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[Objective] In the inaugural switching operation between Pipelines Q1 and Q2, which were originally used for heated and normaltemperature transmission of crude oil respectively in China, the approach of “transformation while operation” was employed, posing challenges such as complex process flows, demanding engineering implementation, and engagement of numerous offload and injection users. [Methods] To ensure a rational transformation and switching mode with minimal impact on normal production and operation, a comprehensive study was conducted on the hydraulic and thermal systems of these transmission pipelines. This study aimed to evaluate various factors influencing preheating and temperature dropping during commissioning, as well as the pros and cons of different switching modes. Simulation accuracy was checked for the preheating process after transforming Pipeline Q2, originally designed for normaltemperature transmission, into a heated transmission system. These simulation results were then verified with actual engineering data to ensure alignment with the practical requirements. Additionally, valuable field experience was gained from the transformation of Pipeline Q1, originally intended for heated transmission, into a normal-temperature transmission system. Based on these study findings, reasonable suggestions and recommendations were presented for key nodes in switching operations. [Results] The selection of the preheating method should be based on site-specific conditions when transforming in-service normal-temperature oil transmission pipelines into heated transmission systems. For instance, Pipeline Q2 should be treated by heating Russian oil to be transmitted in advance combined with preheating the pipeline with high-temperature Russian oil, aligning the commissioning process with the transmission requirements of Daqing oil.Likewise,appropriate measures should be taken to gradually reduce the temperature of oil products between stations during the transition from the heated to normal-temperature mode.This can be achieved through the quantitative transmission of oil products with a gradually decreasing temperature by batch.To facilitate this,heating stations along the route can be utilized to ensure a gradual temperature drop of the oil products between stations. [Conclusion] The study findings offer valuable insights for commissioning under switching operations of inservice crude oil pipelines.

Graphene flakes (GF) have been prepared and assessed as a material for improving flow in oil pipelines under the effect of an electric field. In particular, different amounts of GFs have been considered in order to determine the optimal flow conditions. The GFs were prepared from graphite foam, derived from the dehydration of sugar with a particle size of 500–600 μm, which was dispersed in ethanol and exfoliated in a ball mill under a shear force. After 15 h of exfoliation, sonication, and subsequent high-speed centrifugation at 3000 rpm, irregular-shaped GFs of 50–140 nm were produced and characterized using scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, atomic force microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy. The prepared graphene sheets have been found to display excellent morphology and good graphitic structure. Experiments on flow improvement were conducted using the central composite rotatable design method for three parameters: stimulation time (15, 30, 45, and 60 s), applied voltage (150, 170, 200, and 220 V), and concentration of the GFs (0, 100, 200, and 400 mg/L). The optimal conditions for improved crude oil flow were then determined using the STATISTICA and WinQSB software packages. The results have confirmed the effectiveness of the use of the prepared GFs as a flow improver for crude oil, where the flow improvement is essentially a result of a reduction in viscosity and suppression of friction in the crude oil system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crude oil leakages and spills (OLS) are some of the problems attributed to pipeline failures in the oil and gas industry's midstream sector. Consequently, they are monitored via several leakage detection and localisation techniques (LDTs) comprising classical methods and, recently, Internet of Things (IoT)-based systems via wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Although the latter techniques are proven to be more efficient, they are susceptible to other types of failures such as high false alarms or single point of failure (SPOF) due to their centralised implementations. Therefore, in this work, we present a hybrid distributed leakage detection and localisation technique (HyDiLLEch), which combines multiple classical LDTs. The technique is implemented in two versions, a single-hop and a double-hop version. The evaluation of the results is based on the resilience to SPOFs, the accuracy of detection and localisation, and communication efficiency. The results obtained from the placement strategy and the distributed spatial data correlation include increased sensitivity to leakage detection and localisation and the elimination of the SPOF related to the centralised LDTs by increasing the number of node-detecting and localising (NDL) leakages to four and six in the single-hop and double-hop versions, respectively. In addition, the accuracy of leakages is improved from 0 to 32 m in nodes that were physically close to the leakage points while keeping the communication overhead minimal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An analysis of the findings from inspections in crude oil pipelines at several locations was performed and a preventive risk-based inspection program was recommended. The relevant results showed that upon visual inspections in different sections of multiple pipelines and areas throughout their locations, corrosion was the most prevalent damage encountered in at least 64% of the occurrences. Out of these, 25% were due to uniform corrosion, 17% had severe uniform corrosion and, in about 22% instances, pitting corrosion was noticed. Among other observations, failures due to ruptures, leaks, and other causes were reported in 11% of the inspections, and signs of possible pipeline diameter reduction were encountered in 11% of the cases. This succinct and substantiated study demonstrates the paramount importance of having routine risk-based inspections programs where severe atmospheric conditions favor corrosion that may lead to costly and devastating failures in pipelines transporting crude oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For China-Russia Crude Oil Pipeline passes through the permafrost area, serious pipeline deformation is resulted from the thaw settlement of frozen soil along the line due to the different thermal conductivity of the trench soil. Herein, the thermal conductivity of five typical foundation soils (gravelly sand, silt, silty clay, clay and peaty soil) along the pipeline was tested to master the variation laws of thermal conductivity with influencing factors. Definitely, the thermal conductivity of the 5 types of foundation soil was determined, the relationship of thermal conductivity with water content and dry density was analyzed, and thereby the regression equations were established. Then, the variation laws of thermal conductivity with mud content, plasticity index and loss on ignition were analyzed according to different soil conditions. In addition, the correlation degree of each influencing factor to the thermal conductivity of each type of foundation soil was calculated with the grey correlation analysis model. The results indicate that: the thermal conductivity of the 5 types of foundation soil varies with the change of water content and dry density, and the thermal conductivity of soils is very greatly affected by the soil conditions, but it is differently influenced by each factor. Hence, different prevention and control measures against frost damage were proposed for different types of foundation soil, so that reference could be provided to the frost damage prevention and control of the oil and gas pipelines in service or to be constructed in the permafrost area.

Aiming at the problems of untimely manual flow path switching under abnormal working conditions and long time required for pressure regulation through the PID control of the regulating valves of A-Du-Wu-Shan system, risk analysis was carried out for the two operation modes after transformation, appropriate risk prevention measures were developed, and the superiority of PID control of the regulating valves was clarified. Thereby, the PID parameters of the regulating valves in Urumqi Station were reset with the engineering tuning method, the reliability and the rapid disposal ability of the PID control of the regulating valves were verified by differential pressure test and emergency condition simulation, and the influencing factors of the PID control effect were analyzed. The results show that, the reset PID parameters of Urumqi Station can achieve the fast and accurate automatic control of the inlet regulating valves under flow path switching and emergency conditions, and the pressure regulation time decreases from 780 seconds to about 75 seconds with small oscillation. Generally, the research results could provide guidance for the accurate control and abnormal condition treatment regulating valves, and lay a theoretical foundation for the realization of intelligent control of pipelines.

Crude oil leakages and spills (OLS) are some of the problems attributed to pipeline failures in the oil and gas industry’s midstream sector. Consequently, they are monitored via several leakage detection and localisation techniques (LDTs) comprising classical methods and, recently, Internet of Things (IoT)-based systems via wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Although the latter techniques are proven to be more efficient, they are susceptible to other types of failures such as high false alarms or single point of failure (SPOF) due to their centralised implementations. Therefore, in this work, we present a hybrid distributed leakage detection and localisation technique (HyDiLLEch), which combines multiple classical LDTs. The technique is implemented in two versions, a single-hop and a double-hop version. The evaluation of the results is based on the resilience to SPOFs, the accuracy of detection and localisation, and communication efficiency. The results obtained from the placement strategy and the distributed spatial data correlation include increased sensitivity to leakage detection and localisation and the elimination of the SPOF related to the centralised LDTs by increasing the number of node-detecting and localising (NDL) leakages to four and six in the single-hop and double-hop versions, respectively. In addition, the accuracy of leakages is improved from 0 to 32 m in nodes that were physically close to the leakage points while keeping the communication overhead minimal.

Three refineries of the Indian Oil Corporation procure crude oil from suppliers, at production sites in the Persian Gulf, West Africa, North Africa, West Asia, and India. The crude oil is shipped to two ports in the state of Gujarat, India, by large tankers and medium sized vessels. From these two ports, the crude oil is pumped to the refineries via pipelines. The refineries have known capacity, that are different for the two types of crude oil. In this paper, the scaled-up problem has been modelled, as a transshipment network. Next, the concrete instance of the problem, has been solved using an LP solver. This was followed by post-optimality analysis of the solution. The flow values on all arcs, and optimal product mix, validate actual decisions. Precise shipping requirements obtained from the solution, are shared in advance with marine transporters to improve supply chain coordination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The addition of a small amount of drag reducing agents (DRAs) to a flowing fluid in a pipeline causes reduction in pressure drop through the pipeline. As a result, energy consumption reduces for a given flow rate. Drag reduction percent (DR %) is an important parameter, which indicates the efficiency of DRAs. Since different variables affect DR % in crude oil pipelines in a complex manner, presenting an appropriate model which can predict such behavior is very beneficial, especially in oil industry. In this research, the multi-layer perceptron (MLP) and radial basis function (RBF) models were presented for this case using MATLAB software. The correlation coefficient (R), root means square error (RMSE), and average absolute relative deviation (AARD) were utilized for assessing the proposed models. The AARD of the MLP model was 4.86% and 7.80% in training and testing stages, respectively. The AARD of the RBF model was 1.11% in training stage and 12.49% in testing stage. Finally, the efficiencies of the presented models were studied using new data set in validation stage and were compared with the results of mathematical correlation. In this stage, the MLP model showed an AARD of 7.42%, and the RBF model showed an AARD of 13.96%, which are three to four times less than AARD of the mathematical correlation, stating the high ability of the proposed models in prediction of drag reduction due to DRAs in oil pipelines. Image 1 • Crude oil specifications, DRA con., flow properties and temp. were the inputs. • To achieve optimal MLP model, various parameters of MLP were optimized. • Training function was the most important parameter in MLP model. • MLP and RBF models could predict DR respectively with 7.42% and 13.96% AARD. • AARD of MLP and RBF models were several times less than AARD of mathematical model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade the primary U.S. crude benchmark, WTI, diverged considerably from its foreign counterpart, Brent, sometimes selling at a steep discount. Some studies pointed to the ban on exporting U.S. crude oil production as the main culprit for this divergence. We find that scarce domestic pipeline capacity explains half to three quarters of the deviation of mid-continent crude oil prices from their long-run relationship with Brent crude. We are unable to find evidence that mismatch between domestic refining configurations and domestic crude characteristics contributed significantly to this deviation. This implies that the short-run deleterious effects of the export ban may have been exaggerated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author examines the problems and prospects of crude oil and petroleum products transportation market on the European continent. Particular attention is paid to the possibilities of the planned pipeline routes and new supplies of oil and petroleum products. European Union countries have large reserves of hydrocarbons, but it is not enough to fully satisfy domestic consumption. Improved pipeline infrastructure both within the EU and oil pipelines from other countries is an important economic and social factor. Recent developments of this year especially emphasize the importance of strengthening the energy security in the foreign policy of the state. For transporting fuel energy in Europe used the following types of transport: marine (sea and river), truck, railway, and pipeline. It seems necessary to mention the fact that the role of pipeline transport is particularly high in the oil and gas industry. Pipeline transport has an important impact on the formation and developmen t of the fuel and energy complex of the state, as well as regions, as its integral part. An effective system of crude oil and petroleum products pipelines is an important tool for the implementation of public policies, policies at the EU level, allowing the country to regulate the supply of crude oil and petroleum products to the overseas and domestic markets.

The author examines the problems and prospects of crude oil and petroleum products transportation market on the European continent. Particular attention is paid to the possibilities of the planned pipeline routes and new supplies of oil and petroleum products. European Union countries have large reserves of hydrocarbons, but it is not enough to fully satisfy domestic consumption. Improved pipeline infrastructure both within the EU and oil pipelines from other countries is an important economic and social factor. Recent developments of this year especially emphasize the importance of strengthening the energy security in the foreign policy of the state. For transporting fuel energy in Europe used the following types of transport: marine (sea and river), truck, railway, and pipeline. It seems necessary to mention the fact that the role of pipeline transport is particularly high in the oil and gas industry. Pipeline transport has an important impact on the formation and developmen t of the fuel and energy complex of the state, as well as regions, as its integral part. An effective system of crude oil and petroleum products pipelines is an important tool for the implementation of public policies, policies at the EU level, allowing the country to regulate the supply of crude oil and petroleum products to the overseas and domestic markets.

In this work, a corrosion prediction mathematical model for risk assessment in oil and gas production and transportation facilities has been created. This work focuses on partial pressure of carbon (iv) oxide, CO2 and the operating temperature in process equipment and transportation facility pipes as a function of corrosion rate. The model equation formulated was based on the principle of multiple linear regressions of data. The final model representing the corrosion rate of crude oil equipment was obtained CR = bo + b1T + b2 P (CO2). The model was simulated using polymath software. The correlation between the experimental and simulated resulted obtained using root mean square deviation (coefficient of determination) was 99.74% which is high, suggesting that the relationship between the predictor and response variables is linear. The variation in the model equation is 0.0066374. This low value of the variance shows that the model is accurate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]