a modified layer localization method to extract the underground layers. Besides, according to lab experiments and simulation analysis, we proposed theoretical methods for detecting the degree of compaction and delamination at the interface, respectively. Moreover, a field test was carried out and the estimated results showed a satisfactory accuracy of the system and methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil compaction is a threat to crop yield, but mechanical decompaction operations increase soil degradation risk and crop costs. The decision about soil management practices that minimize yield loss depends on the impact of soil compaction on crop yield. However, the relationship between soil compaction and crop yield is affected by rainfall pattern, which changes over the years. Long-term effect of soil compaction in crop yield is wide unknown, and fill this gap is crucial for adjust soil management to improve soil conservation and increase crop yield. To evaluate the impact of soil compaction on soybean yield over 30 crop seasons using DSSAT CSM-CROPGRO-Soybean model. Soybean yield was simulated in hypothetical soil profiles of sandy loam, silty loam and clay soils and 12 scenarios of soil compaction (contrasting scenarios - from a whole compacted profile to one compacted layer). We also set two hypothetical reduced rooting depths and three levels of reduced root proliferation due to soil compaction by changing the soil root growth factor parameter to mimic the mechanical stress effect on root growth on DSSAT. Simulations were carried out with data (1990 to 2020) from a weather station located in Southern Brazil and with soybean genetic parameters calibrated for the same region. The reduction in soybean yield due to soil compaction estimated by DSSAT was lower than 0.1 Mg ha−1 in simulations with well-distributed rainfall (every 2 weeks or shorter) but it reached 4.1 Mg ha−1 in simulations with periods without rainfall longer than 2 weeks. The simulated cumulative reduction in soybean yield over 30 years due to soil compaction reached up to 39% of the potential yield, of which 77% was associated with the decrease in rooting depth and 21% with the reduction in soil water availability. Thus, a reliable overview of the effect of soil compaction on soybean yield should consider the interactions between soil, plant and weather variables. This work presents a strategy based on DSSAT simulations to assess the relation between crop yield and soil compaction, which is a worldwide demand still fed with scarce data. Researchers, farmers, technicians and decision makers can replicate and improve this strategy to simulate the negative impact of soil compaction on soybean yield and many other crops, which can assist them to adjust management practices to minimize soil degradation and reduce yield gaps. [Display omitted] • Soil compaction decreases potential water supply, but crops yield loss in compacted soil also depends on rainfall pattern. • DSSAT was used to predict 30-year soybean yield in different soil compaction scenarios with variable rainfall pattern data. • By limiting water accessibility and availability, soil compaction can reduce about 79% and 21% of soybean yield, respectively. • Soybean yield gap associated with soil compaction cumulated over 30 years reached up to 39% of potential yield. • Results can help farmers decide on decompaction practices that reduce soil degradation and improve yields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrical resistivity measurements provide potentially powerful tool for estimation of physical parameters of soils and materials used in earthworks and constructions like embankments and dams. The study demonstrates the correlation between the resistivity of non-cohesive soils and the degree of compaction, which is an indicator of important and possibly risks bearing hydraulic piping or tunneling. In this paper we investigate the relationship between electrical resistivity of non-cohesive soils and granulated materials used in earth-works and constructions such as road embankments, and degree of compaction. Laboratory analyses of the last parameter are time consuming and estimated using parameters such as moisture content, bulk density and porosity, the same parameters (mostly obviously porosity and moisture content and including pore water mineralization) determine electrical resistivity. In consequence, electrical resistivity is a potentially well adapted alternative method for determination of the degree of compaction. To investigate the problem, electrical resistivity survey was conducted in a laboratory using soil samples representing fine, medium and coarse sands, submitted to successive steps of compaction. The measurements were carried out in the box, which may be compared with the construction such as an embankment. Obtained resistivity values were analyzed taking into consideration electrode spacing and the physical parameters of soil at each step of compaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on the effect of soil compaction on soil mechanical properties such as degree of compaction, compression and shear strength of tropical soils of Nigeria under different machinery traffic passes is very scarce. Field experiment was conducted in a tilled and compacted sandy clay loam (Alfisol) in Akure, Nigeria, under different machinery traffic passes to determine compaction effects on bulk density, compression strength, degree of compaction and the shear strength of soil. Four plots, A, B, C and D of area 20 m×50 m each were used for the field experiment. Treatment plot A was tilled with a tractor-mounted disc plough, and the remaining three plots: B, C and D were subjected to 5, 10 and 15 to and fro passes, respectively, using heavy duty Mercy Fergusson tractor model 4355 (3.82 Mg). The treatments were replicated three times in a randomized complete block design. Compacted plots progressively increased the bulk density from 1.63 g/cm3 to 1.90 g/cm3, but the highest bulk density was observed in plots under 15 traffic passes with the value of (1.90±0.23) g/cm3. The percentage of soil compaction varies from 90.5% to 97% at the 0-10 cm soil layer. The compression strength of soil increased from 31.00 kPa to 42.05 kPa and from 29.68 to 65.44 kPa at the 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm soil layers, respectively, which resulted in the increased shear strength from 15.79 kPa to 21.03 kPa and 14.8 kPa to 32.72 kPa at the 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm in plots under 5 and 15 traffic passes, respectively. Plot A (tilled soil) had the lowest bulk density, degree of compaction and compression strength with values (1.51±0.19) g/cm3, 88.2%, and (12.15±0.37) kPa, respectively, and consequently the lowest shear strength of (6.02±1.23) kPa, which enhanced air movement and microbial activities in the soil. Soil under 15 traffic passes, especially at the 10-20 cm soil layer, may result in poor root penetration when cropped but can be very reliable and consistent when used for structural purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Suffusion of well graded gravels initiates with a high hydraulic gradient beyond a critical value. • Incipient, marginally unstable and fully unstable stages are observed for well graded gravels. • Critical hydraulic gradient is positively correlated with degree of compaction and initial fines content. • An empirical equation is proposed to predict the eroded mass of fine particles. The suffusion mechanism of well graded gravels in the application of high speed railway roadbed is still not fully understood. Field inspections of high speed railway show that suffusion of well graded gravels can result in mud pumping and affect the normal operation of high speed trains. This paper reports a total of 12 laboratory suffusion tests on well graded gravels typically used in Chinese high speed railway roadbed under three different degrees of compaction (93%, 95% and 97%). The influence of degree of compaction and initial fines content on the critical hydraulic gradient of roadbed materials and the characteristics of suffusion is systematically investigated. The results show that well graded gravels suggested by the design code can experience suffusion once the hydraulic gradient reaches a critical value. The critical hydraulic gradient generally increases with the degree of compaction and the initial fines content. An empirical equation is proposed to predict the eroded mass of fine particles, which can reasonably reproduce the experimental measurements for well graded gravels under different failure hydraulic gradient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Microstructure of asphalt samples is characterized by 3D fractal dimensions. • Non-probability convex model is used to feature data distribution of compaction indicators. • Decision tree is employed to assess priority of influence factors of asphalt performance. The compaction process of pavement during construction critically influences the mechanical performance of the pavement. However, this sophisticated procedure, including asphalt mixing, pre-paving, and multi-step compactions, could induce significant compaction variation, which, to some extent, might cause unwanted distresses in the early service of pavement. An insight into the in-situ compaction variation would benefit the estimation of compaction quality and further optimize the compaction procedure. For this reason, this study estimated the in-situ compaction quality incorporated with an uncertainty analysis. A total of 45 samples were cored from a newly constructed test track. The volumetric and microstructural parameters (air void content, degree of compaction, fractal dimensions of aggregate and air voids) were calculated through digital image processing for each sample. Additionally, the mechanical property (indirect tensile strength) of the asphalt samples was measured by indirect tensile test. Subsequently, two uncertainty approaches, namely the non-probability convex model and decision tree, were employed to feature the data distribution and figure out the priority factor that influences the mechanical performance of asphalt mixtures. The results indicated that the microstructure of asphalt mixtures remarkably affected the distribution of the degree of compaction. Additionally, asphalt mixtures' indirect tensile strength was associated with compaction indicators differently depending on the measuring temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• New model for the compaction energy density was developed with degree of compaction. • New model for the energy utilization coefficient was proposed based on the test road. • New models for f 1 C 1 and f 3 C 3 were established based on the test road. • The compaction energy density was quantified for different types of rollers. • The prediction method was proposed for the degree of compaction of asphalt layers. The objective of this research was to develop a new method for predicting the number of roller passes and degree of compaction of asphalt layer from the perspective of energy. The relationship between the compaction energy density and degree of compaction was quantified using the gyratory compactor. Prediction models for the energy utilization coefficient and the product of rolling resistance coefficient and energy utilization coefficient were established based on a test section. The prediction procedure for the degree of compaction was proposed. Test results showed the predicted results of the degree of compaction are in good agreement with the observations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frost damage of soil foundations of engineering structures is controlled by mechanical properties of soil under frozen and unfrozen states, existing widely in cold regions such as Genhe area that is termed as the "pole of cold" in China. For investigating engineering properties of soil in cold regions, a series of triaxial compressive tests were carried out on both frozen and unfrozen Genhe silty clay with different degrees of compaction under different confining pressures. The test results show that the stress-strain curves gradually change from softening to hardening with increasing confining pressure, temperature and decreasing compaction degree. Additionally, both axial and radial deformation is more sensitive to lower confining pressures. An accurate method was proposed for determining the elastic modulus. The elastic modulus and strength decrease significantly as the state of soil changes from frozen to unfrozen. The effect of compaction degree on radial deformation, strength and failure strain is gradually eliminated with the increase of confining pressure, which can be observed in both frozen and unfrozen soil. The isotropic tensile strength and the cohesion were obtained in the stress spaces of p - q and σ - τ respectively, and the ice cementing force was identified by adopting the difference of the two strength parameters between frozen state and unfrozen state. The results indicate that the ice cementing force calculated by two strength parameters is consistent, which increases with increasing compaction degree. • The coupling effect of compaction degree and confining pressure was identified. • A method was proposed for accurately determining the elastic modulus under global strain measurement. • The restraining effect of confining pressure on radial deformation was quantified. • The ice cementing force was determined by two methods and the two results were consistent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]