Search

Gender identity, or people's deeply felt, internal sense of their gender, plays an important role in aggression perpetration and victimization. In this article, I review and organize the psychological research literatures on gender identity–based aggression. I first discuss the need to move beyond binary, cisgender understandings of gender by embracing expansive definitions that more fully capture people's experiences and identities. Next, I summarize relevant research indicating two paths from gender identity to aggression. In one path, individuals with a more masculine (i.e., dominant, agentic) gender identity use aggression proactively, motivated by pursuit of social dominance. In another path, individuals with a more uncertain (i.e., insecure, precarious) gender identity use aggression defensively—and often toward vulnerable, gender nonconforming targets—as a means of protecting their gender identity against threats. I end by identifying important areas for future research and considering how interventions might best mitigate gender identity–based aggression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay explores lessons learned when conducting focus group interviews with participants exposed to novel health-risk messages. Focus group participants exposed to new health-risk information might be defensive, affecting the quality of the data collected. Hence, accounting for potential participant defensiveness is of great importance for researchers who are developing and testing these health-risk messages. In this essay, I identify two forms of defensiveness that emerged in my focus group study evaluating cancer warning labels on alcoholic beverages: (1) actively counterarguing the health-risk message and (2) repeatedly modifying the health-risk message. I also offer four "lessons learned" to improve health-risk message testing in qualitative research practice: (a) communicate with empathy, (b) use personal stories, (c) forewarn participants, and (d) offer a self-affirmation opportunity. Overall, this essay contributes to the development of a typology of defensive strategies that focus group participants may use when exposed to novel health-risk messages. Additionally, it provides a methodological framework for guarding the integrity of the data and climate of the focus groups. These insights are valuable for health communication researchers and practitioners interested in conducting focus groups to assess health-risk messages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chinese-style multilateralism, while exhibiting certain parallels with the emergent minilateral groupings in the Indo-Pacific—such as informality and issue-centricity—distinctly distances itself from these frameworks in official discourse. By examining the perspectives of Chinese scholars and official stances on minilateralism, and exploring China's evolving conceptual preference for multilateralism, this study suggests that China's circumspection is not solely attributed to the perceived antagonism and the confrontational undertones of minilateral frameworks in the region. It also stems from the intrinsic disparities between American minilateralism and China's favoured multilateral approach, characterized by defensiveness, inclusivity, and a distinct preference for scale, with the latter further demonstrated by three case studies: the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), and the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation (LMC) mechanism. In this context, Chinese-style multilateralism emerges as a crucial strategy to enhance its resilience against possible scenarios of decoupling or 'de-risking' instigated by the U.S., aiming to achieve an equilibrium of institutional power and defend its role as a pivotal player in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. This paper concludes by looking into the implications of Chinese-style multilateralism for the region as well as its prospect within China's diplomatic endeavours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay explores lessons learned when conducting focus group interviews with participants exposed to novel health-risk messages. Focus group participants exposed to new health-risk information might be defensive, affecting the quality of the data collected. Hence, accounting for potential participant defensiveness is of great importance for researchers who are developing and testing these health-risk messages. In this essay, I identify two forms of defensiveness that emerged in my focus group study evaluating cancer warning labels on alcoholic beverages: (1) actively counterarguing the health-risk message and (2) repeatedly modifying the health-risk message. I also offer four “lessons learned” to improve health-risk message testing in qualitative research practice: (a) communicate with empathy, (b) use personal stories, (c) forewarn participants, and (d) offer a self-affirmation opportunity. Overall, this essay contributes to the development of a typology of defensive strategies that focus group participants may use when exposed to novel health-risk messages. Additionally, it provides a methodological framework for guarding the integrity of the data and climate of the focus groups. These insights are valuable for health communication researchers and practitioners interested in conducting focus groups to assess health-risk messages.

Criticism can sometimes provoke defensive reactions, particularly when it implicates identities people hold dear. For instance, feminists told they are upholding rape culture might become angry or upset because the criticism conflicts with an identity that is important to them. These kinds of defensive reactions are a primary focus of this paper. What is it to be defensive in this way, and why do some kinds of criticism or implied criticism tend to provoke this kind of response? What are the connections between defensiveness, identity, and active ignorance? What are the social, political, and epistemic consequences of the tendency to defensiveness? Are there ways to improve the situation? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the psychometric properties of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI) from a modern psychometric perspective, including second-order models, better estimation of reliability, and measurement invariance, among a sample of young adults (N = 610, M = 21.33 years, SD = 3.09 years) from Portugal. Results indicated that only the four-factor intercorrelated confirmatory models of the WAI Distress and Restraint scales, and the two-factor intercorrelated confirmatory models of the WAI Defensiveness scales showed adequate fits. The WAI showed good reliability and distinctive correlates with other psychometric measures and criterion variables. Cross-gender measurement invariance was established. Our findings support the WAI as a valid and reliable measure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Movements for progressive social change (e.g., Black Lives Matter, #MeToo) are commonly met with reactionary counter-movements that seek to protect the rights and interests of structurally advantaged groups (e.g., All Lives Matter, #MenToo). Drawing on the insights of the social identity approach and the needs-based model of reconciliation, the current research explores whether men's support for progressive and reactionary action (i.e., their intentions to promote women's rights and men's rights, respectively) are shaped by their need to defend their group's moral identity. Combined analyses of three samples (N = 733) showed that men's social identification was associated with their reduced intentions to act for women's rights and positively related to their intentions to promote men's rights—effects mediated by their need for positive moral identity and defensiveness regarding the issue of gendered violence. Overall, the findings suggest that defensive construals regarding group-based inequalities may not only present a barrier to men's engagement in collective action for gender equality, but might also underlie their participation in reactionary actions designed to advance the rights of their own (advantaged) group.

The evaluation of the needs of convicts is a critical issue for the design of the intervention. Nonetheless, in the information reported by convicts in penitentiary evaluation, simulation (malingering) and dissimulation (denial of symptoms, social desirability, and both) must be suspected. Thus, a field study with the aim of estimating the prevalence rate of the distortions and its effects in the needs reported by convicts was designed. A total of 624 men convicted for intimate partner violence reported their needs in the MMPI-2 in the reception phase of a penitentiary intervention program. Results: tion consisting in denial of symptoms, .112 [.087, .137], social desirability, .223 [.190, .256], and the combination of both two, .120 [.095, .145]. The effects in denial of symptoms emerged in the information of less depressive (i.e., lack of interest in activities, excessive sensitivity, lack of sociability), paranoid (i.e., interpersonal sensitivity and perceptiveness), psychasthenic (i.e., general subjective distress and negative affect), schizoid (i.e., alienation, chaotic interpersonal relations, and disruptive cognitive processes), and hypomanic (i.e., hyperactivity, irritability, and sensation seeking) symptoms. Likewise, social desirability dissimulators detailed significantly less depressive, psychopathic (i.e., less general social maladjustment), paranoid, psychasthenic, schizoid, and hypomanic symptoms. Similarly, the whole dissimulators (combining denial of symptoms and social desirability responses) informed less depressive, psychopathic, paranoid, psychasthenic, schizoid, and hypomanic symptoms, and fewer problems of social introversion. Conversely, they related significantly more symptoms of hysteria (i.e., physical complaints). Distortions introduced by convicts in self-reports must be controlled to design effective correctional interventions.

Copyright of Anuario de Psicología Jurídica is the property of Colegio Oficial de Psicologos de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The Apis mellifera L. presents defensive behavior, in order to protect the colony against intruders, which can make management difficult. The objective was to evaluate the defensive behavior of Apis mellifera Africanized under different times and climatic conditions in the winter of southern Brazil. Ten standard Langstroth colonies were used, the defensiveness test was performed in two treatments: sunny day and cloudy day. The time required for the 1st sting and the number of stings in the chamois, the number of bees that attacked and were trapped in the fabric, and the distance of pursuit to the observer were evaluated. The averages of the observations were statistically analyzed using the Duncan test and Pearson's correlation. The treatments showed a difference (P <0.05) in terms of the chasing distance, in which on cloudy days the observed value was 155.57m and on sunny days 124.77m. The time for the highest concentration of bees trapped in the tissue was from 7:00 am to 10:00 am (97.28 honeybees), which was higher (P <0.05) than the time from 12:00 to 15:00 (41.40 honeybees), and from 3 pm to 5 pm it was similar (P> 0.05) to the other hours. Honeybees are more defensive between 7:00 am and 10:00 am. Thus, it is recommended to avoid carrying out management in the colonies in the early morning in the southern region of Brazil during the winter period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective:Individuals may be motivated to conceal or minimize psychological symptoms and engage in positive impression management (PIM) in order to achieve desired outcomes across high stakes contexts (e.g. fitness for duty evaluations, pre-sentencing assessments, medical procedure evaluations, civil commitment). Despite the importance of this topic, the most recent meta-analysis of the MMPI-2, a widely used instrument for detecting PIM, was conducted more than two decades ago. Method:Using a Robust Variance Estimation method, this meta-analysis synthesized the results of 27 studies that examined the MMPI-2 (k = 22) and MMPI-2-RF (k = 5) validity scales' ability to discriminate individuals who engage in PIM from genuine responders, with a particular focus on the L, K, and S scales. Results:The MMPI-2 L scale produced the largest effect size (g = 1.30), whereas the MMPI-2-RF L-r scale effect size was moderate (g = 1.16). Moderate effect sizes were also found for the K (g = 1.01) and K-r (g = 1.21) scales, and for the MMPI-2 S scale (g = 1.23). Conclusions: Effect sizes did not significantly vary between the two versions of the MMPI. Findings suggest that both versions of the MMPI have demonstrated utility in identifying PIM, but clinicians should interpret T scores conservatively to account for the modest elevations associated with defensiveness. Findings are discussed in the context of the recently released MMPI-3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first objective of this study was to determine whether the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) General Criminal Thinking (GCT) score correlated negatively with program completion in a group of 199 (123 male, 76 female) day treatment clients across several different levels of defensiveness. The second objective was to ascertain whether the GCT continued to predict program completion in a logistic regression analysis when age, sex, race, educational level, marital status, drug offense, and prior arrests were controlled. Results indicated that while the GCT did not predict program completion in the full sample, it did so when clients with moderately high to very high scores on the PICTS defensiveness-revised scale (≥ T-score 55) were removed from the analysis. It would appear that elevated levels of defensiveness may impede the predictive validity of the PICTS GCT score, at least when it comes to assessing program completion in day reporting clients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts to effect racial health disparity (RHD) policy change are urgent, necessary, and subject to a key barrier: defensiveness among White privileged audiences. Within the literature to date, such defensiveness is under-investigated, and when examined, is typically conceived of as an individual cognitive outcome—a message effect—rather than a communication interaction. Yet policy change advocacy efforts, ranging from community organizing to change campaigns, necessitate communication interactions between advocates and privileged policy change audiences, such as neighborhood groups or policymakers themselves. This defensiveness conceptualization, focused on individual cognitions, therefore limits our understanding of interactive communication barriers in RHD policy advocacy processes. To address this limitation, our research conceives of defensiveness using the privileged identity exploration (PIE) model, developed by Watt in 2007, which posits that defensiveness strategies are used as part of an interactive communication process when people are asked to reflect on their own privilege. Defensiveness strategies, as described by Watt and colleagues in 2021 and 2023, are normal communicative reactions to protect one’s self-identity from threatening information; the PIE models eight such strategies. RHD information invokes racial privilege, therefore eliciting defensiveness. Using a thematic analysis of semi-structured qualitative interviews with White young adults from the Chicago (U.S.) area (N = 27), we identify defensiveness strategies relative to COVID-19 RHDs. Using the PIE as a lens to understand the data, we find some strategies lacking, some similar but differently nuanced, and identify a novel strategy among our participants, suggesting message tailoring opportunities. We describe implications for future research and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our choice to withhold or disclose displeasing information to another can motivate concern about damage to our social bonds. In two experiments, using two different samples of university students in Norway, (N = 174 and N = 217), we found that withholding unpleasant information led to greater concern for self- image and social-image than did disclosure. We also found that withholding elicited more shame, inferiority and rejection than disclosure, and in Experiment 2, withholding elicited more defensive motivation than disclosure. Consistent with our model, defensive motivation was mostly explained by concern for social-image, whereas relationship repair motivation was mostly explained by concern for self-image and felt shame. We discuss implications for the literature on shame and social bonds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this article is to examine the psychometric properties of the defensiveness and validity scales of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI) in a sample of young Portuguese adults (N=610, M=21.33 years, SD=3.09) from a university background. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis indicated the presence of a three-dimensional structure with a good fit. The defensiveness and validity scales of the WAI demonstrated adequate psychometric properties, namely at the level of reliability and convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity. Such results support the use of the WAI defensiveness and validity scales in the research and psychological assessment of Portuguese young adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Three studies tested a novel model of the narcissism‐paranoia link, whereby narcissism (primarily its socially maladaptive facets) is associated with paranoia via over‐use of defensive self‐protection and/or under‐use of self‐affirmation. Methods: In Study 1, 245 online volunteers (87% female; MAGE = 20.92; 44% White‐British) completed trait measures of narcissism, self‐enhancement/protection strategies and paranoia. In Study 2, 116 students (82% female; MAGE = 20.23; 70% White‐British) completed baseline measures, then reported state reactions and paranoia following two difficult and two pleasant interpersonal events after 3–10 days. In Study 3, 517 online volunteers (64% female; MAGE = 22.76; 77% White/Caucasian) completed baseline measures, experienced a standardized social exclusion (vs. neutral) manipulation (Cyberball), then reported state reactions and paranoia. Results: In Study 1, narcissism was associated with higher paranoia via defensiveness. In Study 2, this was replicated in difficult but not pleasant events, and was driven by the Entitlement/Exploitativeness facet of narcissism. In Study 3, narcissistic rivalry and vulnerable narcissism, but not admiration, were associated with Cyberball‐related paranoia via general defensiveness and denigration of others. Conclusions: Individuals high in narcissism—especially its socially maladaptive facets—who over‐rely on defensive self‐protection strategies in response to threat, are particularly vulnerable to paranoia. Findings help to understand individual differences in paranoia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Some individuals are no longer entering romantic relationships, others move through relationships too quickly searching for “the one” and making quick assessments of their romantic partners, while others stay in their relationships but “check out” or do not work on their issues. These are conclusions from two studies: (1) an interview with psychologists who specialise in relationship therapy, and (2) an analysis of individuals’ lived experiences of relationships. The concept of relationship sabotage can explain these phenomena. However, presently, there is no instrument to conceptualise and empirically measure how people continue to employ self-defeating attitudes and behaviors in (and out) of relationships to impede success, or withdraw effort, and justify failure. Methods and Results A series of three studies (involving a total of 1365 English speaking individuals of diverse gender orientation, sexual orientation, and cultural background, with relationship sabotage experience) were conceptualized for the current project to fill the need for scale development and to build empirical evidence on the topic of self-sabotage in romantic relationships. The scale was developed over two studies using exploratory factor analysis and one-congeneric model analyses. The third study, using confirmatory factor analysis, confirmed the final structure for the Relationship Sabotage Scale (RSS), which contains 12 items and three factors: defensiveness, trust difficulty, and lack of relationship skills. Constructive validity analyses were also conducted. Conclusion The RSS is a brief scale that provides conclusive information about individual patterns in relationships. Findings using this scale can offer explanations regarding the reasons that individuals engage in destructive behaviours from one relationship to the next. Investigations should continue to test a model for sabotage in romantic relationships using the developed scale and other factors such as relationship diferences and insecure attachment. More specifically, this measure can be used to understand mediator constructs of relational outcomes within the attachment framework to explain relationship dissolution and work towards relationship maintenance.

A host of studies have shown that self‐relevant health messages may result in increased defensiveness and rejection of protective recommendations. Drawing on research showing that multiple identities offer psychological resources to deal with identity threats, we sought to examine whether the salience of an alternative identity before people are exposed to a personally relevant health message may buffer the threat and reduce defensive responses. Two studies were conducted on samples of daily smokers asked to read an antismoking message before completing a range of measures of defensiveness. Half of the participants had an alternative identity made salient beforehand (vs. no salience condition). Consistent with our hypotheses, Study 1 (N = 90) showed that this manipulation significantly reduced defensiveness to the message. Study 2 (N = 95) additionally showed that such effects only occurred when the alternative identity overlapped highly with the threatened identity. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to seek if self-affirming activities can be used to increase compliance with group-protective public health policies such as the mandate to wear face masks for the COVID-19 pandemic. Completing a self-affirmation has been shown to increase compliance with health advice when it is beneficial for the self (Sherman & Cohen, 2020). To determine if self-affirming activities, as described by Self-Affirmation theory, increases compliance to health advice that is beneficial for others, the present experiment (N = 106) asked university students to complete a self-affirmation or a control task, read a relevant article, and rate how often they would wear a mask in a variety of situations in a survey. Participants also rated their peers to test if the selfaffirmation would mitigate the difference between how people rate themselves and their peers. This study showed that the self-affirmation caused people to rate themselves and their peers' mask-wearing intentions higher in all situations except in their own homes where there was no change in rating between the two groups, p = .008. The self-affirmation manipulation had no interaction effect with the target of rating (self vs. peer) and so did not change how people rated themselves compared to others, p = .60. These results suggest that Self-Affirmation theory can be used to promote group-protective health advice and could potentially make public health campaigns more effective in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Shorter telomere length (TL) may indicate premature cellular aging and increased risk for disease. While there is substantial evidence for shorter TL in individuals suffering from psychiatric disorders, data is scarce on maladaptive personality traits related to coronary artery disease (CAD). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of TL with hostility and defensiveness in individuals with CAD or other non-cardiovascular illnesses and whether associations were moderated by CAD status and sex. Methods One thousand thirty-six individuals (M age = 65.40 ± 6.73 years) with and without CAD completed the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and the Cook–Medley Hostility Scale. Relative TL was measured via quantitative polymerase chain reaction of total genomic DNA samples. Analyses involved hierarchical regressions on TL, performed separately for hostility and defensiveness, controlling for pertinent sociodemographic, behavioural, and medical risk factors. Separate analyses were performed on 25 healthy participants. Results A hostility by sex interaction emerged (β = − .08, p = .006) in the patient groups, where greater hostility was associated with shorter TL in women only (p < .01). A Defensiveness by CAD status interaction (β = − .06, p = .049) revealed longer TL in more defensive CAD patients only (p = .06). In healthy men, shorter TL was observed in those with greater defensiveness (β = .52, p = .006) but lower hostility (β = − .43, p = .049). Conclusion Hostility and defensiveness are differentially associated with TL as a function of sex and health status. The implication of these results for health remains to be determined, but propose an additional pathway through which the effect of maladaptive personality traits may contribute to CV and other disease.

Atrax robustus is an iconic Australian spider because the venom can be lethal to humans. Moreover, some of the venom biomolecules have promise as therapeutic and bioinsecticidal leads. Nonetheless, aspects related to the life history and behaviour of this species, which might influence changes in venom components, have been overlooked. We assessed different behavioural traits (antipredator behaviour, defensiveness and activity) of juveniles and adult females across different contexts (predation, conspecific tolerance and exploration of a new territory) and stimuli (puff of air versus prod) over time. Adults responded to a puff of air faster than juveniles, but in response to a prod, both juveniles and adults become more defensive over time. No differences were observed between adults and juveniles for conspecific tolerance and exploration. Understanding behaviour of venomous species is important because behaviours may affect physiological traits, such as venom, and the ability of spiders to adapt to different conditions.

European lineages of Apis mellifera were first introduced into America for beekeeping purposes. A subsequent introduction and accidental release of A. m. scutellata resulted in hybridization events that gave rise to Africanized populations that rapidly spread throughout the continent. In Argentina, Africanized honey bees (AHBs) have been mostly detected in northern regions of the territory, and represent a valuable genetic resource for the selection of stocks with advantageous characteristics for beekeeping. The objective of the present study was to profile honey bee colonies of wild origin with potential beneficial traits for apiculture using morphological, molecular and behavioral traits. Honey bee colonies chosen for evaluation were located in two different agro-ecological regions in north-western Argentina (Tucumán province): The Chaco Depressed Plain (Leales apiary) and the Piedmont (Famaillá apiary). Each apiary was surveyed three times during the 2017–2018 season (mid-season, wintertime, and early spring) for: brood population, phoretic Varroa level and defensive behavior (run, fly, sting, and hang). At the midpoint of the beekeeping season colonies were also characterized by morphometry (45 variables) and mitochondrial haplotypes (COI–COII intergenic region). Apiaries studied showed similar patterns throughout the beekeeping season, for most of the characteristics monitored. However, significant variation in defensive behavior parameters was found between apiaries at the different times of evaluation. Twelve of 45 morphometric variables also showed significant differences between apiaries. The mitochondrial haplotype analysis revealed a high representation of African A4 and A1 haplotypes (91%) in both apiaries. Haplotype variation was associated with morphometric and behavioral traits. Multivariate analyses [principal component analysis (PCA) and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA)] including morphometric and behavior variables explained 65.3% (PCA) and 48.1% (PCoA) of the variability observed between colonies in the first two components. Several morphometric parameters and “fly” behavior were mainly associated with the separation of the colonies. The results from this study point to a possible association between morphometric and behavioral variation and the adaptation of honey bee colonies to differential agro-ecological conditions. We discuss how the detected variation between apiaries can be used for the selection and preservation of honey bee ecotypes in regional breeding programs.

Background: Some individuals are no longer entering romantic relationships, others move through relationships too quickly searching for "the one" and making quick assessments of their romantic partners, while others stay in their relationships but "check out" or do not work on their issues. These are conclusions from two studies: (1) an interview with psychologists who specialise in relationship therapy, and (2) an analysis of individuals' lived experiences of relationships. The concept of relationship sabotage can explain these phenomena. However, presently, there is no instrument to conceptualise and empirically measure how people continue to employ self-defeating attitudes and behaviors in (and out) of relationships to impede success, or withdraw effort, and justify failure. Methods and Results: A series of three studies (involving a total of 1365 English speaking individuals of diverse gender orientation, sexual orientation, and cultural background, with relationship sabotage experience) were conceptualized for the current project to fill the need for scale development and to build empirical evidence on the topic of self-sabotage in romantic relationships. The scale was developed over two studies using exploratory factor analysis and one-congeneric model analyses. The third study, using confirmatory factor analysis, confirmed the final structure for the Relationship Sabotage Scale (RSS), which contains 12 items and three factors: defensiveness, trust difficulty, and lack of relationship skills. Constructive validity analyses were also conducted. Conclusion: The RSS is a brief scale that provides conclusive information about individual patterns in relationships. Findings using this scale can offer explanations regarding the reasons that individuals engage in destructive behaviours from one relationship to the next. Investigations should continue to test a model for sabotage in romantic relationships using the developed scale and other factors such as relationship differences and insecure attachment. More specifically, this measure can be used to understand mediator constructs of relational outcomes within the attachment framework to explain relationship dissolution and work towards relationship maintenance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If left unresolved, interpersonal offenses can poison people's relationships. Fortunately, transgressors can promote reconciliation with the victim by offering comprehensive and non‐defensive apologies. What predicts whether transgressors go the extra mile to offer these high‐quality apologies? In Study 1 (N = 289), participants who reported greater state empathy toward their romantic partner offered more comprehensive and less defensive apologies for an unresolved offense they had committed. In Study 2 (N = 150), participants who reported greater state empathy toward a friend offered more comprehensive and less defensive apologies for an imagined offense. In Study 3 (N = 251), participants who were experimentally induced to experience high (vs. low) empathy offered more comprehensive apologies for unresolved transgressions across a variety of relationship types. These studies are the first to provide experimental and behavioral evidence of the empathy–apology link, and suggest that fostering empathy might be a powerful way to promote more constructive conflict responses in interpersonal relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scorpion venom is composed mainly of peptides and proteins and has high metabolic cost. Thus, individuals need to be economic in its use. This study aimed to evaluate the reactions of Tityus pusillus Pocock, 1893 scorpion to threats of different intensities. For the experiments, 28 males and 26 females were used; animals were gently touched five times on their mesosoma at different time intervals. Touches with five second intervals were considered as the high-intensity threats, while those with five-minute intervals were considered as the low-intensity threats. We found that scorpions, independently of sex, stung more often under high threat compared to low threat treatments. However, no significant differences in the defensive behavior of males and females were observed according to threat intensity. We can thus infer that regardless of sex, T. pusillus uses its stings and consequently venom only in situations of high threat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across two studies, using five samples (N = 1,850), we examined whether health information avoidance—the deliberate decision to remain ignorant of available but unwanted personal health information—serves a defensive purpose and is interchangeable with other defensive strategies. We tested this idea by examining the relationship between health information avoidance—both as a dispositional tendency and deliberate decision—and feedback derogation. In Study 1, we experimentally demonstrated that a situation known to reduce defensiveness—self-uncertainty—decreased both proactive avoidance and reactive defensiveness relative to a control group. Study 2 demonstrated, across four samples, that people with a greater defensive orientation toward personal health information were more likely to derogate health information. These results are consistent with the idea that feedback derogation replaced the decision to avoid feedback. Together, results suggest that health information avoidance is likely part of a broader self-protective system and is replaceable with other motivated self-protection strategies. • Are health information avoidance and derogation linked by defensive motivation? • Decreasing the decision to avoid does not necessarily increase acceptance. • Interventions must enervate defensive motivation more broadly to prevent rejection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to the mask model, narcissists portray a hard exterior, but possess a soft core. This presumed fragility has been typically operationalized as a discrepancy between explicit and implicit self-esteem, producing inconsistent findings. A reason for the inconclusiveness may be that narcissism has been tested in situ. We report an experiment (N=209) where narcissists manifested hypervigilance: faster reaction times to self-threatening stimuli when their fragility was subliminally exposed. However, given ampler time (235ms vs. 149ms), narcissists switched from defensiveness to self-regulation: equivalent reaction times to those of non-narcissists. This switch, being rapid and difficult to detect, may explain prior inconclusiveness. Despite transient intrapersonal turbulence in the face of self-threat, narcissists quickly regain their composure and re-establish their granite exterior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Shorter telomere length (TL) may indicate premature cellular aging and increased risk for disease. While there is substantial evidence for shorter TL in individuals suffering from psychiatric disorders, data is scarce on maladaptive personality traits related to coronary artery disease (CAD). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of TL with hostility and defensiveness in individuals with CAD or other non-cardiovascular illnesses and whether associations were moderated by CAD status and sex. Methods: One thousand thirty-six individuals (Mage = 65.40 ± 6.73 years) with and without CAD completed the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and the Cook–Medley Hostility Scale. Relative TL was measured via quantitative polymerase chain reaction of total genomic DNA samples. Analyses involved hierarchical regressions on TL, performed separately for hostility and defensiveness, controlling for pertinent sociodemographic, behavioural, and medical risk factors. Separate analyses were performed on 25 healthy participants. Results: A hostility by sex interaction emerged (β = −.08, p =.006) in the patient groups, where greater hostility was associated with shorter TL in women only (p <.01). A Defensiveness by CAD status interaction (β = −.06, p =.049) revealed longer TL in more defensive CAD patients only (p =.06). In healthy men, shorter TL was observed in those with greater defensiveness (β =.52, p =.006) but lower hostility (β = −.43, p =.049). Conclusion: Hostility and defensiveness are differentially associated with TL as a function of sex and health status. The implication of these results for health remains to be determined, but propose an additional pathway through which the effect of maladaptive personality traits may contribute to CV and other disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Defensive responses to transgressions can have a negative impact on decision‐making within government and organizations, on relationships, and even an individual's well‐being. Transgressors who are defensive are less likely to acknowledge or appreciate the extent of harm caused, and their responsibility in having contributed to it or in helping to repair it. It is therefore important to understand what situational factors increase or reduce defensiveness and, thus, offer solutions for those trying to foster responsibility‐taking by individuals in relationships, organizations, and society. This paper presents two studies exploring what underpins defensive responses in the context of transgressions. In Study 1 (N = 202), participants recalled an interpersonal transgression, and in Study 2 (N = 143), omnivorous participants watched a guilt‐eliciting documentary about meat production practices. Both studies demonstrate that defensiveness increases in response to social/moral threat. Further, Study 2 demonstrates that this defensiveness can be reduced by addressing the underlying threat to social/moral identity via value affirmation, encouraging moral engagement, and repair. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the associations between the need for personal control, different types of ingroup commitment, and group‐related outcomes: (1) defensive responses to ingroup criticism, (2) ingroup disloyalty, and (3) outgroup attitudes. We assumed that collective narcissism (i.e., a belief in ingroup's greatness which is contingent on external validation and stems from frustrated individual needs) should be concerned with defending the ingroup image and derogating outgroups, but not necessarily with being loyal to the ingroup. Secure ingroup identification (i.e., a confidently held ingroup evaluation, which stems from satisfied needs), in contrast, should predict greater ingroup loyalty and positive outgroup attitudes. We expected these effects to be especially strong once we account for the overlap between collective narcissism and group‐level self‐investment – a key component of ingroup identification. In a nationally representative sample of Polish adults (n = 1,007), collective narcissism (net of group‐level self‐investment) mediated between low personal control and ingroup image defense, lower group loyalty, and less positive outgroup attitudes. Secure ingroup identification (group‐level self‐investment net of collective narcissism) mediated between high personal control and ingroup loyalty and positive outgroup attitudes. It was not associated with ingroup image defense. Implications for understanding the role of identification in inter‐ and intra‐group relations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological assessments can be essentially invalidated by examinees' intentional response styles, such as feigning (i.e., fabrication or marked overreporting of symptoms/impairment) and defensiveness (i.e., denial or minimization of symptoms/impairment). As a psychometric strength, the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) has established validity indicators for identifying both response styles. With the United States' increasing ethnic and cultural diversity, predominantly Spanish-speaking individuals are now estimated in the range of 15 million persons. Unfortunately, very little research has been conducted on the Spanish-translated PAI regarding its effectiveness in clinical populations. Using a between-subjects design, a sample of mostly Spanish-speaking outpatients was randomly assigned to genuine, feigning, or defensive conditions. For feigning, PAI malingering indicators using rare symptoms strategies (i.e., Negative Impression [NIM] and Negative Distortion [NDS] scales) demonstrated moderate to large effect sizes. For defensiveness, the Defensive (DEF) index proved the most effective with a very large effect size (M = 1.68). Different cut scores were examined to increase the clinical utility of the Spanish PAI for determining response styles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has been suggested that self-reported posttraumatic growth could sometimes be considered as a way for people to protect themselves from the distress of trauma. In this case, reports of posttraumatic growth could be illusory. We suggest a theory on self-reported constructive (real) posttraumatic growth and illusory posttraumatic growth by using Rogers's theory and the work by Vaillant. Through this theoretical framework, we attempt to explain when reports of posttraumatic growth are likely to be constructive and real and when such reports are likely to represent aspects of illusions. We will also consider the implications for research practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to test the effects of thinking about supportive relationships on interpersonal defensiveness among participants with different levels of attachment security. The effects were examined depending on closeness with a visualized person and an ecosystem or egosystem perspective of thinking about him/her. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE After taking the bogus emotional intelligence test and completing the attachment questionnaire, the participants (N = 124) visualized an acquaintance or a close person, adopting the ecosystem or the egosystem perspective on thinking about him/her. Subsequently the participants received unfavorable feedback on their bogus test results and completed measures of defensiveness in an anticipated conversation with the researcher. RESULTS The high-securely attached individuals reported less comfort in an anticipated conversation with the researcher after close well-wishing person visualization than after well-wishing acquaintance visualization. The low-securely attached participants showed greater emotional openness to the researcher after ecosystem thinking about any wellwishing person than after egosystem thinking. CONCLUSIONS The key results suggest that some aspects of interpersonal defensiveness among insecurely attached people can be reduced by a shift from an ego- to an ecosystem perspective of thinking about their relationships. In the next research step, it seems especially important to explore whether therapeutic work focusing on ecosystem orientation can overcome the attachment problems in relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a sample of 258 first-time voters in a bellwether swing state during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, we examined the extent to which people assumed that the major presidential candidates shared their values and defensiveness about these assumptions. Participants estimated their agreement with the two major-party candidates, completed an online quiz about their beliefs, and then received feedback about their actual agreement with the candidates. Consistent with hypotheses, Trump supporters overestimated their agreement with Trump and underestimated their agreement with Clinton on political issues. To the extent that they did so, they showed greater negative affective and defensive reactions to feedback. On the other hand, Clinton supporters unexpectedly underestimated their agreement with Clinton and only slightly underestimated their agreement with Trump. Also surprisingly, Clinton Supporters were largely unmoved learning that they misestimated their agreement with Clinton. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]