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Ramularia is a species-rich genus in the order Capnodiales that harbours hyphomycetes with hyaline conidiophores and conidia with distinct, thickened, darkened, refractive conidiogenous loci and conidial hila. The sexual morph of Ramularia species belongs to Mycosphaerella but the number of experimentally proven links is small and some species may be true asexual holomorphs. Currently Ramularia species are accepted as being host-specific, although some exceptions are known. Most species are phytopathogenic and associated with leaf spots, necrosis or chlorosis, but some species can be saprobic or even hyperparasitic. The most important Ramularia plant pathogens are R. collo-cygni and R. beticola that cause severe economic losses to barley and sugar beet crops, respectively. Protecting crops from damage by weeds, animal pests and pathogens is of major importance in order to increase productivity to meet the global increase in demand for food, feed and bioenergy. The present study serves as a backbone for future studies on the taxonomy of Ramularia and allied genera since it includes the largest number of Ramularia isolates and species ever subjected to DNA sequence analyses. Combined with morphological descriptions and photo plates of several species, it provides a powerful tool to better understand and promote further research on Ramularia and allied genera. More than 1 000 names are known in Ramularia alone, and this study covered only 88 taxa, which means many species still need to be recollected and characterised based on their DNA sequence data. In addition, the present study aimed to clarify the phylogenetic position of the genera currently accepted to belong to Mycosphaerellaceae, thus providing a broad framework and phylogeny for the family and laying a foundation for additional genera and species to be recognised and described. Recent studies have already clearly defined several genera, but it was clear that genera such as Passalora, Zasmidium, Stenella and Ra

Plant-pathogenic microbes secrete effector molecules to establish disease on their hosts, whereas plants in turn employ immune receptors to try and intercept such effectors in order to prevent pathogen colonization. Based on structure and subcellular location, immune receptors fall into two major classes; cell surface-localized receptors that comprise receptor kinases (RKs) and receptor-like proteins (RLPs) that monitor the extracellular space, and cytoplasm-localized nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat receptors (NLRs) that survey the intracellular environment. Race-specific resistance to Verticillium wilt in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is governed by the tomato extracellular leucine-rich repeat (eLRR)-containing RLP-type cell surface receptor Ve1 upon recognition of the effector protein Ave1 that is secreted by race 1 strains of the soil-borne vascular wilt Verticillium dahliae. Homologues of V. dahliae Ave1 (VdAve1) are found in plants and in a number of plant pathogenic microbes, and some of these VdAve1 homologues are recognized by tomato Ve1. The research presented in this thesis aims to characterize the role of the tomato cell surface-localized immune receptor Ve1, and its homologues in other diverse plant species, in Verticillium wilt resistance.

Plants establish intricate relationships with microorganisms that range from mutualistic to pathogenic. In order to prevent colonization by potentially harmful microbes, plant hosts employ surface-localized receptor molecules that perceive ligands, which are either microbe-derived or result from microbe-mediated plant manipulation. This recognition ultimately leads to the activation of host immunity. In order to circumvent recognition or suppress immune responses, microbes secrete effector proteins that deregulate host physiological processes. While the number of identified putative effectors has rapidly increased in recent years, their functions and the mechanisms governing their recognition have largely remained unexplored. To enhance our understanding of the molecular interplay between host and microbe, the work presented here was designed to identify further components involved in the recognition of the two fungal pathogens Verticillium dahliae and Cladosporium fulvum, as well as to characterize the functions of effector proteins produced by these pathogens during tomato infection.

Disease resistance in crops is an important aspect of securing global food security. Resistant plants carry immune receptors that sense pathogen invasion often through the recognition of important pathogen virulence factors, known as effectors. Thus, identification and characterization of effectors is important for the fundamental understanding of virulence mechanisms and to aid in resistance breeding. In this thesis the VdAve1 effector of the soil-borne fungal pathogen Verticillium dahliae is studied that is recognized by tomato immune receptor Ve1. Homologs were found in other plant pathogens and the role in virulence in these pathogens was analyzed. Ave1 homologs are differentially recognized by Ve1 and with a combination of domain swaps and truncations a surface exposed patch was identified that contributes to the recognition by Ve1. Knowledge of specific effector-receptor combinations and knowledge of effectors in general can be exploited to aid in breeding for durable resistance in crops.

The Mycosphaerellaceae represent thousands of fungal species that are associated with diseases on a wide range of plant hosts. Understanding and stabilising the taxonomy of genera and species of Mycosphaerellaceae is therefore of the utmost importance given their impact on agriculture, horticulture and forestry. Based on previous molecular studies, several phylogenetic and morphologically distinct genera within the Mycosphaerellaceae have been delimited. In this study a multigene phylogenetic analysis (LSU, ITS and rpb2) was performed based on 415 isolates representing 297 taxa and incorporating ex-type strains where available. The main aim of this study was to resolve the phylogenetic relationships among the genera currently recognised within the family, and to clarify the position of the cercosporoid fungi among them. Based on these results many well-known genera are shown to be paraphyletic, with several synapomorphic characters that have evolved more than once within the family. As a consequence, several old generic names including Cercosporidium, Fulvia, Mycovellosiella, Phaeoramularia and Raghnildiana are resurrected, and 32 additional genera are described as new. Based on phylogenetic data 120 genera are now accepted within the family, but many currently accepted cercosporoid genera still remain unresolved pending fresh collections and DNA data. The present study provides a phylogenetic framework for future taxonomic work within the Mycosphaerellaceae.

Spliceosomal introns are key components of the eukaryotic gene structure. Although they contributed to the emergence of eukaryotes, their origin remains elusive. In fungi, they might originate from the multiplication of invasive introns named Introner-Like Elements (ILEs). However, so far ILEs have been observed in six fungal species only, including Fulvia fulva and Dothistroma septosporum (Dothideomycetes), arguing against ILE insertion as a general mechanism for intron gain. Here, we identified novel ILEs in eight additional fungal species that are phylogenetically related to F. fulva and D. septosporum using PCR amplification with primers derived from previously identified ILEs. The ILE content appeared unique to each species, suggesting independent multiplication events. Interestingly, we identified four genes each containing two gained ILEs. By analysing intron positions in orthologues of these four genes in Ascomycota, we found that three ILEs had inserted within a 15 bp window that contains regular spliceosomal introns in other fungal species. These three positions are not the result of intron sliding because ILEs are newly gained introns. Furthermore, the alternative hypothesis of an inferred ancestral gain followed by independent losses contradicts the observed degeneration of ILEs. These observations clearly indicate three parallel intron gains in four genes that were randomly identified. Our findings suggest that parallel intron gain is a phenomenon that has been highly underestimated in ILE-containing fungi, and likely in the whole fungal kingdom.

Leaf mold of tomato is caused by the biotrophic fungus Cladosporium fulvum which complies with the gene-for-gene system. The disease was first reported in Japan in the 1920s and has since been frequently observed. Initially only race 0 isolates were reported, but since the consecutive introduction of resistance genes Cf-2, Cf-4, Cf-5 and Cf-9 new races have evolved. Here we first determined the virulence spectrum of 133 C. fulvum isolates collected from 22 prefectures in Japan, and subsequently sequenced the avirulence (Avr) genes Avr2, Avr4, Avr4E, Avr5 and Avr9 to determine the molecular basis of overcoming Cf genes. Twelve races of C. fulvum with a different virulence spectrum were identified, of which races 9, 2.9, 4.9, 4.5.9 and 4.9.11 occur only in Japan. The Avr genes in many of these races contain unique mutations not observed in races identified elsewhere in the world including (i) frameshift mutations and (ii) transposon insertions in Avr2, (iii) point mutations in Avr4 and Avr4E, and (iv) deletions of Avr4E, Avr5 and Avr9. New races have developed by selection pressure imposed by consecutive introductions of Cf-2, Cf-4, Cf-5 and Cf-9 genes in commercially grown tomato cultivars. Our study shows that molecular variations to adapt to different Cf genes in an isolated C. fulvum population in Japan are novel but overall follow similar patterns as those observed in populations from other parts of the world. Implications for breeding of more durable C. fulvum resistant varieties are discussed

Upon host penetration, fungal pathogens secrete a plethora of effectors to promote disease, including proteases that degrade plant antimicrobial proteins, and protease inhibitors (PIs) that inhibit plant proteases with antimicrobial activity. Conversely, plants secrete proteases and PIs to protect themselves against pathogens or to mediate recognition of pathogen proteases and PIs, which leads to induction of defense responses. Many examples of proteases and PIs mediating effector-triggered immunity in host plants have been reported in the literature, but little is known about their role in compromising basal defense responses induced by microbe-associated molecular patterns. Recently, several reports appeared in literature on secreted fungal proteases that modify or degrade pathogenesis-related proteins, including plant chitinases or PIs that compromise their activities. This prompted us to review the recent advances on proteases and PIs involved in fungal virulence and plant defense. Proteases and PIs from plants and their fungal pathogens play an important role in the arms race between plants and pathogens, which has resulted in co-evolutionary diversification and adaptation shaping pathogen lifestyles.

Chitin is a homopolymer of N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAc)that is abundantly present in nature and found as a major structural component in the fungal cell wall. In Chapter 1,the role of chitin as an important factor in the interaction between fungal pathogens and their plant hosts is discussed. As plants do not produce chitin, they evolved to recognize fungal chitin as a non-self molecule by plasma membrane receptors that can activate host immune responses to stop fungal growth.To overcome those host immune responses, fungal pathogens secrete effector molecules that manipulate host physiology, including immune responses, to support colonization. The chitin-binding Lysin motif (LysM) effector Ecp6 from the fungal tomato pathogen Cladosporium fulvumwas previously demonstrated to contribute to virulence through interfering with the activation of chitin-induced host immune responses. Subsequently, LysM effector genes were found in the genomes of many fungal species. In Chapter 2 we describe the functional characterization of LysM effectors of the plant pathogenic fungi Mycosphaerella graminicola, Magnaporthe oryzae and Colletotrichum higginsianum, which cause leaf blotch disease of wheat, rice blast disease and anthracnose disease on Brassicaceae, respectively. This functional analysis revealed that the ability to perturb chitin-induced immunity is conserved among LysM effectors of these fungal plant pathogens. In addition, two LysM effectors that are secreted by M. graminicolawere found to protect fungal hyphae against cell wall hydrolytic enzymes from plants, demonstrating that LysM effectors can contribute to virulence of fungal plant pathogens in multiple ways. The M. graminicola LysM effector Mg3LysM and C. fulvum Ecp6 both contain three LysM domains and show a high overall similarity. However, whereas Mg3LysM can protect fungal hyphae against plant-derived cell wall hydrolytic enzymes, Ecp6 does not have this capacity. Chapter 3describes a functional analysis of

Fungi are notorious plant pathogens and continuously threat global food production. In the last decades we have obtained a better understanding of infection strategies of fungi and the plant immune system. This has facilitated more efficient introduction of disease resistance genes in crop plants by plant breeders. A brief overview of progress in research and applications will be provided as well as a glimpse into the future.

Cladosporium fulvum is a biotrophic fungal pathogen that causes leaf mould of tomato. Analysis of its genome suggested a high potential for production of secondary metabolites (SM), which might be harmful to plants and animals. Here, we have analysed in detail the predicted SM gene clusters of C. fulvum employing phylogenetic and comparative genomic approaches. Expression of the SM core genes was measured by RT-qrtPCR and produced SMs were determined by LC-MS and NMR analyses. The genome of C. fulvum contains six gene clusters that are conserved in other fungal species, which have undergone rearrangements and gene losses associated with the presence of transposable elements. Although being a biotroph, C. fulvum has the potential to produce elsinochrome and cercosporin toxins. However, the corresponding core genes are not expressed during infection of tomato. Only two core genes, PKS6 and NPS9, show high expression in planta, but both are significantly down regulated during colonization of the mesophyll tissue. In vitro SM profiling detected only one major compound that was identified as cladofulvin. PKS6 is likely involved in the production of this pigment because it is the only core gene significantly expressed under these conditions. Cladofulvin does not cause necrosis on Solanaceae plants and does not show any antimicrobial activity. In contrast to other biotrophic fungi that have a reduced SM production capacity, our studies on C. fulvum suggest that down-regulation of SM biosynthetic pathways might represent another mechanism associated with a biotrophic lifestyle.

Background Automated gene-calling is still an error-prone process, particularly for the highly plastic genomes of fungal species. Improvement through quality control and manual curation of gene models is a time-consuming process that requires skilled biologists and is only marginally performed. The wealth of available fungal genomes has not yet been exploited by an automated method that applies quality control of gene models in order to obtain more accurate genome annotations. Results We provide a novel method named alignment-based fungal gene prediction (ABFGP) that is particularly suitable for plastic genomes like those of fungi. It can assess gene models on a gene-by-gene basis making use of informant gene loci. Its performance was benchmarked on 6,965 gene models confirmed by full-length unigenes from ten different fungi. 79.4% of all gene models were correctly predicted by ABFGP. It improves the output of ab initio gene prediction software due to a higher sensitivity and precision for all gene model components. Applicability of the method was shown by revisiting the annotations of six different fungi, using gene loci from up to 29 fungal genomes as informants. Between 7,231 and 8,337 genes were assessed by ABFGP and for each genome between 1,724 and 3,505 gene model revisions were proposed. The reliability of the proposed gene models is assessed by an a posteriori introspection procedure of each intron and exon in the multiple gene model alignment. The total number and type of proposed gene model revisions in the six fungal genomes is correlated to the quality of the genome assembly, and to sequencing strategies used in the sequencing centre, highlighting different types of errors in different annotation pipelines. The ABFGP method is particularly successful in discovering sequence errors and/or disruptive mutations causing truncated and erroneous gene models. Conclusions The ABFGP method is an accurate and fully automated quality control method for fungal gene

BACKGROUND: Genome comparisons between closely related species often show non-conserved regions across chromosomes. Some of them are located in specific regions of chromosomes and some are even confined to one or more entire chromosomes. The origin and biological relevance of these non-conserved regions are still largely unknown. Here we used the genome of Fusarium graminearum to elucidate the significance of non-conserved regions. RESULTS: The genome of F. graminearum harbours thirteen non-conserved regions dispersed over all of the four chromosomes. Using RNA-Seq data from the mycelium of F. graminearum, we found weakly expressed regions on all of the four chromosomes that exactly matched with non-conserved regions. Comparison of gene expression between two different developmental stages (conidia and mycelium) showed that the expression of genes in conserved regions is stable, while gene expression in non-conserved regions is much more influenced by developmental stage. In addition, genes involved in the production of secondary metabolites and secreted proteins are enriched in non-conserved regions, suggesting that these regions could also be important for adaptations to new environments, including adaptation to new hosts. Finally, we found evidence that non-conserved regions are generated by sequestration of genes from multiple locations. Gene relocations may lead to clustering of genes with similar expression patterns or similar biological functions, which was clearly exemplified by the PKS2 gene cluster. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that chromosomes can be functionally divided into conserved and non-conserved regions, and both could have specific and distinct roles in genome evolution and regulation of gene expression

R gene-mediated host resistance against apoplastic fungal pathogens is not adequately explained by the terms pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP)-triggered immunity (PTI) or effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Therefore, it is proposed that this type of resistance is termed 'effector-triggered defence' (ETD). Unlike PTI and ETI, ETD is mediated by R genes encoding cell surface-localised receptor-like proteins (RLPs) that engage the receptor-like kinase SOBIR1. In contrast to this extracellular recognition, ETI is initiated by intracellular detection of pathogen effectors. ETI is usually associated with fast, hypersensitive host cell death, whereas ETD often triggers host cell death only after an elapsed period of endophytic pathogen growth. In this opinion, we focus on ETD responses against foliar fungal pathogens of crops.