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Technologies based on machine learning are gradually being introduced as a new means of automation of everyday and routine tasks, providing new opportunities for creativity and innovation. However, the growing use of artificial intelligence raises concerns about the security of personal data of users and the confidential developments of certain companies. When using this tool, it is important to be aware of the potential risks to information and cybersecurity. The purpose of the article was to analyze the issue of ensuring cybersecurity in the era of artificial intelligence and technological approaches and strategies for information protection. The Cybersecurity Strategy of Ukraine, which was approved by the Decree of the President of Ukraine dated August 26, 2021, was analyzed. Artificial intelligence has been identified as having both positive and negative effects in cybersecurity, as it can either enhance the cyber attack process, causing faster and more damaging attacks, or conversely, improve cybersecurity. The main threats of artificial intelligence for cybersecurity are vulnerability, privacy, attacks of various types. The spread of artificial intelligence creates a threat of disclosure of confidential information during data collection and processing, which requires the introduction of appropriate security measures at all stages of technology use. In general, the use of artificial intelligence requires not only innovative approaches, but also increased security measures to protect against various cyber threats. It is found that the capabilities of artificial intelligence can be used in cybersecurity, which can contribute to the strengthening of protection for organizations and reduce the workload of relevant specialists. The tools built on the basis of artificial intelligence allow you to automate routine tasks in the field of security, freeing up the time of experts to solve the most important tasks. In general, the potential of artificial intelligence can be used to strengthen cybersecurity, but it is necessary to implement new laws that will regulate its operation.

The article draws attention to a neglected key element of human evolutionary history--the defense strategies of hominins and early humans against predators. Possible reasons for this neglect are discussed, and the historical development of this field is outlined. Many human morphological and behavioral characteristics-musicality, sense of rhythm, use of dissonances, entrainment, bipedalism, long head hair, long legs, strong body odor, armpit hair, traditions of body painting and cannibalism-are explained as predator avoidance tactics of an aposematic (warning display) defense strategy. The article argues that the origins of human musical faculties should be studied in the wider context of an early, multimodal human defense strategy from predators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an era dominated by digital connectivity, the proliferation of advanced cyber threats poses a formidable challenge to organizations worldwide. This comprehensive guide delves into the intricacies of safeguarding against three prevalent and insidious threats: Phishing, Cross-Site Scripting (XSS), and SQL Injection. The guide begins by dissecting the anatomy of phishing attacks, exploring the psychological tactics employed by threat actors to manipulate individuals into divulging sensitive information. It provides an in-depth analysis of various phishing techniques and offers practical strategies for both individuals and organizations to fortify their defenses against these deceptive practices. Moving on to XSS vulnerabilities, the guide elucidates the mechanics behind this web application threat. It offers a detailed exploration of how attackers exploit code injection to compromise user data and system integrity. The guide provides a robust framework for developing secure coding practices, implementing web application firewalls, and conducting regular security audits to detect and mitigate XSS vulnerabilities. The third facet of defense focuses on SQL injection, a persistent threat to database-driven applications. The guide elucidates the intricacies of SQL injection attacks, emphasizing the potential impact on data confidentiality and integrity. Practical measures for securing databases, input validation, and the use of parameterized queries are extensively discussed to empower organizations in safeguarding against SQL injection threats. Throughout the guide, a holistic approach to cybersecurity is advocated, emphasizing the integration of technological solutions, employee training, and proactive risk management. Real-world case studies and practical examples enrich the content, providing a valuable resource for security professionals, developers, and decision-makers striving to fortify their digital assets against the ever-evolving landscape of advanced cyber threats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sparganium stoloniferum is a widely distributed aquatic medicinal plant that exhibits exceptional tolerance to environmental stress. Interestingly, the phenols in S. stoloniferum which have medicinal properties, are defensive compounds. Studies integrating transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome analyses have highlighted the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways, which are related to the defense mechanisms of S. stoloniferum. During the growth process, S. stoloniferum rhizoma (SL) accumulates lignin, forming a physical defense, and phenylpropanoids and flavonoids derived during the lignin biosynthesis process provide chemical defense. In this study, a map of the molecular processes involved in the coordinated defense of S. stoloniferum was generated. The expression patterns of genes involved in the coordinated defense of SL were consistent with the omics results. The cDNA of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) gene from S. stoloniferum (SsPAL) was cloned. The recombinant protein SsPAL showed good affinity and catalytic activity for L-phenylalanine. Heat stress experiments indicated that genes related to phenol biosynthesis were upregulated when S. stoloniferum responded to stress. Therefore, phenols played a crucial defense role when S. stoloniferum was at an early developmental stage or responded to stress in a short time. In contrast, the physical defense mainly relied on lignin formation, which was the main defense mechanism of SL in the late growth stage. Based on these results, we discuss the causes of phenolic pharmacological substance formation in medicinal aquatic plants. These results provide new insights into the defense strategies of aquatic plants.

The article draws attention to a neglected key element of human evolutionary history—the defense strategies of hominins and early humans against predators. Possible reasons for this neglect are discussed, and the historical development of this field is outlined. Many human morphological and behavioral characteristics–musicality, sense of rhythm, use of dissonances, entrainment, bipedalism, long head hair, long legs, strong body odor, armpit hair, traditions of body painting and cannibalism–are explained as predator avoidance tactics of an aposematic (warning display) defense strategy. The article argues that the origins of human musical faculties should be studied in the wider context of an early, multimodal human defense strategy from predators.

Nectar robbing can affect plant reproductive success directly by influencing female and male fitness, and indirectly by affecting pollinator behavior. Flowers have morphological and chemical features that may protect them from nectar robbers. Previous studies on nectar robbing have focused mainly on homotypic plants. It remains unclear how nectar robbing affects the reproductive success of distylous plants, and whether defense strategies of two morphs are different. Nectar‐robbing rates on the long‐ and short‐styled morph (L‐morph, S‐morph) of the distylous Tirpitzia sinensis were investigated. We compared floral traits, the temporal pattern of change in nectar volume and sugar concentration, nectar secondary metabolites, and sugar composition between robbed and unrobbed flowers of two morphs. We tested direct effects of nectar robbing on female and male components of plant fitness and indirect effects of nectar robbing via pollinators. Nectar‐robbing rates did not differ between the two morphs. Flowers with smaller sepals and petals were more easily robbed. The floral tube diameter and thickness were greater in L‐morphs than in S‐morphs, and the nectar rob holes were significantly smaller in L‐morphs than in S‐morphs. Nectar robbing significantly decreased nectar replenishment rate but did not affect nectar sugar concentration or sugar composition. After robbery, the quantities and diversity of secondary compounds in the nectar of S‐morphs increased significantly and total relative contents of secondary compounds in L‐morphs showed no obvious changes. Nectar robbing could decrease female fitness by decreasing pollen germination rate and thus decreasing seed set. Nectar robbing had no significant effects on male fitness. Robbed flowers were less likely to be visited by hawkmoth pollinators, especially in S‐morphs. These results suggest that nectar robbing could directly and indirectly decrease the female fitness of T. sinensis, and different morphs have evolved different defense mechanisms in response to nectar‐robbing pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chilo suppressalis is a notorious pest that attacks rice, feeding throughout the entire growth period of rice and posing a serious threat to rice production worldwide. Due to the boring behavior and overlapping generations of C. suppressalis, the pest is difficult to control. Moreover, no rice variety with high resistance to the striped stem borer (SSB) has been found in the available rice germplasm, which also poses a challenge to controlling the SSB. At present, chemical control is widely used in agricultural production to manage the problem, but its effect is limited and it also pollutes the environment. Therefore, developing genetic resistance is the only way to avoid the use of chemical insecticides. This article primarily focuses on the research status of the induced defense of rice against the SSB from the perspective of immunity, in which plant hormones (such as jasmonic acid and ethylene) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play an important role in the immune response of rice to the SSB. The article also reviews progress in using transgenic technology to study the relationship between rice and the SSB as well as exploring the resistance genes. Lastly, the article discusses prospects for future research on rice's resistance to the SSB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Dilemas Contemporáneos: Educación, Política y Valores is the property of Dilemas Contemporaneos: Educacion, Politica y Valores and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract Nectar robbing can affect plant reproductive success directly by influencing female and male fitness, and indirectly by affecting pollinator behavior. Flowers have morphological and chemical features that may protect them from nectar robbers. Previous studies on nectar robbing have focused mainly on homotypic plants. It remains unclear how nectar robbing affects the reproductive success of distylous plants, and whether defense strategies of two morphs are different. Nectar‐robbing rates on the long‐ and short‐styled morph (L‐morph, S‐morph) of the distylous Tirpitzia sinensis were investigated. We compared floral traits, the temporal pattern of change in nectar volume and sugar concentration, nectar secondary metabolites, and sugar composition between robbed and unrobbed flowers of two morphs. We tested direct effects of nectar robbing on female and male components of plant fitness and indirect effects of nectar robbing via pollinators. Nectar‐robbing rates did not differ between the two morphs. Flowers with smaller sepals and petals were more easily robbed. The floral tube diameter and thickness were greater in L‐morphs than in S‐morphs, and the nectar rob holes were significantly smaller in L‐morphs than in S‐morphs. Nectar robbing significantly decreased nectar replenishment rate but did not affect nectar sugar concentration or sugar composition. After robbery, the quantities and diversity of secondary compounds in the nectar of S‐morphs increased significantly and total relative contents of secondary compounds in L‐morphs showed no obvious changes. Nectar robbing could decrease female fitness by decreasing pollen germination rate and thus decreasing seed set. Nectar robbing had no significant effects on male fitness. Robbed flowers were less likely to be visited by hawkmoth pollinators, especially in S‐morphs. These results suggest that nectar robbing could directly and indirectly decrease the female fitness of T. sinensis, and different morphs have evolved different defense mechanisms in response to nectar‐robbing pressure.

The microalga Phaeocystis globosa is recognized as a harmful alga and also one of the few keystone phytoplankton genera that shape the structure and function of marine ecosystems. P. globosa possess a complex polymorphic life cycle, exhibiting phase alternation between free-living cells of approximately 3–6 µm in diameter and gelatinous colonies (palmelloid stage) reaching several millimeters. The knowledge on the factors that induced the morphological transition of P. globosa in the last two decades was reviewed. Emphasis is given to infochemicals, an additional biological factor induced by predator, with the attempt to reveal a relevant mechanism of induced morphological defense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, the internet of everything (IoE) enabled smart surveillance systems are widely used in various fields to prevent various forms of abnormal behaviors. The authors assess the vulnerability of surveillance systems based on human gait and suggest a defense strategy to secure them. Human gait recognition is a promising biometric technology, but one significantly hindered because of universal adversarial perturbation (UAP) that may trigger system failure. More specifically, in this research study, the authors emphasize on sample convolutional neural network (CNN) model design for gait recognition and assess its susceptibility to UAPs. The authors compute the perturbation as non-targeted UAPs, which trigger a model failure and lead to an inaccurate label to the input sample of a given subject. The findings show that a smart surveillance system based on human gait analysis is susceptible to UAPs, even if the norm of the generated noise is substantially less than the average norm of the images. Later, in the next stage, the authors illustrate a defense mechanism to design a secure surveillance system based on human gait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current energy transition combined with the modernization of power systems has provided meaningful transformations in the transmission, distribution, operation, planning, monitoring, and control of power systems. These advancements are heavily dependent on the employment of new computing and communications technologies, which, combined with traditional physical systems, lead to the emergence of cyber–physical systems (CPSs). In this sense, besides the traditional challenges of keeping a reliable, affordable, and safe power grid, one must now deal with the new vulnerabilities to cyberattacks that emerge with the advancement of CPSs. Aware of this perspective and the severity of the ongoing challenges faced by the industry due to cyberattacks, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive survey of the literature on cybersecurity in cyber–physical power systems. For this, clear definitions, historical timelines, and classifications of the main types of cyberattacks, including the concepts, architectures, and basic components that make up, as well as the vulnerabilities in managing, controlling, and protecting, a CPS are presented. Furthermore, this paper presents defense strategies and future trends for cybersecurity. To conduct this study, a careful search was made in relevant academic and industrial databases, leading to a detailed reporting of key works focused on mitigating cyberattacks and ensuring the cybersecurity of modern CPSs. Finally, the paper presents some standards and regulations that technical and international institutions on cybersecurity in smart grids have created. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), where numerous smart devices associated with sensors, actuators, computers, and people communicate with shared networks, has gained advantages in many fields, such as smart manufacturing, intelligent transportation, and smart grids. However, security is becoming increasingly challenging due to the vulnerability of the IIoT to various malicious attacks. In this paper, the security issues of the IIoT are reviewed from the following three aspects: (1) security threats and their attack mechanisms are presented to illustrate the vulnerability of the IIoT; (2) the intrusion detection methods are listed from the attack identification perspectives; and (3) some defense strategies are comprehensively summarized. Several concluding remarks and promising future directions are provided at the end of this paper.

INTRODUCTION. The world has many times faced cardinal changes triggered by technological development. Creation of the Internet and the emergence of the artificial intelligence have become the major trend of the ongoing changes with the signifi-cant potential to affect all spheres of live, including the military affairs and the geopolitical phenomena in general. In this paper, in particular, we discuss the opportunities and challenges of the rapid technological development in the defense sector in the context of globalization. The pace and the nature of changes in defense dictate the necessity to analyze the current and future challenges of our digitized age in search of adequate and timely legal and strategic practical solutions. Cyber means of warfare are the weapons of the present. Over the past decades, cyber means of warfare have been frequently used against states in the context of international and non-international armed conflicts, as well as outside of such context. Thus, the fundamental scientific questions that arise are the following: a) are the current legal regulations at international and national levels sufficient to address all the challenges caused by the spillover of armed conflicts into the virtual domain and by the future advancement of cyber weapons, and b) are the current cyber weapons or those of the future capable of changing the nature of “war” described by General Carl von Clausewitz yet in the 19th century as a violent method of forcing its political will by one party of the conflict to the other. We have analyzed the above-mentioned questions in the light of the cyber weapons, which already exist and are being used for military purposes, in the light of possible advancement of cyber weapons and integration of AI into them, as well as in the light of the Big Data management. We have reflected on the dangers, which the smart and entirely data driven world would face, from legal and geopolitical perspectives, through the several possible scenarios of development, emphasizing, in particular, the probable military (defense) aspect of data management. While most frequently the specific problems of application of International Law to the traditional cyber warfare situations become subject for academic debates and discussions, we stress the necessity to also analyze the legal and practical implications of further advancement of cyber weapons, as well as the necessity to consider the role of Big Data management in changing the nature of war and, consequently, also the applicable legal solutions.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The works of academics and international scholars in the field of international law and, specifically, international humanitarian law, and military theorists, as well as international treaties, commentaries to international treaties, and national cyber defense and cyber security strategies comprise the theoretical basis for the current paper. The research has been conducted via general and specific scientific methods of cognition, in particular the dialectical method, comparative legal method, method of interpretation, as well as methods of deduction, induction, analysis, synthesis, and others.RESEARCH RESULTS. The ongoing changes taking place in the world have resulted in a situation, when cyber domain is considered one of the traditional war domains. In this context the international community is now debating more flexible interpretations of international legal regulations in order to most efficiently address the new reality. It is also important that states at national level undertake measures to timely and adequately address the challenges already created and those that potentially may take place as a result of the globalization along with the rapid evolution of the cyber technologies and their military use. In the current article we conclude that the categories of the present generation of cyber weapons are lawful. However, the future developments in cyber weapon technologies, as well as the possible quasi-military implications of Big Data management raise many theoretical and practical questions deserving attention. The efforts of the international community and individual states in the field of legal regulation of cyber technologies should be directed toward creating guarantees that the products of the technological development are used for the benefit of humankind. As one of such measures The Authors indicate national cyber security and cyber defense strategies, which according to the Authors, should be elaborated giving due consideration to the possible future developments.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. In this paper we analyze the peculiar features of evolution of the world in the 21st century and argue that wars are not static and autonomous phenomena isolated from the global context and all the changes taking place in the world. In particular, we address one of the most popular debates among the scholars in the field of military affairs concerning the issue whether the nature of war has changed or will change overtime, referring to Carl von Clausewitz’s thoughts. With regard to the current generation of cyber weapons, we conclude that even if they might prima facie seem to be inherently indiscriminate (such as, for example, nuclear weapons) in reality cyber weapons are not per se indiscriminate, but rather are weapons with a very high potential of being used indiscriminately or in violation of the principle of discrimination. However, the high potential of indiscriminate use of cyber weapons does not outlaw the cyber weapons as such. We also agree with the widely accepted opinion that the cyber weapons, which are currently used, are sufficiently regulated by the International Law. At the same time, the future tendencies for advancement and improvement of military cyber technologies, inter alia, via integration of artificial intelligence, may seriously call into question the possibility of their application in compliance with the international legal regulations. Finally, the possible scenarios of advancement of Big Data management have led us to the conclusion that big data management per se has the potential of being used as a weapon with less lethal or even non-lethal consequences, however equally effective in enforcing one’s policy as the traditional weapons or potentially kinetic cyber-weapons. If big data analysis at its current stage of development does not produce very accurate predictions, the well-distributed and structured informational flow in the cyber domain is capable of influencing and manipulating behaviours. In such case if Big data monopoly (including both: hardware and soſtware) vests in one of several actor, it could drastically change the nature of war by making the element of violence redundant and consequently alter the geopolitical balance. One of the measures for early response to future challenges, in our opinion, could be through reflecting on lex ferenda in cyber security and cyber defence national strategies. From the analysis of the content of different strategies we could conclude that most states acknowledge cyberspace as a military domain like land, air or maritime, analyse the main specific characteristics of current generation of cyber weapons, and set state objectives and action plan for cyber offense, cyber defense and cyber deterrence respectively. While the future advancement of cyber means of warfare and the quasi-military dimension of the big data management seem to be overlooked by states in general.

The COVID-19 pandemic with its substantial changes to social life affects social cognitions, which are important for solidarity during a global crisis. We investigated how distal defense strategies for dealing with threat, perceived threat, and contact experiences relate to people’s empathic reactions during lockdowns in two countries. In three studies (N = 1,332), we found that more experienced threat is associated with higher personal distress. In Germany, but not in the United Kingdom, people who applied social defenses reported more empathic concern. Additionally, general positive contact experiences related positively to empathic concern and perspective taking. These other-directed empathic reactions correlated highly with solidarity with others across all studies. The findings indicate that people’s empathy changes with their social experiences during this global crisis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power systems are exposed to various physical threats due to extreme events, technical failures, human errors, and deliberate damage. Physical threats are among the most destructive factors to endanger the power systems security by intelligently targeting power systems components, such as Transmission Lines (TLs), to damage/destroy the facilities or disrupt the power systems operation. The aim of physical attacks in disrupting power systems can be power systems instability, load interruptions, unserved energy costs, repair/displacement costs, and even cascading failures and blackouts. Due to dispersing in large geographical areas, power transmission systems are more exposed to physical threats. Power systems operators, as the system defenders, protect power systems in different stages of a physical attack by minimizing the impacts of such destructive attacks. In this regard, many studies have been conducted in the literature. In this paper, an overview of the previous research studies related to power systems protection against physical attacks is conducted. This paper also outlines the main characteristics, such as physical attack adverse impacts, defending actions, optimization methods, understudied systems, uncertainty considerations, expansion planning, and cascading failures. Furthermore, this paper gives some key findings and recommendations to identify the research gap in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the general development trend of the automotive industry, connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) can be used to increase transportation safety, promote mobility choices, reduce user costs, and create new job opportunities. However, with the increasing level of connectivity and automation, malicious users are able to easily implement different kinds of attacks, which threaten the security of CAVs. Hence, this paper provides a comprehensive survey on the cyber-security in the environment of CAVs with the aim of highlighting security problems and challenges. Firstly, based on the types of communication networks and attack objects, it classifies various cyber-security risks and vulnerabilities in the environment of CAVs into in-vehicle network attacks, vehicle to everything network attacks, and other attacks. Next, it regards cyber-risk as another type of attacks in the environment of CAVs. Then, it describes and analyzes up-to-date corresponding defense strategies for securing CAVs. In addition, it concludes several available cyber-security and safety standards of CAVs, which is helpful for the practical application of CAVs. Finally, several challenges and open problems are discussed for the future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two distinct defense strategies, disease resistance (DR) and disease tolerance (DT), enable a host to survive infectious diseases. Newborns, constrained by limited energy reserves, predominantly rely on DT to cope with infection. However, this approach may fail when pathogen levels surpass a critical threshold, prompting a shift to DR that can lead to dysregulated immune responses and sepsis. The mechanisms governing the interplay between DR and DT in newborns remain poorly understood. Here, we compare metabolic traits and defense strategies between survivors and non-survivors in Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis)-infected preterm piglets, mimicking infection in preterm infants. Compared to non-survivors, survivors displayed elevated DR during the initial phase of infection, followed by stronger DT in later stages. In contrast, non-survivors showed clear signs of respiratory and metabolic acidosis and hyperglycemia, together with exaggerated inflammation and organ dysfunctions. Hepatic transcriptomics revealed a strong association between the DT phenotype and heightened oxidative phosphorylation in survivors, coupled with suppressed glycolysis and immune signaling. Plasma metabolomics confirmed the findings of metabolic regulations associated with DT phenotype in survivors. Our study suggests a significant association between the initial DR and subsequent DT, which collectively contributes to improved infection survival. The regulation of metabolic processes that optimize the timing and balance between DR and DT holds significant potential for developing novel therapeutic strategies for neonatal infection. • Newborn host defense strategies are critical to surviving infection. • Infected survivors show enhanced early disease resistance and later tolerance. • Hepatic transcriptome and plasma metabolome link disease tolerance and survival. • Disease tolerance is associated with reduced glycolysis but increased OXPHOS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the applications of deep reinforcement learning (DRL) in wireless communications grow, sensitivity of DRL-based wireless communication strategies against adversarial attacks has started to draw increasing attention. In order to address such sensitivity and alleviate the resulting security concerns, we in this paper consider a victim user that performs DRL-based dynamic channel access, and an attacker that executes DRL-based jamming attacks to disrupt the victim. Hence, both the victim and attacker are DRL agents and can interact with each other, retrain their models, and adapt to opponents’ policies. In this setting, we initially develop an adversarial jamming attack policy that aims at minimizing the accuracy of victim’s decision making on dynamic channel access. Subsequently, we devise defense strategies against such an attacker, and propose three defense strategies, namely diversified defense with proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, diversified defense with an imitation attacker, and defense via orthogonal policies. We design these strategies to maximize the attacked victim’s accuracy and evaluate their performances.

A cyber-physical system (CPS) typically consists of the plant, sensors, actuators, the controller and a communication network. The communication network connects the individual components to achieve the computing and communication in the CPS. It also makes the CPS vulnerable to network attacks. How to deal with the network attacks in CPSs has become a research hotspot. This paper surveys the types of network attacks in CPSs, the intrusion detection methods and the attack defense strategies. The future research directions of CPSs network security are also presented.

Copyright of HETS Online Journal is the property of Hispanic Educational Technology Services, Inc. (HETS) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Bees are vitally important in natural and agricultural ecosystems, providing key pollination services to wild plants and crops. Increasing reports of regional declines of bee populations have attracted intense attention worldwide. Challenges to bee health are multifactorial and include poor nutrition, heat stress, agrochemicals, and pathogens. The impact of heat stress is a relatively minor factor in current bee declines compared with agrochemicals and pathogens. However, heat stress has adverse impacts on foraging activity, pollination services, task-related physiology, immunocompetence, reproductive capacity, growth, and development of bees, and these adverse impacts are variable in different bee species. Heat stress–related damage to bees receives extra attention when it is accompanied by climate change. Heat-tolerance mechanisms are key enablers for bee survival under high-temperature stress conditions, and we now understand that both behavior and molecular regulation strongly impact the ability of bees to reduce damage from heat stress. In this review, we summarize and synthesize previous findings about the detrimental effects of heat stress to bees and discuss the strategies bees use to cope with heat stress. Bee species mentioned here are mainly honeybees, bumblebees, and stingless bees, with a focus on the honeybee Apis mellifera. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Piracy attacks constitute a serious threat against which ships must be ready to defend themselves, particularly given the financial, political and logistical challenges involved in ensuring internationally coordinated protection. Yet, defense is highly challenging given the range of ship types, differing levels of government support, a constantly adapting pirate body, and pressures on costs and resources. Indeed, despite much guidance to deal with piracy, attacks continue unabated, and ships must defend themselves. To complement such guidance and suggest priorities for ship defense, this paper adopts a Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) and in-depth interviews to identify key strategic criteria against piracy attacks. Questionnaire responses were from 14 shipping operators and 7 academics. Subsequently, highly experienced government officials (n=3) and shipping operators (n=3) were interviewed to provide additional depth and perspectives. Results show key criteria are international conventions and policy, followed by defense strategies in perilous water areas, and ship's hardware and software. Regarding implementation, it is suggested shipping companies take ownership of any measures introduced, and outlined how they can do so. Also, managerial implications for shipping companies, governments, international bodies and researchers are outlined.

The current situation around coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) portrays a threat to us in several ways: It imposes uncertainty and a lack of control and reminds us of our own mortality. People around the world have reacted to these threats in seemingly unrelated ways: From stockpiling yeast and toilet paper to favoring nationalist ideas or endorsing conspiratorial beliefs. According to the General Process Model of Threat and Defense, the confrontation with a threat – a discrepant experience – makes humans react with both proximal and distal threat responses. While the proximal response manifests in behavioral inhibition that leads to heightened anxious arousal and vigilance, distal responses seek to lower behavioral inhibition and the associated state of anxiety and vigilance through engaging in distal defenses. In the present research, we propose that the reactions to COVID-19 may represent distal defense strategies to the pandemic and, therefore, can be explained and forecasted by the model. Thus, we hypothesized increased perceived COVID-19 threat to lead to a proximal threat response in the form of heightened behavioral inhibition. This, in return, should enhance the use of distal defenses (i.e., several ingroup biases, system justification, and conspiratorial beliefs) overlapping with the reactions observed as a response to COVID-19. This hypothesized mediated effect of increased perceived COVID-19 threat on distal defenses was tested in two preregistered studies: In Study 1 (N = 358), results showed perceived COVID-19 threat to be related to behavioral inhibition and, in turn, to be associated with increased distal defenses (i.e., higher entitativity, control restoration motivation, passive party support). In Study 2 (N = 348), we manipulated COVID-19 threat salience and found results suggesting the distal defenses of ingroup entitativity, system justification, and conspiratorial beliefs to be mediated by the proximal threat response. The results of the present research hint toward a common mechanism through which the seemingly unrelated reactions to COVID-19 can be explained. The results might help to predict future behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic and to design measures to counteract the detrimental effects of the pandemic.

Most of the stochastic game models to select network defense strategies are composed of matrix game and Markov decision,which assumes that the defender has known the attacker's revenue.This assumption does not conform to the actual situation.The uncertainty of the attacker's income was converted into the indeterminacy of the attacker type,and an incomplete information stochastic game model,which was combined with the static Bias game and Markov decision,was constructed.The equilibrium solution method of the incomplete information stochastic game model was given,and the strategy selection of the defender was guided by the stable Bias Nash equilibrium.Finally,a practical example was given to demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the model.

The current situation around coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) portrays a threat to us in several ways: It imposes uncertainty and a lack of control and reminds us of our own mortality. People around the world have reacted to these threats in seemingly unrelated ways: From stockpiling yeast and toilet paper to favoring nationalist ideas or endorsing conspiratorial beliefs. According to the General Process Model of Threat and Defense , the confrontation with a threat – a discrepant experience – makes humans react with both proximal and distal threat responses. While the proximal response manifests in behavioral inhibition that leads to heightened anxious arousal and vigilance, distal responses seek to lower behavioral inhibition and the associated state of anxiety and vigilance through engaging in distal defenses. In the present research, we propose that the reactions to COVID-19 may represent distal defense strategies to the pandemic and, therefore, can be explained and forecasted by the model. Thus, we hypothesized increased perceived COVID-19 threat to lead to a proximal threat response in the form of heightened behavioral inhibition. This, in return, should enhance the use of distal defenses (i.e., several ingroup biases, system justification, and conspiratorial beliefs) overlapping with the reactions observed as a response to COVID-19. This hypothesized mediated effect of increased perceived COVID-19 threat on distal defenses was tested in two preregistered studies: In Study 1 (N = 358), results showed perceived COVID-19 threat to be related to behavioral inhibition and, in turn, to be associated with increased distal defenses (i.e., higher entitativity, control restoration motivation, passive party support). In Study 2 (N = 348), we manipulated COVID-19 threat salience and found results suggesting the distal defenses of ingroup entitativity, system justification, and conspiratorial beliefs to be mediated by the proximal threat response. The results of the present research hint toward a common mechanism through which the seemingly unrelated reactions to COVID-19 can be explained. The results might help to predict future behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic and to design measures to counteract the detrimental effects of the pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The evolution of plant defenses has traditionally been studied at single plant ontogenetic stages, overlooking the fact that natural selection acts continuously on organisms along their development, and that the adaptive value of phenotypes can change along ontogeny.We exposed 20 replicated genotypes of Turnera velutina to field conditions to evaluate whether the targets of natural selection on different defenses and their adaptative value change across plant development.We found that low chemical defense was favored in seedlings, which seems to be explained by the assimilation efficiency and the ability of the specialist herbivore to sequester cyanogenic glycosides. Whereas trichome density was unfavored in juvenile plants, it increased relative plant fitness in reproductive plants. At this stage we also found a positive correlative gradient between cyanogenic potential and sugar content in extrafloral nectar.We visualize this complex multi‐trait combination as an ontogenetic defensive strategy. The inclusion of whole‐plant ontogeny as a key source of variation in plant defense revealed that the targets and intensity of selection change along the development of plants, indicating that the influence of natural selection cannot be inferred without the assessment of ontogenetic strategies in the expression of multiple defenses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), where numerous smart devices associated with sensors, actuators, computers, and people communicate with shared networks, has gained advantages in many fields, such as smart manufacturing, intelligent transportation, and smart grids. However, security is becoming increasingly challenging due to the vulnerability of the IIoT to various malicious attacks. In this paper, the security issues of the IIoT are reviewed from the following three aspects: (1) security threats and their attack mechanisms are presented to illustrate the vulnerability of the IIoT; (2) the intrusion detection methods are listed from the attack identification perspectives; and (3) some defense strategies are comprehensively summarized. Several concluding remarks and promising future directions are provided at the end of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past interactions between predators and prey have resulted in the emergence of numerous defensive mechanisms in the animal kingdom. Commonly reported in anurans (frogs and toads) are distress calls, which are vocalizations emitted while under attack that theoretically reduce predation risk by surprising or frightening the predator. Therefore, we would expect that the distress call is effective against a wide range of predators. In order to be effective against different predators, distress calls from different species must share common acoustic properties, and differ from advertisement calls, which are influenced by divergent selective pressures, safeguarding species recognition. Our hypothesis is that distress calls are more similar among related species than advertisement calls. In addition, distress calls are lacking in several unrelated phylogenetic groups or species. Therefore, it is unclear whether this attribute has been lost or evolved several times in the phylogeny of Anura. In order to test our hypothesis and to evaluate the evolution of distress calls, we used a combination of literature review, personal communications, and audio database assessment. Based on ancestral character estimation, we found that distress calls are an ancestral behavior in anurans, which carry phylogenetic signal. We also found more similarity comparing distress calls among species when we compared advertisement calls of the same group of species, suggesting that distress calls did not face divergent selective pressures. On the contrary, this attribute seems to have experienced convergent selection or neutral evolution. Finally, we found that body size determines the occurrence of distress calls in anurans, with smaller species lacking this behavior. We hypothesize that this may be because small body size may not allow for the production of long or loud enough calls to be effective against predators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Game Theory is a common approach used to understand attacker and defender motives, strategies, and allocation of limited security resources. For example, many defense algorithms are based on game-theoretic solutions that conclude that randomization of defense actions assures unpredictability, creating difficulties for a human attacker. However, many game-theoretic solutions often rely on idealized assumptions of decision making that underplay the role of human cognition and information uncertainty. The consequence is that we know little about how effective these algorithms are against human players. Using a simplified security game, we study the type of attack strategy and the uncertainty about an attacker's strategy in a laboratory experiment where participants play the role of defenders against a simulated attacker. Our goal is to compare a human defender's behavior in three levels of uncertainty (Information Level: Certain, Risky, Uncertain) and three types of attacker's strategy (Attacker's strategy: Minimax, Random, Adaptive) in a between-subjects experimental design. Best defense performance is achieved when defenders play against a minimax and a random attack strategy compared to an adaptive strategy. Furthermore, when payoffs are certain, defenders are as efficient against random attack strategy as they are against an adaptive strategy, but when payoffs are uncertain, defenders have most difficulties defending against an adaptive attacker compared to a random attacker. We conclude that given conditions of uncertainty in many security problems, defense algorithms would be more efficient if they are adaptive to the attacker actions, taking advantage of the attacker's human inefficiencies.

Cascading failure is a potential threat in power systems with the scale development of wind power, especially for the large-scale grid-connected and long distance transmission wind power base in China. This introduces a complex network theory (CNT) for cascading failure analysis considering wind farm integration. A cascading failure power flow analysis model for complex power networks is established with improved network topology principles and methods. The network load and boundary conditions are determined to reflect the operational states of power systems. Three typical network evaluation indicators are used to evaluate the topology characteristics of power network before and after malfunction including connectivity level, global effective performance and percentage of load loss (PLL). The impacts of node removal, grid current tolerance capability, wind power instantaneous penetrations, and wind farm coupling points on the power grid are analyzed based on the IEEE 30 bus system. Through the simulation analysis, the occurrence mechanism and main influence factors of cascading failure are determined. Finally, corresponding defense strategies are proposed to reduce the hazards of cascading failure in power systems.

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Using appropriate antipredatory responses is crucial for survival. While slowing down reduces the chances of being detected from distant predators, fleeing away is advantageous in front of an approaching predator. Whether appropriate responses depend on experience with moving objects is still an open question. To clarify whether adopting appropriate fleeing or freezing responses requires previous experience, we investigated responses of chicks naive to movement. When exposed to the moving cues mimicking an approaching predator (a rapidly expanding, looming stimulus), chicks displayed a fast escape response. In contrast, when presented with a distal threat (a small stimulus sweeping overhead) they decreased their speed, a maneuver useful to avoid detection. The fast expansion of the stimulus toward the subject, rather than its size per se or change in luminance, triggered the escape response. These results show that young animals, in the absence of previous experience, can use motion cues to select the appropriate responses to different threats. The adaptive needs of young preys are thus matched by spontaneous defensive mechanisms that do not require learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When discussing the current strategic environment, there is the "when" of the Cold War and the first half of the '90s, and the "now" of today. The changing demography and migration patterns, ethnic and religious tensions, environmental degradation, instability coming from states that are likely to decline or have already fallen, and growing proliferation of weapons are just some of the problems that have exacerbated the differences between security "then" and "now", such as the transnational terrorist attacks after September 11, 2001. The concept of security was much disputed, as seen from a study of the United Nations in 1986, developed by a group of experts on the concept of security, resulting in the existence of a limited conceptual similarity between them Mankind has always been concerned with building or rebuilding peace and security During the Cold War, Central and Eastern European countries were not talking about a national security concept in the Western sense of the word, but about a military doctrine of the Warsaw Pact and, in some cases, as was that of Romania, about a national military doctrine. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, those countries have gradually chosen to use the concept of national security, a term that takes into account all types of threats to national interests, and also the whole range of ways to counter them, the military not having the leading role any longer.

El trabajo aborda la relación entre abogacía y política a comienzos de la década del '70. Más precisamente se propone identificar y reconstruir los principales rasgos que asume la defensa de presos políticos en ese período. Más que una labor específica, se entiende que la defensa de presos políticos en esos años representó una novedosa configuración que logró articular una nueva asociación de profesionales del derecho, renovadas estrategias de defensa, una vasta y sistemática labor de denuncia, una fluida red de abogados a nivel nacional y una peculiar retórica que apuntaba a la conformación de un "nuevo derecho". Concebida en estos términos, creemos que la defensa de presos políticos en los tempranos '70 redefinió los modos convencionales de entender la relación entre ejercicio profesional, derecho y política, propiciando la emergencia de un nuevo modelo de intervención del abogado en la esfera pública.O trabalho aborda a relação entre direito e política nos anos 70. Mais precisamente, visa identificar e reconstruir as principais características que assume a defesa dos presos políticos nesse período. Ao invés de um trabalho específico, significa que a defesa de presos políticos nos anos representou uma nova configuração que foi capaz de articular uma nova associação de profissionais do direito, estratégias de defesa renovada, um esforço grande e sistemática de denúncia, uma rede fluida de advogados nacionais e uma retórica peculiar que visa a formação de uma "novo direito". Concebido nesses termos, acreditamos que a defesa dos presos políticos no início dos anos 70 redefiniu os modos convencionais de compreender a relação entre a prática profissional, direito e política, incentivando o surgimento de um novo modelo de advogado na esfera pública.The work addresses the relationship between law and politics in the early 70s. More precisely aims to identify and reconstruct the main features that assumes the defense of political prisoners in this period. Rather than a specific work, means that the defense of political prisoners in those years represented a new configuration that was able to articulate a new association of legal professionals, renewed defense strategies, a vast and systematic effort of denunciation, a fluid network of lawyers national and a peculiar rhetoric aimed at the formation of a "new law". Conceived in these terms, we believe that the defense of political prisoners in the early '70s redefined the conventional modes of understanding the relationship between professional practice, law and politics, encouraging the emergence of a new model of counsel in the public sphere.

• A new strategy to counter DI attacks in electricity market operations is presented. • The preventive defense strategy is based on placing the minimum number of PMUs. • Providing two indicators, attack detectability and weakening attack effectiveness. • A trade-off mechanism between the indicators and PMU installation cost is developed. • The placement strategy is presented based on random behavior of cyber attacker. Integrity data (DI) attacks are considered malicious cyber threats to the economic performance of power markets in current power systems. A cyber attacker could mislead the system operator by implementing a DI attack, through the deviation of measured information, and causes non-optimal power distribution and erroneous participation in the electricity market (EM). This paper proposes a placement scheme of phasor measurement units (PMUs) to defend against these attacks, so that network observability is guaranteed; the possibility of detecting DI attacks by the operator is increased; and the effect of electricity price fluctuations caused by these attacks is prevented. For this purpose, we introduce two possible indices to determine the degree of attack detectability and the magnitude of system congestion variation. Accordingly, the two-objective placement model of PMUs is upgraded, in which the minimum number of PMUs and their placement must be specified to improve the proposed indices so as to minimize the possibility of financial misconduct taking place in the real time market. Using IEEE standard systems, the effectiveness of this PMU placement-based defense scheme has been confirmed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]