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Somatic embryogenesis (SE) faces many challenges in fulfilling the growing demand for elite materials. A high-throughput approach is required to accelerate the optimization of SE protocols by multiplying experimental conditions within a limited time period. For the first time in plant micropropagation, we have developed a miniaturized and automated screening system to meet high-throughput standards. Coffea arabica embryo regeneration, classically achieved in 250-ml Erlenmeyer flasks, was successfully miniaturized in 24-well plates, allowing a volume downscaling factor of 100 and a space saving of 53 cm 2 /well. Cell clusters were ground and filtered to fit the automated pipetting platform, leading to fast, reproducible and uniform cluster distribution (23.0 ± 5.5 cell clusters/well) and successful regeneration (6.5 ± 2.2 embryos/well). Pilot screening of active compounds on SE was carried out. Compounds belonging to the histone deacetylase inhibitor family were tested for embryo regeneration efficiency. Cells treated with 1 µM Trichostatin A showed a marked 3-fold increase in the number of regenerated embryos. When re-tested in 250-ml flasks, the same enhancement was obtained, thereby validating the miniaturized and automated screening method. These results showed that our screening system is reliable and well suited to screening hundreds of compounds, offering unprecedented perspectives in plant micropropagation.

The establishment of cocoa embryogenic cell lines in liquid medium starting from high frequency somatic embryogenesis (HFSE) callus is described. The growth kinetics of the cultures during the multiplication and the expression steps conducted in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks were described for three genotypes selected for their agronomical traits (EET95, EET96, and EET103). The glucose and dissolved oxygen concentrations and the absorption of Murashige and Skoog medium macronutrients (nitrate, ammonium, potassium, sulfate, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium) were monitored. The multiplication of the embryogenic calluses in a medium containing 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) at 1 mg L -1 , initiated with an inoculation density of 20 g L -1 of callus, was achieved. The growth rate was characterized by two phases, with the second being concomitant with a depletion of phosphorus and magnesium, and a decrease in the embryogenic potential of the callus. The expression of the callus embryogenic capacity was conducted in an auxin-free medium. The embryo production starting from 1 and 5 g L -1 inoculation densities was compared. When placed in the optimal expression conditions in flasks, 1 g of callus produced 1000 to 1500 embryos within 5 to 7 wk. Finally, two paths for improving the plantlet regenerative capacities of cocoa SE produced in liquid medium were identified. Supplementing the expression medium with myo-inositol used as an osmotic agent at a concentration of 50 g L -1 increased the embryo-to-plantlet conversion rate from 13-16% to 40-48%. A 6-wk culture of the embryos on a maturation medium in Petri dishes optimized their subsequent development into plantlets.

KNOTTED1-LIKE HOMEOBOX (KNOX) genes are important regulators of meristem function, and a complex network of transcription factors ensures tight control of their expression. Here, we show that members of the GROWTH-REGULATING FACTOR (GRF) family act as players in this network. A yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) one-hybrid screen with the upstream sequence of the KNOX gene Oskn2 from rice (Oryza sativa) resulted in isolation of OsGRF3 and OsGRF10. Specific binding to a region in the untranslated leader sequence of Oskn2 was confirmed by yeast and in vitro binding assays. ProOskn2:β-glucuronidase reporter expression was down-regulated by OsGRF3 and OsGRF10 in vivo, suggesting that these proteins function as transcriptional repressors. Likewise, we found that the GRF protein BGRF1 from barley (Hordeum vulgare) could act as a repressor on an intron sequence in the KNOX gene Hooded/Barley Knotted3 (Bkn3) and that AtGRF4, AtGRF5, and AtGRF6 from Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) could repress KNOTTED-LIKE FROM ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA2 (KNAT2) promoter activity. OsGRF overexpression phenotypes in rice were consistent with aberrant meristematic activity, showing reduced formation of tillers and internodes and extensive adventitious root/shoot formation on nodes. These effects were associated with down-regulation of endogenous Oskn2 expression by OsGRF3. Conversely, RNA interference silencing of OsGRF3, OsGRF4, and OsGRF5 resulted in dwarfism, delayed growth and inflorescence formation, and up-regulation of Oskn2. These data demonstrate conserved interactions between the GRF and KNOX families of transcription factors in both monocot and dicot plants.

The 14-3-3 proteins are a family of ubiquitous regulatory molecules which have been found in virtually every eukaryotic organism and tissue. Discovered 34 years ago, 14-3-3 proteins have first been studied in mammalian nervous tissues, but in the past decade their indispensable role in various plant regulatory and metabolic pathways has been increasingly established. We now know that 14-3-3 members regulate fundamental processes of nitrogen assimilation and carbon assimilation, play an auxiliary role in regulation of starch synthesis, ATP production, peroxide detoxification, and participate in modulation of several other important biochemical pathways. Plant development and seed germination appear also to be under control of factors whose interaction with 14-3-3 molecules is crucial for their activation. Located within the nucleus, 14-3-3 isoforms are constituents of transcription factor complexes and interact with components of abscisic acid (ABA)-induced gene expression machinery. In addition, in animal cells they participate in nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking and molecular sequestration. Cytoplasmic 14-3-3 members form a guidance complex with chloroplast destined preproteins and facilitate their import into these photosynthetic organelles. Recently, several 14-3-3s have been identified within chloroplasts where they could be involved in targeting and insertion of thylakoid proteins. The identification of 14-3-3 isoform specificity, and in particular the elucidation of the signal transduction mechanisms connecting 14-3-3 members with physiological responses, are central and developing topics of current research in this field.