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Purpose: This study explores the effect of glaucomatous visual field defects on several neuropsychological tests that are often used in research and in clinical settings. Methods: Nineteen glaucoma patients and nineteen healthy participants, which are current drivers and older than 65 years old were included. All participants completed the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), the Trail Making Test (TMT), the Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), the Snellgrove Maze Task (SMT) and the Digit Span Test (DST). All participants were also tested on contrast sensitivity and near and far visual acuity. For the glaucoma patients, visual field tests were downloaded from hospital servers. Results: On the MoCA test, glaucoma patients scored lower than the healthy group, but not significantly. On the MoCA‐Blind, the difference was statistically significant. Glaucoma patients also had lower percentile scores on the TMT, with a significant difference in the TMT‐A, but this difference largely disappeared in the calculated TMT B‐A index, which isolates the cognitive component. The BVRT and SMT showed no significant differences between both groups. In the only non‐visual test, the DST, glaucoma patients outperformed the healthy group. Glaucoma severity did not influence results, except for the BVRT on which the moderate/severe group has better scores. Conclusion: Using visual items might lead to conclusions about cognition when it should be one about vision. Therefore, careful selection of tests is needed when examining cognition in glaucoma patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Non-Dutch student cyclists report more accidents than Dutch cyclists. • After three months control of the bicycle by non-Dutch cyclists is similar to the Dutch. • Non-Dutch students make more serious errors in Dutch traffic, Dutch make more mild errors. Thirty-seven young adult participants completed a bicycle ride through the city of Groningen. Behaviour of Dutch and non-Dutch cyclists was compared in three conditions: on a control track (i.e. a one-way bicycle path), on a complex intersection, and on a roundabout. Basic bicycle control of the two groups did not differ, neither did reported invested mental effort. However, non-Dutch participants made more serious errors in the experiment and reported to have had more crashes previous to the experiment. It is concluded that the performance of non-Dutch cyclists who continue cycling upon arrival in a new country, does not differ on the control level, but at the higher manoeuvre level more performance errors were observed in the non-Dutch group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• first- and third-person perspective was compared in a driving simulator. • third-person perspective affects driving behaviour and reduces presence. • No difference in simulator sickness between perspectives. • A third-person perspective is not advised for driving simulator behavioural research. This study explores the effects of changing the viewing perspective from a first-person perspective (a traditional viewing perspective in virtual reality) to a third-person perspective (a view from behind the vehicle, as used in many computer games) on driving behaviour, presence, and simulator sickness. In a driving simulator participants drove the same route twice, once for each perspective. Measures for driving behaviour were recorded during the rides, and both simulator sickness and feeling of presence were measured after each ride. Participants also evaluated the perspectives for the different situations they encountered. Results show that changing viewing perspectives leads to a lower feeling of presence, but does not result in lower simulator sickness scores. While lane control is similar between perspectives, participants drove faster and more to the left in the third-person perspective. The first-person perspective was evaluated more positively in all situations, and was preferred by almost all participants. These results indicate that a third-person perspective is unlikely to be an effective method for reducing simulator sickness in driving simulators, and the results show that the third-person perspective is not advised in driving simulator behavioural research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a cyclist, it is essential to make inferences about the intentions of other road users in order to anticipate their behaviour. There are official ways for cyclists to communicate their intentions to other road users, such as using their arms to point in the intended direction of travel. However, in everyday traffic cyclists often do not use such active forms of communication. Therefore, other visual cues have to be used to anticipate (critical) encounters or events. During this study, 108 participants completed a video internet survey in which they predicted the intentions of a lead cyclist based on visible behaviour preceding a turning manoeuvre. When the lead cyclist approached the intersection, each video was stopped just before the cyclist initiated turning. Based on visual cues, the participants had to select which direction they thought the cyclist would go. After entering their prediction, they were asked how certain they were about their prediction and on which visible behaviour(s) each prediction was based. The results show that it is very hard to predict the direction of a turning cyclist based on visual cues before the turning manoeuvre is initiated. Exploratory regression analyses revealed that observable behaviours such as head movements and cycling speed were related to prediction accuracy. These results may be used to support cyclists in traffic interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective According to international data estimates the proportion bicyclists with a positive Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) who are involved in accidents ranges from 15% to 57%. This large variance, and the fact that the reliance on accident statistics means that only the BAC of injured bicyclists is being collected, shows that we do not really know what the average and variation in BAC of bicyclists is, particularly on nights out. Method On a total of four nights between 5 PM and 8 AM BAC levels of bicyclists were collected with a Breathalyser ( N = 687). Samples were collected in two Dutch cities, one with a high (Groningen), and one with a modest, student population (The Hague). Results The results showed that the percentage of bicyclists who had alcohol in their blood rose over the night from 7.7% at 6 PM to over 89% after 1 AM. Furthermore, the percentage of bicyclists with an illegal BAC above 0.5 g/l rose from zero percent at 6 PM to 68% at 1 AM. The average BAC of bicyclists with a BAC above zero was 0.79 g/l. Differences between the two cities were limited. Conclusion Cycling with illegal levels of blood alcohol turns out to be very common on nights out in the Netherlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Operating a mobile telephone while riding a bicycle is fairly common practice in the Netherlands, yet it is unknown if this use is stable or increasing. As such, whether the prevalence of mobile phone use while cycling has changed over the past five years was studied via on-road observation. In addition the impact of mobile phone use on lateral position, i.e. distance from the front wheel to the curb, was also examined to see if it compared to the results seen in previous experimental studies. Bicyclists were observed at six different locations and their behaviour was scored. It was found that compared to five years ago the use of mobile phones while cycling has changed, not in frequency, but in how cyclists were operating their phones. As found in 2008, three percent of the bicyclists were observed to be operating a phone, but a shift from calling (0.7% of cyclists observed) to operating (typing, texting, 2.3% of cyclists) was found. In 2008 nearly the complete opposite usage was observed: 2.2% of the cyclists were calling and 0.6% was texting. Another finding was that effects on lateral position were similar to those seen in experimental studies in that cyclists using a phone maintained a cycling position which was further away from the curb. It was also found that when at an intersection, cyclist's operating their phone made less head movements to the right than cyclists who were just cycling. This shift from calling to screen operation, when combined with the finding related to reduced head movements at intersections, is worrying and potentially dangerous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) provided information about the right of way regulation and safety to cross an upcoming intersection. Effects were studied in a longer-term study involving 18 healthy older drivers between the ages of 65 and 82 years and 18 healthy young drivers between the ages of 20 and 25 years. Participants repeatedly drove 25 km city routes in eight sessions on separate days over a period of two months in a driving simulator. In each age group, participants were randomly assigned to the control (no ADAS) and treatment (ADAS) group. The control group completed the whole experiment without the ADAS. The treatment group drove two sessions without (sessions 1 and 7) and six times with ADAS. Results indicate effects of ADAS on driving safety for young and older drivers, as intersection time and percentage of stops decreased, speed and critical intersection crossings increased, the number of crashes was lower for treatment groups than for control groups. The implications of results are discussed in terms of behavioral adaptation and safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Effects of operating a touch screen phone on bicycling performance were evaluated. [•] Effects of gaming and talking to a companion on a bicycle were also assessed. [•] Operating any phone reduces cycle speed, peripheral detection, and affects lane position. [•] Peripheral detection is worst and lane position most leftwards while operating a touch screen. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Music improves drivers’ response times to accelerations and decelerations of a lead vehicle while following a car. [•] Listening to music increases drivers’ arousal in monotonous driving conditions. [•] Music may provide drivers with external stimulation while performing monotonous driving tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many theories of driver behaviour suggest that unconscious or implicit emotions play a functional role in the shaping and control of behaviour. This has not been experimentally tested however. Therefore, in this study the effects of emotive masked images on driver behaviour were examined. While driving a simulator, participants were repeatedly exposed to negative or neutral emotionally laden target images that were sandwich masked by emotionally neutral images. These images were encountered across two different trials each of which consisted of 3-4 minutes of driving on a rural road. The results indicate an effect of the negative target images primarily in reducing the extent of familiarisation occurring between the first and second experimental drives. This is evident in a reduced decrease in heart rate and a reduced increase in high band heart rate variability and actual travelling speed from the first to second drives if the negative target image was presented in the second drive. In addition to these findings there was no clear effect of the target image on subjective ratings of effort or feelings of risk. There was however an effect of gender, with the majority of the effects found in the study being limited to the larger female dataset. These findings suggest that unconscious or implicit emotional stimuli may well influence driver behaviour without explicit awareness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The effects of listening to music on cycling behaviour were evaluated. Twenty-five participants completed a track on a bicycle while listening to music with two standard earbuds, with one earbud, and with two in-earbuds. Conditions with high tempo music and loud volume were also included in the experiment, as were two mobile phone conditions, one in which participants operated the phone hand held and one handsfree condition. Cycle speed was not affected by listening to music, but was reduced in the telephone conditions. In general the response to auditory signals worsened when participants listened to music, in particular when listening with in-earbuds loud auditory stop signals were missed in 68% of the cases. However, when listening with only one standard earbud performance was not affected. In the conditions when participants listened to high volume and to high tempo music, the auditory stop signal was also heard in significantly fewer cases. Completing a task on the mobile phone, using both handheld and handsfree sets, resulted in increased response time to an auditory stop signal and also reduced overall auditory perception. Furthermore, handsfree operation only had minor advantages opposed to hand held operation, with only response time to an auditory stop signal resulting in faster performance. This is likely to be related to the fact that both hands could be used for braking. It is concluded that listening to music worsens auditory perception, in particular if in-earbuds are used. Furthermore, both handheld and handsfree operation of mobile phones has a negative effect on perception, potentially forming a threat to cyclist traffic safety. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: No theory of driver behaviour has yet managed to achieve widespread acceptance and use in the field of Traffic Psychology, partly due to the difficulty in testing many of the theories. However, one class of theories, the motivational theories, can be usefully split into two groups and the differences between them can then be examined. One group posits the constant monitoring and targeting of a certain subjective variable, often risk, as the controlling factor in driving. The other group however states that subjective variables such as risk are only relevant once a certain threshold has been passed. In this study we aimed to examine this difference by manipulating both speed of travel and the amount of cognitive load participants were under. Participants were asked to initially drive at their preferred speed for 1min in a driving simulator. Participant''s speed was then automatically increased or decreased by 10, 20 30km/h or left unchanged. Participants were then required to maintain the new speed for 1min. After this 1min the speed was again automatically changed and had to be maintained for one more minute, but this time participants also carried out a secondary mental arithmetic task. Finally participants were asked to again drive for another 1min at their preferred speed. This procedure was repeated seven times, once for each speed manipulation; −30, −20, −10, +0, +10, +20 and +30km/h. After each 1min interval verbal ratings of task difficulty, effort, feeling of risk and the typicality of the speed were collected. The results show a threshold effect in ratings of task difficulty, effort and feeling of risk, with no significant difference given between the ratings during the baseline period and the experimentally decreased speed periods until after participant''s preferred speed of travel had been exceeded. Furthermore, even when under cognitive load the threshold relationship was still apparent, if diminished. Finally it appears that when under cognitive load drivers have difficulty maintaining a travelling speed which is lower than the speed at which they would prefer to drive. However, driving at a speed in excess of their preferred speed appears to be easier to maintain, at least in the short term. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: This study investigated causal factor of perceptual failure and possible countermeasure of crossing path crashes at clear-sighted unsignalised intersections. Background: Crossing path crashes involving two vehicles at intersections are a common and serious problem, and perceptual failure has been identified as a predominant causal factor. Previous studies have showed that late detection of a crossing vehicle frequently occurs even when there are no visual obstructions, at such as rural intersections. Method: With using a fixed-based driving simulator, three experiments were performed to investigate a driver’s ability to detect a periphery presented cross traffic while approaching an intersection. In Experiment 1, drivers’ ability to detect crossing vehicles in their peripheral field of view was studied, both in conditions of vehicles following a collision and a non-collision trajectory. In Experiment 2, we examined whether abrupt appearance of a vehicle on collision course would improve detection performance. In Experiment 3, we tested potential of collision warning, if it affects voluntary visual scanning, improving the detection performance regarding hazards cross traffic. Results: The results of Experiment 1 showed that vehicles on collision course vehicles were detected late. This suggested that the late detection could be related to the lack of motion visible in the peripheral view. In Experiment 2, it was found that abrupt appearance effect (“pop-up” from road side occluding furniture) improves detection performance of a crossing vehicle. The results of Experiment 3 demonstrated that cross traffic collision warnings were beneficial for preventing late detection responses by means of encouraging voluntary visual scanning. Conclusion: Less attention attractive visual properties of hazardous cross traffic attributed to mutual approaching course can cause recognition failure. Drivers’ gaze shift to potential conflicting direction, either reflective or voluntary manner, is crucially important for preventing crossing path crashes at such as rural intersections. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Subjective impressions of task difficulty, risk, effort, and comfort are key variables of several theories of driver behaviour. A point of difference between many of these theories is not only the importance of these variables, but also whether they are continuously present and monitored or only experienced by individuals at certain critical points in the driving task. Both a threshold relationship and evidence of constant monitoring of risk and task difficulty have been found for speed choice. In light of these conflicting findings this study seeks to examine a different part of the driving task, the choice of time headway. Participants (N=40, aged 19 to 30) drove in a simulator behind a vehicle travelling at 50km/h at set time headways ranging from 0.5seconds to 4.0seconds. After each drive ratings of task difficulty, risk, comfort, and effort were collected. In addition participants were asked to drive at the time headway they preferred. In order to assess familiarity participants also drove on both the left and right hand side of the road and the role of driving experience was also examined. The results show support for a threshold awareness of task difficulty, risk, effort, and comfort in relation to time headway. Participant''s ratings of these variables tended to be low or nil at large time headways, but then around the 2.0 second mark began to noticeably increase. Feelings of task difficulty, risk, and effort were also found to be highly correlated with each other. No effect of driving experience or side of the road was found. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Many traffic accidents are caused by, or at least related to, inadequate mental workload, when it is either too low (vigilance) or too high (stress). Creating variations in mental workload and accident-prone driving for research purposes is difficult in the real world. In driving simulators the measurement of driver mental workload is relatively easily conducted by means of physiological measures, although good research skills are required and it is time-consuming. The fact that modern driving simulator environments are laboratory-equivalent nowadays allows full control with respect to environmental conditions, scenarios and stimuli, and enables physiological measurement of parameters of mental workload such as heart rate and brain activity. Several examples are presented to illustrate the potential of modern high-standard driving simulator environments regarding the monitoring of drivers’ mental workload during task performance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: It has been suggested that a driver’s hand position on the steering wheel can reflect the perceived risk of the road context (Walton, D., & Thomas, J. A. (2005). Naturalistic observations of driver hand positions. Transportation Research Part F, 8, 229–238, Thomas, J. A., & Walton, D. (2007). Measuring perceived risk: Self-reported and actual hand positions of SUV and car drivers. Transportation Research Part F, 10, 201–207). These original studies were based on field observations where only a part of the steering wheel could be viewed. In the present study hand positions were observed in a driving simulator during the performance of a demanding task; merging into motorway traffic. In the current study the whole steering wheel could be observed and hand positions were classified in three categories: high control, medium control, and low control. Differences in hand position between different traffic conditions were limited, and hand position did not correlate with self-reported risk or self-reported mental effort, but changes in hand positions do seem to be associated with changes in workload demand. It is therefore concluded that hand position can give some information about mental workload. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An increase in the number of Heavy Goods Vehicles on motorways may lead to additional problems in the interaction with an increased number of elderly drivers. Elderly drivers suffer from reduced information processing speed and capacity, and in general effectively compensate for this by taking more time. However, this strategy, regulating task demands by slowing down will make merging into motorway traffic actually more difficult. In an experiment performed in a driving simulator, young and elderly drivers merged into motorway traffic. Driver behaviour and mental workload were studied while the following factors were manipulated: type of traffic and density of Heavy Goods Vehicles on the main road, the length of the acceleration lane, presence of a slowly driving lead car, and presence of a driver support system that encouraged the drivers to speed up if their speed was too low. Results show that the effects of an increased number of Heavy Goods Vehicles on the main road were not more adverse for elderly than for the young participants, with the exception that elderly drivers merged at a lower speed. This lower speed could make the manoeuvre more risky in real traffic. The support system and an extended acceleration lane facilitated merging, while a slowly driving lead car impeded completion of the manoeuvre. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effects of an increase in Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs) on merging behaviour and on mental workload of motorists during filtering in and out of traffic were studied. Participants drove in a driving simulator in a total of 12 conditions; twice in each of two weather conditions and in three traffic conditions. The weather conditions were clear weather and foggy weather. The traffic conditions were without HGVs (i.e. only private cars), the current mix of HGVs and private cars, and a condition with a 70% increase of HGVs leading to an HGV column in the slow lane. The focus of the study was on assessing effects on behaviour and mental workload during filtering into traffic, and during exiting from the motorway. During the experiment driving performance was registered, behaviour was observed, self reports were collected, and the participant''s heart rate was recorded. The results showed that directly after filtering into traffic the variation in driving speed increased and the minimum time headway decreased with an increase in the proportion of HGVs. Joining motorway traffic was considered to involve greater effort and risk in the condition with a column of HGVs. The effects of the conditions on heart rate are less clear, although the moment when the participants joined the traffic is clearly visible. The effects of weather conditions were limited, drivers adapting their driving behaviour in adverse weather by reducing speed. To exit the motorway is not a difficult manoeuvre. For that reason the lane change from the left hand to the right hand lane that preceded the exit was analysed. Although increased mental effort was reported and the lane change was visible in the heart rate record, no critical changes as a result of increase in proportion of HGVs were found for this manoeuvre. However, in the condition with a column of HGVs, the exit that had to be taken was most frequently missed as HGVs obstructed the view of the exit signs. It is concluded that an increase in HGVs will make merging into traffic more mentally demanding and will decrease safety margins. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The questions “how much visual information from the road is required for proper driving?”, and “how do people cope with a visually ambiguous road configuration?”, were explored in an advanced driving simulator.Sixteen young and 16 elderly drivers completed two test rides on a rural road that was divided into five sections of 2 km, at each section a road element (e.g., delineation, roadside marker) was added or removed. During the rides, performance (lateral position, speed) and heart rate were recorded continuously, and before transition to a new section drivers gave a rating on invested effort and on visibility of the (previous) road course. The experiment''s goal was to determine whether a shift in driving behaviour could be noticed at a certain amount of visual information.The main threshold found, for both age groups, lies between roads with `no delineation on the road surface at all'' and `a centre-line''. Elderly drivers, however, appeared to need the visual aid of the centre-line to a greater extent than young drivers, and in general they drove slower and regulated their information input in this way.A visually ambiguous road situation concluded the experiment. The participants drove on a centre-lined road towards a junction where the road forked to the left and right. The left-hand road was a road without delineation but with lampposts, the right-hand road was a continuation of the centre-lined road without lampposts. In particular elderly drivers were confused by this situation and chose the road with lampposts more often. This finding supports the assumption that with increasing age people are more easily confused by ambiguous cues. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Rationale. The effects of MDMA on driving behaviour are not clear, since the direct effects of MDMA on cognitive performance are reported as not generally negative. Objectives. To assess in an advanced driving simulator acute effects on simulated driving behaviour and heart rate of MDMA, and effects of polydrug use. Methods. A group of young participants who had indicated that they regularly used MDMA were asked to complete test rides in an advanced driving simulator, shortly after the use of MDMA, just before going to a party. They were tested again after having visited the "rave", while they were under the influence of MDMA and a number of different other active drugs. Participants were also tested sober, at a comparable time at night. Separately, a control group of participants was included in the experiment. Results. Driving performance in the sense of lateral and longitudinal vehicle control was not greatly affected after MDMA, but deteriorated after multiple drug use. The most striking result was the apparent decreased sense for risk taking, both after MDMA and after multiple drug use. This was clear from gap acceptance data, while the ultimate indicator of unsafe driving, accident involvement or even causation, was increased by 100% and 150%, respectively. Conclusions. Driving under the influence of MDMA alone is certainly not safe; however, driving back (home) after a dance party ("rave") where MDMA users regularly combine MDMA with a host of other drugs can be described as extremely dangerous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluates the effectiveness of an in-car enforcement and tutoring system in increasing law-abiding behavior of drivers and promote traffic safety. Changes in speed, one-way stop and red-light violations as measures of effectiveness; Comparison between elderly and young drivers; Effects of warnings on violations; Effects on task performance and workload.

Investigates the behavior of drivers in an emergency situation in the Automated Highway System (AHS) in the United States. Account on the three AHS conditions tested; Effects of the automation on driver behavior; Comparison between normal driving and automated driving.

• Visually impaired cyclists do not necessarily take safer routes than normally sighted peers. • Visually impaired cyclists spent more time travelling at low speed than normally sighted peers. • Visually impaired cyclists had a lower 'cruising speed' than normally sighted peers. • Cycling video recordings may not replace traditional cycling assessment in vision rehabilitation, but they could serve as a screening tool. This study investigated whether visually impaired cyclists, compared to cyclists without visual limitations, take other, potentially safer routes to destinations in their own living environment and whether they ride at a lower speed. In total, 19 matched pairs of a visually impaired cyclist and a normally sighted peer from the same neighbourhood recorded their everyday bicycle rides, using GPS action cameras. In addition, they completed an 'assigned ride', a ride for which only a starting and an ending point were provided by the researcher. A risk-assessment procedure showed that the route taken by visually impaired cyclists during this assigned ride was not less risky than the route taken by the normally sighted cyclists. Analysis of the everyday rides showed that, on average, cyclists with a visual impairment more frequently (i.e. for longer periods) cycled at a speed below 10 km/h compared to cyclists without visual impairment. Also, the visually impaired participants' cruising speed was 1.4 km/h lower than that of their normally sighted counterparts. In conclusion, no evidence was found that visually impaired cyclists compensate strategically by taking different, potentially safer routes than normally sighted cyclists when riding in their own environment. They may (unconsciously) compensate tactically for their visual function limitations by riding at a lower speed when necessary. Mobility trainers in vision rehabilitation as well as road designers could apply these findings to optimise the cycling mobility of visually impaired people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Different motives explain acceptability of Connected Automated Vehicles. • Safety, instrumental, and environmental attributes most important for acceptability. • Perceived adoption norm directly and indirectly influences acceptability. Connected Automated Vehicles (CAVs) could be dominating the roads in the near future. CAVs are fully automated vehicles equipped to communicate and share data with other devices both inside and outside the vehicles, and can increase traffic safety and decrease greenhouse emissions from traffic, as they can ensure a more efficient traffic flow and reduce traffic jams. However, CAVs can only achieve this potential when they are accepted and widely adopted by the public. In this paper, we propose a model to explain the acceptability (i.e. evaluation before experience) of CAVs. We hypothesize that the acceptability of CAVs is higher when people evaluate its attributes more favourably, feel more able to use CAVs (i.e. higher perceived behavioural control), and think close others would consider adopting CAVs (i.e. the perceived adoption norm). We identified seven key attributes that could be important for the acceptability of CAVs, namely: safety, instrumental, hedonic, control, symbolic, environmental, and trustworthiness attributes. Results from a large-scale online questionnaire (N = 3783) showed that the proposed model explains acceptability well. Together, the evaluation of attributes of CAVs, perceived behavioural control, and perceived adoption norm explained 60 % of variance in acceptability. Positive evaluations of attributes were the strongest predictor of acceptability of CAVs, in particular safety, instrumental, and environmental attributes. Interestingly, we found that symbolic attributes predict acceptability better when the perceived adoption norm is low. The results suggest the acceptability of CAVs may be enhanced by improving the evaluations of its key attributes and by introducing it as a status product in the early adoption phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatigue is a pervasive symptom experienced by many individuals after COVID-19. Despite its widespread occurrence, fatigue remains a poorly understood and complex phenomenon. Our aim is to evaluate the subjective experience of mental fatigue after COVID-19 and to assess its significance for daily life functioning. In this online questionnaire study (N = 220), the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), World Health Organization Quality-of-Life assessment (WHOQoL) and a subjective severity rating of the COVID-19 disease progression were used. For our statistical analyses we utilized independent samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA with post-hoc analyses, and a multiple regression. As expected our findings revealed the COVID group reported significantly higher levels of subjective fatigue compared to the control group. Moreover, there was a significant difference between experienced fatigue across the four severity groups. Participants who had a milder course of disease also experienced severe subjective fatigue. Subjective fatigue explained 40% variance in quality-of-life. In conclusion, severe subjective fatigue appears to be associated with increased self-reported COVID-19 symptom severity and lower quality-of-life but is already observable in milder cases. This underscores, firstly, the importance of considering also less severe cases and, secondly, the need to develop rehabilitation and psychological interventions for fatigue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Replies to the comments on behavior of drivers in an emergency situation in the Automated Highway System (AHS) in the United States. Benefits of the gradual introduction of automation; Use of a simulator for investigating driver responses to AHS; Ability of drivers to reclaim control in an unexpected event undetected by the AHS.

• On average visually impaired participants did not cycle slower than normally sighted participants. • On average kerb distance did not differ between normally sighted and visually impaired participants. • No cycling restrictions on the basis of vision standards should be set. • Cycling advice should be tailored to the visually impaired individual. The present study investigates whether visually impaired cyclists compensate for their vision limitations by maintaining a lower speed or a larger distance to the kerb than normally sighted cyclists when riding a regular bicycle or pedal electric bicycle (pedelec). A normally sighted control group (n = 10), a peripheral visual field loss group (n = 9), and a low visual acuity group (n = 12) rode a fixed route (7.5 km) in the Netherlands on a regular bicycle and on a pedelec. Speed and lateral position were measured when participants cycled a (I) one-way cycle path, (II) two-way cycle path, (III) residential area, and (IV) shared space zone. With regard to both the regular bicycle and the pedelec, no significant speed or lateral position differences were found between the three groups. In conclusion, for some people with severe and permanent visual impairments, and under certain circumstances, regular bicycle and pedelec riding may be possible without noticeable speed reduction or adapted lane position to compensate for their functional impairment. The present findings may further optimise the cycling advice provided by mobility trainers of vision rehabilitation centres and the independent mobility of visually impaired people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aims to identify the most important factors that influence the independent bicycle use of visually impaired people in the Netherlands. Materials and methods: Both visually impaired people and professionals participated in a two-round online Delphi study (n = 42). In Round 1 the participants identified the factors which they ranked by relevance in Round 2. Results: The participants prioritised environmental factors related to the traffic situation, the characteristics of the infrastructure, and weather and light conditions (Kendall's W = 0.66). They indicated that the most influencing personal factors are related to personality, traffic experience, and personal background (W = 0.58). Glaucoma was ranked as the most relevant ophthalmic condition (W = 0.74), while glare was regarded as the most important factor with respect to the visual functions (W = 0.78). Conclusions: The factors provided by this study can be used to optimise the independent cycling mobility of visually impaired people. More research is needed to investigate, both, how and to what extent the mentioned factors influence the cycling behaviour. The results of this study can be used to set priorities during the rehabilitation and training of visually impaired people who wish to cycle independently. Visually impaired cyclists may compensate for the consequences of their visual impairments by taking alternative routes that suit their individual abilities and limitations. Since gaining and maintaining self-confidence is important for independent cycling with a visual impairment, practitioners such as mobility trainers should not only focus on cycling-related skills and abilities, but also aim to improve the self-confidence of visually impaired people who wish to cycle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background/objective: Neurodegenerative disorders impact fitness to drive of older drivers, but on-road driving studies investigating patients with different neurodegenerative disorders are scarce. A variety of driving errors have been reported in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), but it is unclear which types of driving errors occur most frequently. Moreover, patients with other neurodegenerative disorders than AD typically present with different symptoms and impairments, therefore different driving errors may be expected.Methods: Patients with AD (n = 80), patients with other neurodegenerative disorders with cognitive decline (i.e., vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia, dementia with Lewy bodies/Parkinson's disease, n = 59), and healthy older drivers (n = 45) participated in a fitness-to-drive assessment study including on-road driving.Results: Patients with AD performed significantly worse than healthy older drivers on operational, tactical, visual, and global aspects of on-road driving. In patients with AD, on-road measures were significantly associated with 'off-road' measures. Patients with neurodegenerative disorders other than AD showed large overlap in the types of driving errors. Several driving errors were identified that appear to be characteristic for patients with particular neurodegenerative disorders.Conclusion: Patients from each group of neurodegenerative disorders commonly display tactical driving errors regarding lane positioning, slow driving, observation of the blind spot, and scanning behavior. Several other tactical and operational driving errors, including not communicating with cyclists and unsteady steering, were more frequently observed in patients with non-AD neurodegenerative disorders. These findings have implications for on-road and 'off-road' fitness-to-drive assessments for patients with neurodegenerative disorders with cognitive decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Participants were, on average, slightly positive about a monitoring and feedback device. • Drivers consider themselves good drivers and the majority do not believe they can improve. • Based on the observation of little worry about online data collection, it appears that privacy concerns are small. • Participants preferred not sharing their data or sharing anonymously over sharing for social comparison. • Allowing personalisation of the monitoring and feedback device could increase acceptability. Recent technological advancements allow monitoring of drivers' behaviour and offer the opportunity for providing feedback. While this approach has been shown to have a positive effect on driver behaviour, whether it is accepted by drivers has not yet been extensively investigated. This questionnaire study examined the opinions of a sample of 628 Dutch drivers on the potential use of a monitoring and feedback system. The focus was on (1) whether drivers would be interested in being assessed, (2) whether data collection (i.e., monitoring) could be used for this purpose, and (3) which features the potential system must have in order to get accepted. The results showed that participants were moderately enthusiastic about the prospect of receiving monitoring feedback: on average, their opinion was between neutral and positive. Professional drivers expressed slightly more positive opinions, but no demographic variable was strongly associated with acceptability. Many drivers rated themselves as good drivers already and had low sensitivity to data collection, i.e., participants indicated being used to data collection online. If they were to use a monitoring and feedback device, participants indicated a preference for data on speed and forward-facing video footage and a preference for personalisation. The use of a monitoring and feedback system can be considered as a trade-off between sharing personal data and receiving support to improve driving skills. Based on the participants' reported online behaviour, it appears that the perceived costs associated with sharing data are small. The potential benefits of driver monitoring and feedback, however, are not salient to the participants, which may limit the use of such a system on the roads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number of patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is increasing and so is the number of patients driving a car. To enable patients to retain their mobility while at the same time not endangering public safety, each patient should be assessed for fitness to drive. The aim of this study is to develop a method to assess fitness to drive in a clinical setting, using three types of assessments, i.e. clinical interviews, neuropsychological assessment and driving simulator rides. The goals are (1) to determine for each type of assessment which combination of measures is most predictive for on-road driving performance, (2) to compare the predictive value of clinical interviews, neuropsychological assessment and driving simulator evaluation and (3) to determine which combination of these assessments provides the best prediction of fitness to drive. Eighty-one patients with AD and 45 healthy individuals participated. All participated in a clinical interview, and were administered a neuropsychological test battery and a driving simulator ride (predictors). The criterion fitness to drive was determined in an on-road driving assessment by experts of the CBR Dutch driving test organisation according to their official protocol. The validity of the predictors to determine fitness to drive was explored by means of logistic regression analyses, discriminant function analyses, as well as receiver operating curve analyses. We found that all three types of assessments are predictive of on-road driving performance. Neuropsychological assessment had the highest classification accuracy followed by driving simulator rides and clinical interviews. However, combining all three types of assessments yielded the best prediction for fitness to drive in patients with AD with an overall accuracy of 92.7%, which makes this method highly valid for assessing fitness to drive in AD. This method may be used to advise patients with AD and their family members about fitness to drive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: With on-going increases in traffic density and the availability of more and more in-vehicle technology, driver overload is a growing concern. To reduce the burden of workload on the driver, it is essential that support systems that become available are able to use estimations of drivers' workload. In this paper a short-term cardiovascular approach to assess drivers' mental workload is described using data collected in a driving simulator study. The effects of short lasting increases in task demand (40s) on heart rate and blood pressure and derived variability measures are applied as indicators of mental effort. Fifteen drivers participated in 6 sessions of 1.5h in a driving simulator study. Two traffic density levels (7.5minute segments) were compared in which short-segments (40s) of fog were used to induce additional workload demands. Higher traffic density was reflected in increased systolic blood pressure and decreased blood pressure variability. Heart rate variability and blood pressure variability measures decreased during driving in fog in the low traffic condition, indicating increased effort investment during fog in this condition. The results show that the described short-term measures can be applied to give an indication of cardiovascular reactivity as a function workload. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] More attention is allocated to the road center when driving with the system. [•] Intersection assistance decreases intersection crossing time. [•] Drivers equipped with ADAS cross intersections more often with a critical TTC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• 'Best practices' to analyse bicycle crash causes in correlational studies. • An abbreviated list of crash causation criteria was used. • Risk comparisons between two types of bicycles is the example given. • Controlling for age, gender, and exposure is required to analyse crash risk. The increasing number of bicycle crashes leading to injuries in the Netherlands is frequently related (e.g., in the media) to increased use of the electric bicycle. For this reason, policy makers face the challenge of selecting and implementing the most promising countermeasures including those focused on electric bicycles. It may be questioned, however, to what extent the electric bicycle itself is a (direct) cause of crashes leading to injuries or whether other factors are important for explaining the increased number of bicycle injury crashes. On the basis of an abbreviated list of criteria by Elvik (2011) , this paper illustrates the potential influence of factor inclusions, analysis selections, and data presentations on the general impression about crash causation with the electric bicycle as an example. The aim is to provide a 'best practice guide' by taking into account (1) a theoretical explanation of causal mechanisms, (2) control for confounders, and (3) a statistical association of sufficient strength and consistency in the expected direction. We conclude that an apparent increased risk of electric bicycles may be explained by factors such as age, exposure, health factors, and gender of the cyclist. A relatively simple analysis, by comparing fatality numbers of conventional and electric bicycles, showed that including or excluding these factors may lead to vastly different interpretations of fatality causes and the relative risk of electric bicycles compared to conventional bicycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Older drivers successfully compensate in non-time critical situations. • In time-critical situations other road users' adaptations are important for safety. • Collision avoidance strategy remains adequate with increasing age. Changes in physical and cognitive abilities not only challenge the driving ability of older adults, in some situations age-related changes in driving behaviour require other road users to adapt their behaviour to maintain a safe traffic situation. In this study, we aimed to map age-related differences in driving behaviour and assess the impact on other road users. A group younger and a group older adults drove four different routes containing challenging situations (e.g., merging into motorway traffic) in a driving simulator while measures of driving behaviour were collected. Other road users' deceleration responses to the driver's behaviour were also collected as a measure of behavioural adaptation. Our results showed similar driving performance between young and older drivers when task complexity was low, but reduced performance in older drivers when tasks requirements increased. Lower driving speed and longer waiting times that were observed in older drivers can be interpreted as compensatory behaviour aimed at creating more time to lower task requirements. Crucially, in a non-time critical situation this compensatory behaviour was found to be successful, however in a time-critical situation (merging onto a motorway) this strategy had negative side effects because other road users had to decelerate in order to keep a safe distance. Our results show the importance of anticipation and adaptation by other road users for the success of older driver's strategies and traffic safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The growing amount of sensors in cars offer opportunities for the driving license test. • Thirty-seven driving examiners were interviewed about data-driven assessment. • The examiners wanted to use data to clarify their verdict to the candidate. • The examiners proposed eye movements, speed, distance, braking data, and videos. • The examiners were skeptical about decision aids that determine the pass/fail verdict. Vehicles are increasingly equipped with sensors that capture the state of the driver, the vehicle, and the environment. These developments are relevant to formal driver testing, but little is known about the extent to which driving examiners would support the use of sensor data in their job. This semi-structured interview study examined the opinions of 37 driving examiners about data-driven assessment of test candidates. The results showed that the examiners were supportive of using data to explain their pass/fail verdict to the candidate. According to the examiners, data in an easily accessible form such as graphs of eye movements, headway, speed, or braking behavior, and color-coded scores, supplemented with camera images, would allow them to eliminate doubt or help them convince disagreeing test-takers. The examiners were skeptical about higher levels of decision support, noting that forming an overall picture of the candidate's abilities requires integrating multiple context-dependent sources of information. The interviews yielded other possible applications of data collection and sharing, such as selecting optimal routes, improving standardization, and training and pre-selecting candidates before they are allowed to take the driving test. Finally, the interviews focused on an increasingly viable form of data collection: simulator-based driver testing. This yielded a divided picture, with about half of the examiners being positive and half negative about using simulators in driver testing. In conclusion, this study has provided important insights regarding the use of data as an explanation aid for examiners. Future research should consider the views of test candidates and experimentally evaluate different forms of data-driven support in the driving test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study a driving simulator was used to determine changes in mental effort in response to manipulations of steering demand. Changes in mental effort were assessed by using subjective effort ratings, physiology, and the standard deviation of the lateral position. Steering demand was increased by exposure to narrow lane widths and high density oncoming traffic while speed was fixed in all conditions to prevent a compensatory reaction. Results indicated that both steering demand factors influence mental effort expenditure and using multiple measures contributes to effort assessment. Application of these outcomes for adaptive automation is envisaged. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective: Previous research reported cognitive and psychomotor impairments in long‐term users of benzodiazepine receptor agonists (BZRAs). This article explores the role of acute intoxication and clinical complaints. Methods: Neurocognitive and on‐road driving performance of 19 long‐term (≥6 months) regular (≥twice weekly) BZRA users with estimated plasma concentrations, based on self‐reported use, exceeding the therapeutic threshold (CBZRA+), and 31 long‐term regular BZRA users below (CBZRA−), was compared to that of 76 controls. Results: BZRA users performed worse on tasks of response speed, processing speed, and sustained attention. Age, but not CBZRA or self‐reported clinical complaints, was a significant covariate. Road‐tracking performance was explained by CBZRA only. The CBZRA + group exhibited increased mean standard deviation of lateral position comparable to that at blood‐alcohol concentrations of 0.5 g/L. Conclusions: Functional impairments in long‐term BZRA users are not attributable to self‐reported clinical complaints or estimated BZRA concentrations, except for road‐tracking, which was impaired in CBZRA + users. Limitations to address are the lack of assessment of objective clinical complaints, acute task related stress, and actual BZRA plasma concentrations. In conclusion, the results confirm previous findings that demonstrate inferior performance across several psychomotor and neurocognitive domains in long‐term BZRA users. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess driving performance and neurocognitive skills of long‐term users of sedating antidepressants, in comparison to healthy controls. Methods: Thirty‐eight long‐term (>6 months) users of amitriptyline (n = 13) and mirtazapine (n = 25) were compared to 65 healthy controls. Driving performance was assessed using a 1‐h standardised highway driving test in actual traffic, with road‐tracking error (standard deviation of lateral position [SDLP]) being the primary measure. Secondary measures included neurocognitive tasks related to driving. Performance differences between groups were compared to those of blood alcohol concentrations of 0.5 mg/ml to determine clinical relevance. Results: Compared to controls, mean increase in SDLP of all antidepressant users was not significant, nor clinically relevant (+0.75 cm, 95% CI: −0.83 cm; +2.33 cm). However, users treated less than 3 years (n = 20) did show a significant and clinically relevant increase in SDLP (+2.05 cm). No significant effects were observed on neurocognitive tasks for any user group, although large individual differences were present. Most results from neurocognitive tests were inconclusive, while a few parameters confirmed non‐inferiority for users treated longer than 3 years. Conclusion: The impairing effects of antidepressant treatment on driving performance and neurocognition mitigate over time following long‐term use of 3 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Drivers exposed to adverts on VMSs adhered to a detour instruction on the same VMS. • Despite adhering to the detour instruction 31% failed to recall this instruction. • Conscious attention might not be a prerequisite for compliance with road signs. • Repeated practice with VMS texts may improve drivers' ability to process their content. Road authorities struggle with the question whether variable message signs (VMSs) should exclusively be used for traffic management or could also be used to display traffic-irrelevant messages, such as mottos or commercial advertisements. The current study assesses behavioural responses to a critical route instruction displayed on the same VMS that previously displayed a variety of traffic-irrelevant messages. For this, thirty-two participants were divided between a control group and an experimental group (the advertisements group). In a driving simulator, all were familiarised with the same route by driving a VMS-equipped motorway nine times. For the advertisements group, up to drive 8, this VMS displayed various advertisements. Whereas for the control group it was blank. In the 9th drive, the VMS displayed a critical detour message for all participants. This critical route instruction – informing drivers to take the nearest exit – resulted in compliant driver behaviour in the advertisements group. In addition, they only reduced speed marginally to increase the time to process the VMS text. The control group, on the contrary, displayed a much sharper speed reduction; though the instruction only moderately altered motorway exit behaviour. What is more, the 31% (n = 4) of the advertisements group who complied with the critical route instruction subsequently failed to recall this message (recalling an advertisement instead). In conclusion, this study provides evidence that displaying traffic-irrelevant messages on VMSs might not interfere with traffic management; provided the format of said messages is in accordance with ergonomic VMS guidelines as used in this study. It is proposed that due to repeated exposure to various VMS texts, reading the sign has been practised to the extent that little to no conscious deliberation was required. As a result, recall of what was seen, proved to be an inadequate proxy for assessing driver behaviour. This study shows that conscious attention might not be a prerequisite for compliance. Furthermore, it suggests that continuous variability in objects in the traffic environment may become part of a subconscious monitoring process, as long as they have been sufficiently practised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several innovative measures in traffic control applied in Europe have successfully improved the comfort and safety of cycling, among which is the green waves for cyclists. Consecutive traffic lights are synchronised to create a green wave, increasing comfort and decreasing waiting times and related deliberate red-light running. This study focused on exploring the user acceptance of green wave systems and the user evaluation of six distinct interface designs (i.e. numeric-based countdown, dot-based vertical countdown, dot-based clockwise countdown, LED line, LED road surface, on-bike speed indicator). Results indicate a preference for three systems: numeric-based countdown, LED line and LED road surface. Results also show a significant influence of nationality on the evaluation of the interfaces. Based on our findings, we argue that the numeric-based countdown represents the most promising option for future adaptive green wave implementations. The outcomes of the present study represent a useful evidence and guidance for researchers, designers and decision makers in the field of green waves, mobility and traffic safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Patients with schizophrenia commonly suffer from impairments in various aspects of cognition. These deficits were shown to have detrimental effects on daily life functioning and might also impair car driving. This study is the first to examine driving behaviour of patients with schizophrenia using an advanced driving simulator, and to explore the role of cognitive abilities of people with schizophrenia for driving.Methods: Non-acute patients with schizophrenia (n = 31) and healthy comparison participants (n = 31) performed a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment and driving simulator rides. Neuropsychological and driving performances were compared between groups. Moreover, associations were explored between cognitive functions and driving behaviour in the entire group.Results: Patients with schizophrenia revealed impairments in multiple aspects of cognition. In the driving simulator, patients with schizophrenia showed no indication of deviant driving in terms of number of collisions or reacting to critical situations, and even showed better lane control compared to healthy individuals. However, patients with schizophrenia drove significantly slower than healthy individuals, and caused more hindrance to the car behind while merging on the motorway. Slower driving was associated with lower test scores on attention and processing speed. Hindering the car behind was associated with test performance on planning and inhibition.Conclusions: It is concluded that driving of patients with schizophrenia is characterized by a relatively slow speed, and can also be impaired in certain aspects, i.e. hindering a car behind while merging. Cognitive functions are crucial for driving, and should be target of treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyclists’ crashes account for a relatively large proportion of road fatalities and this proportion is increasing. Research suggests that near misses can be used as surrogate measures of crashes, based on the assumption that they share common causes. Also, in the cycling domain, it has been suggested that near miss incidents may provide ‘early warnings’ of situations or behaviours that could lead to crashes. The aim of this study was to investigate the role played by perception of risk and control on the exposure to risky situations, such as the involvement in mixed traffic. We administered a questionnaire to 298 Italian cyclists measuring perceived competence (i.e. perceived control and overconfidence), risk perception of interactions with cars, bicycle use, avoidance of mixed traffic and recent experiences of near misses. Path analysis using Bayesian estimation showed that perceived control, mediated by overconfidence, had a positive indirect effect on bicycle use and a negative one on avoidance of mixed traffic, while it acted as a moderator in the relationship between risk perception of interaction with cars and avoidance of mixed traffic. Furthermore, the mediation paths revealed the indirect effects of perceived control on near misses through exposure. Results highlighted the importance of considering the role of individuals’ perception of their ability to cycle with regard to near misses and provided new insight on how cyclists regulate their behaviour, as well as how such behaviour leads to different safety outcomes. Results have implications regarding theory, infrastructure and the application of new safety technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pay-As-You-Drive (PAYD) insurance links an individual’s driving behaviour to the insurance fee that they pay, making car insurance more actuarially accurate. The best known PAYD insurance format is purely mileage based and is estimated to reduce accidents by about 15% ( Litman, 2011 ). However, these benefits could be further enhanced by incorporating a wider range of driving behaviours, such as lateral and longitudinal accelerations and speeding behaviour, thereby stimulating not only a safe but also an eco-friendly driving style. Currently, feedback on rewards and driver behaviour is mostly provided through a web-based interface, which is presented temporally separated from driving. However, providing immediate feedback within the vehicle itself could elicit more effect. To investigate this hypothesis, two groups of 20 participants drove with a behavioural based PAYD system in a driving simulator and were provided with either delayed feedback through a website, or immediate feedback through an in-car interface, allowing them to earn up to €6 extra. To be clear, every participant in the web group did actually view their feedback during the one week between sessions. Results indicate clear driving behaviour improvements for both PAYD groups as compared to baseline rides and an equal sized control group. After both PAYD groups had received feedback, the initial advantage of the in-car group was reduced substantially. Taken together with usability ratings and driving behaviours in specific situations these results show a moderate advantage of using immediate in-car feedback. However, the study also showed that under conditions of feedback certainty, the effectiveness of delayed feedback approaches that of immediate feedback as compared to a naïve control group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this study was to test the implementation of an adaptive driver support system.Background: Providing support might not always be desirable from a safety perspective, as support may lead to problems related to a human operator being out of the loop. In contrast, adaptive support systems are designed to keep the operator in the loop as much as possible by providing support only when necessary.Method: A total of 31 experienced drivers were exposed to three modes of lane-keeping support nonadaptive, adaptive, and no support. Support involved continuously updated lateral position feedback shown on a head-up display. When adaptive, support was triggered by performance-based indications of effort investment. Narrowing lane width and increasing density of oncoming traffic served to increase steering demand, and speed was fixed in all conditions to prevent any compensatory speed reactions.Results: Participants preferred the adaptive support mode mainly as a warning signal and tended to ignore nonadaptive feedback. Furthermore, driving behavior was improved by adaptive support in that participants drove more centrally, displayed less lateral variation and drove less outside the lane's delineation when support was in the adaptive mode compared with both the no-support mode and the nonadaptive support mode.Conclusion: A human operator is likely to use machine-triggered adaptations as an indication that thresholds have been passed, regardless of the support that is initiated. Therefore supporting only the sensory processing stage of the human information processing system with adaptive automation may not feasible.Application: These conclusions are relevant for designing adaptive driver support systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses research concerning user experiences and driving performance following the implementation of an adaptive driver support system in a driving simulator. According to the article, test drivers responded to adaptive support systems as if they were warning signals. Topics include mental workloads, levels of automation, and head-up displays.