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This paper presents new archaeobotanical data from the Lower Cerovačka Cave located in Dalmatia, Croatia. At the site a high density of carbonized plant remains was recovered, indicating the remnants of a burnt crop store dating to the Late Bronze Age. Overall, the assemblage is dominated by lentil (Lens culinaris) and free-threshing wheat (Triticum aestivum/durum), and to a lesser extent, emmer (Triticum dicoccum), einkorn (Triticum monococcum), spelt (Triticum spelta) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum). In general, the large botanical collection from Lower Cerovačka Cave fits with what is already known about Bronze Age agriculture in Croatia, yet the unique nature of this site brings to the fore questions around storage practices and the use of caves in prehistory.

This study examines the heat and mass transfer coefficient, thermal effusivity, and other thermal properties of solar-dried cocoyam chips, as well as the drying kinetics. The research also assessed the economics of the solar dryer. For these reasons, a solar dryer with a partitioned collector was developed that creates a double airflow travel distance to delay the airflow inside the collector. The partitioning of the collector delays the airflow and helps to create more turbulence for the airflow with increased energy. The solar dryer was locally developed at the Michael Okpara University of Agriculture and tested during the humid crop harvesting period of September for the worst-case scenario. The obtained drying curves and kinetics for cocoyam drying are subjected to the vagaries of weather conditions. The drying rate showed declining sinusoidal characteristics and took about 25 h to attain equilibrium. Analysis of the airflow velocity showed gravitation between laminar and turbulent flow, ranging from 171.69 to 5152.77. Specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and effusivity declined with moisture content while the thermal diffusivity increased. However, the values of thermal effusivity ranged from 12.2 to 47.94 W·s1/2·m−2·K−1, which is within the range of values for insulators. The heat and mass transfer coefficient varied as a function of the airflow velocity. Fitting the drying curve into semi-empirical models showed that the two-term model was the best-fitted model for the experimental data from drying cocoyam. Using the solar dryer in Nigeria can save $188.63–$1886.13 in running costs with a payback period of 0.059–0.59 years (21.54–215.35 days) at a rate of 10–100% of usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Documenta Praehistorica is the property of Documenta Praehistorica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The discovery of nanomaterials has flagged off crucial research and innovations in science and engineering. Its unique properties and diverse applications present it as the material for the future. The aim of this study is to presents the relative applications of nanomaterial in some aspects of agriculture production. The study discussed nanotechnology applicability in climate control and photosynthesis in the greenhouse farming, hydroponic systems, solar drying, fabrication of crop processing machine components, oxygen scavengers in crop packaging, and micro-organism stimulant in anaerobic digestion for agro biomass conversion. Some highlights from the review revealed that Nanotechnology can be applied to increase water surface area to volume ratio and heat transfer in the air moving into a greenhouse farming. Water cluster can be changed when treated with nanoparticles through ultraviolet absorption spectrum and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy resulting in lower micelles to manipulate water delivery in green house farming. Nano-fluids or Nano-composites can be used to recombine the reactive parts of thermal storage materials after broken at elevated temperature to recover the stored heat for drying purpose during the off-sunshine periods in solar drying of crops. Nanomaterials can be a source of electroluminescence light in hydroponic system and act as coatings and surface hardener in crop processing machinery for post-harvest machines. The reviewed work showed that nanotechnologies has good prospect in adding value in agricultural production in the aspects discussed.

The present study concerns the Phoenician-Punic site of Motya, a small island set in Western Sicily (Italy), in the Marsala Lagoon (Stagnone di Marsala), between Trapani and Marsala. A big disposal pit, datable to between the first half of the 8th and the mid-6th century bc, was identified in Area D. This context was sampled for plant macro-remains through bucket flotation. Palynological treatment and analysis were also performed on soil samples collected from each of the identified filling layers. The combination of the study of macro- and micro-remains has shown to be effective in answering questions concerning introduced food plants and agricultural practices, and native plants, including timber use. Here we investigate if a waste context can provide information about Phoenicians at Motya and their impact on the local plant communities. We found that human diet included cereals (mostly naked wheat), pulses and fruits. A focus was placed on weeds (including Lolium temulentum and Phalaris spp.) referable to different stages of crop processing. This aspect was enriched by the finding of cereal pollen, which suggests that threshing (if not even cultivation) was carried out on site. Palynology also indicates an open environment, with little to no forest cover, characterized by complex anthropogenic activities. Anthracology suggests the presence of typical Mediterranean plant taxa, including not only the shrubs Pistacia lentiscus and Erica multiflora, but also evergreen oaks. The presence of a stone pine nut and of Pinus pinea/pinaster in the pollen rain is noteworthy, suggesting the local occurrence of these Mediterranean pines outside their native distribution range. This represents the first such find in the central Mediterranean. Finally, the present study allows us to compare Motya's past environment with the present one. The disappearance of Juniperus sp. and Erica arborea from the present-day surroundings of the Marsala lagoon appears to be related to land-overexploitation, aridification or a combination of both processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the heat and mass transfer coefficient, thermal effusivity, and other thermal properties of solar-dried cocoyam chips, as well as the drying kinetics. The research also assessed the economics of the solar dryer. For these reasons, a solar dryer with a partitioned collector was developed that creates a double airflow travel distance to delay the airflow inside the collector. The partitioning of the collector delays the airflow and helps to create more turbulence for the airflow with increased energy. The solar dryer was locally developed at the Michael Okpara University of Agriculture and tested during the humid crop harvesting period of September for the worst-case scenario. The obtained drying curves and kinetics for cocoyam drying are subjected to the vagaries of weather conditions. The drying rate showed declining sinusoidal characteristics and took about 25 h to attain equilibrium. Analysis of the airflow velocity showed gravitation between laminar and turbulent flow, ranging from 171.69 to 5152.77. Specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and effusivity declined with moisture content while the thermal diffusivity increased. However, the values of thermal effusivity ranged from 12.2 to 47.94 W·s1/2·m−2·K−1, which is within the range of values for insulators. The heat and mass transfer coefficient varied as a function of the airflow velocity. Fitting the drying curve into semi-empirical models showed that the two-term model was the best-fitted model for the experimental data from drying cocoyam. Using the solar dryer in Nigeria can save $188.63–$1886.13 in running costs with a payback period of 0.059–0.59 years (21.54–215.35 days) at a rate of 10–100% of usage.

Asian rice (Oryza sativa L.) was identified, among other plant remains, from several contexts in a fortified elite residence at the site of Mleiha (United Arab Emirates) that was partially destroyed by fire in the third century AD. These remains, present both as isolated grains and as clusters of rice, constitute the earliest example of the species in the Arabian Peninsula and raise numerous questions on the role of rice in local economies during the Late Pre-Islamic period. The discussion focuses on two aspects of the finds. On the one hand, the state of preservation and the archaeological contexts of the rice remains are investigated in detail in order to reconstruct crop processing activities that might have taken place within the building as well as different aspects of the preparation and consumption of what seems to have been a rare crop. On the other hand, we discuss the origin of the Mleiha rice weighing the possible cultivation in local irrigated date palm gardens against its importation through the long-distance trade networks across the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean that are well attested by archaeological and textual sources for the period of concern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed and fruit remains from archaeological sites provide the most direct source of evidence on ancient crops and plant food resources. Earlier studies on late Neolithic sites (3500–2200 BC) in the Grands Causses and Hérault valley areas focused on cave and rock-shelter sites. Here, we discuss new and previously published archaeobotanical evidence from open-air settlements, which should be considered as more representative of the standard subsistence and farming economy. Patterns in the data have been analyzed through sample densities, diversity index, taxa ubiquities, and abundance by means of correspondence factor analysis. Contrary to what is assumed in other Western European regions for that period, the available dataset indicates that cereals were consumed and therefore probably cultivated on a regular basis in the Grands Causses and Hérault valley. The range of crops and collected wild fruits was the same in both areas but certain differences existed. As in other regions, einkorn played a significant role during the late Neolithic, but it was more common in the Hérault valley than in the Grands Causses plateaux. On the other hand, the collection of wild fruits seemed to be of more importance in the hinterland than in the littoral area. The more striking difference concerns crop processing activities and the use of glume wheat by-products. They are much more common in the Grands Causses samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At Gien (France), indoor floors from early Middle Ages occupation (8th–10th c. AD) are very well preserved, providing a new reference for archaeological investigation in northern France. This site is located on an outcrop, 20 m above the Loire valley, where a 15th c. castle stands now. The medieval occupation combines high-status houses with crafting and agricultural areas. They constitute a new urban nucleus, which grew 2 km east from an ancient Roman settlement. During the rescue excavation, four buildings of different status were sampled and studied using an integrated approach, combining stratigraphy, micromorphology, chemical, macro-remain and phytolith analyses. Micromorphological investigations helped to identify 74 built floors, from 0.5 to 150 mm thick, made with transformed local clay or imported silty earth. Mineral floors were covered by vegetal ones, consisting of crop processing refuse. These litters include an abundance of phytoliths and some seeds, both produced by cultivated cereals, which were processed in situ, such as Triticum durum, Secale cereale and Hordeum vulgare. The refuse above the mineral and vegetal floors were trampled. They were produced not only by domestic activities, such as cooking and eating, but also by metallurgic activities and animal husbandry. The investigation of a contemporary pit indicated that, despite the large amount of refuse, floors were well maintained and regularly rebuilt. The spatial distribution of waste indicated that a single space could be dedicated to several activities, which were not necessarily separated by new floors. Moreover, the total absence of bioturbation allowed the study of a stage of dark earth formation, by comparing it to the contemporaneous mechanical disturbance of a part of the strata which occurred when building new floors. All these results give new evidence of the richness and the complexity of the early Middle Ages town, in addition to help identifying the activities which could take place in early castral areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meaningful interpretation of archaeobotanical assemblages in the Near East often includes determination of whether dung fuel is the source of some or all of the recovered plant remains. In the years since Miller (Economy and Environment of Malyan, a Third Millennium B.C. Urban Center in Southern Iran. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1982; Paléorient 10:71–79, 1984) and Miller and Smart (J Ethnobiol 4:15–28, 1984) first identified archaeological plant remains from Malyan (Iran) as those of burned dung, subsequent archaeobotanical, experimental, and ethnographic research has been undertaken to test and expand her criteria for its recognition. A key criterion of Miller's was a high ratio of weed seeds to wood charcoal (or a low ratio of charcoal to weed seeds). When used together with other quantitative measures based on standardizing ratios, this measure can help to illuminate variability in the sources of the recovered carbonized plant remains and some of the taphonomic processes that contributed to the resulting assemblage. Using the Late Early Halaf dataset from Fistıklı Höyük, Turkey, as a case study, non-parametric statistical analysis was applied to eight such measures, including a new Fragmentation Index (FI), density measures (per litre of sediment) for charcoal, cereal grains, weed seeds, chaff, non-wood items, and cereal-type indeterminate non-wood items, and a relative density measure of charcoal to weed seeds. Each measure was calculated on the basis of 35 samples (n = 8,532). The results of this analysis indicate that these measures, when used in combination with Miller's weed seed to charcoal ratio, implemented here as the relative density of charcoal to weed seeds, can reveal recovery context-related variations in formation processes that help to clarify both the role of dung fuel in assemblage formation and to differentiate the remains of cereal processing from those of burned fuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollen, as an important index of the paleoenvironment and ancient human agricultural activities, is also one of the significant indicators for research on buckwheat agriculture. In order to test buckwheat pollen dispersal during each crop processing stage, we applied traditional processing simulation experiments of buckwheat crops in a modern village, to collect aerial pollen and perform statistical analysis. The result has shown that the distribution of buckwheat pollen in residential areas is closely related to human processing behaviour. Among all the processing procedures, pollen release rate is highest in the threshing and the sieving stages. The redistribution and burial of pollen during crop processing is an important reason for the prominent increase of crop pollen concentration in the cultural layer. Not only can it indicate the cultivation and processing behaviour of humans but also provide a basis for identifying the crop processing remains in archaeological sites and assessing the intensity of agricultural activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents archaeobotanical data from three late Neolithic Sopot Culture (c. 5200–4000 cal BC) tell sites, Sopot, Slavča and Ravnjaš, located in eastern Croatia. Tell settlements are well suited for exploring aspects of diet and subsistence, as they present a concentrated area with successive generations building upon previous occupation levels. The plant remains from the three study sites suggest a crop-based diet of mainly einkorn, emmer, barley, lentil and pea, as well as evi­dence of crop-processing activities. This diet was also probably supplemented by wild fruit from the local environment, such as cornelian cherry, chinese lantern and blackberry.

A metric analysis on hulled barley grain from the Iron Age regional centre of Uppåkra and surrounding sites in southern Sweden has identified a variation in the size of the grain found on these archaeological sites. Large, high-quality grain was found more frequently at Uppåkra when compared to sites in the surrounding area, where smaller grain was more frequent. The observed large grain found at Uppåkra was, however, restricted to only a few house contexts, including hall-buildings, while other contexts on the site, such as areas dedicated to craft production, had barley assemblages containing smaller grain, similar to the size range found on the surrounding sites. The intra-site variation between different contexts at Uppåkra points to a degree of sorting for larger grain and that this variation between grain assemblages was the result of selection after the crop processing was completed. The distribution of grain size at Uppåkra shows a pattern that indicates that the high-quality barley grain was indented for specific individuals or households. The different contexts at Uppåkra have together produced a record spanning the first millennium ad, representing almost the whole existence of the site. The evidence for selection of larger grain can be seen in the hall-buildings throughout most of the first millennium ad, although less prominently during the Late Roman Iron Age (ad 200-400), while during the Migration Period (ad 400-550) several houses on the main site Uppåkra had assemblages of large grain size. The distribution of grain size at the regional centre Uppåkra shows a pattern that indicates that the handling of large high-quality barley grain was part of a spatial organization, and such organization is similar to other functions observed on the site. The long-term record of grain size patterns across time shows that a structure for handling grain was already in place during the early phase of the settlement and that it remained for centuries. This study indicates that the affluence otherwise seen at the regional centre Uppåkra from an abundance of high-status objects, could also include agricultural wealth, with extensive access to high-quality grain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The remains of a ditched field system dating from the late Iron Age to the early post-Roman period, and two associated corn drying ovens (dating to the 5th–6th centuries AD) were revealed during archaeological excavations at Goldthorpe, South Yorkshire. The site was excavated during 2012 and 2013, during which bulk environmental samples were taken in order to retrieve any surviving botanical remains from deposits associated with the corn drying ovens, and other features across the excavated area. Early post-Roman occupation is under-represented in the archaeological record, especially in northern England, as such human activity and subsistence during this period are currently not well understood. This paper combines evidence for the field system, the physical remains of the corn drying ovens and their associated botanical remains to further understand early post-Roman change and continuity in landscape use and crop production and processing practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents results from an archaeobotanical analysis of samples from an Early Iron Age building in Kærbøl, Denmark, and brings to light an interesting correlation between crops and weeds which most probably characterised the majority of Early Iron Age societies in Denmark. It is suggested that the weed species were the primary plants stored for various reasons and that the crops only accompanied them. The authors discuss the plausibility of interpreting weed species as food plants during the Danish Iron Age, and the possible function of the sampled structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Better detection and taxonomic identification of cereal leaves is expected to result in a better understanding of the presence and function of crop products at archaeological sites. Therefore, this paper focuses on bilobate phytoliths from leaves of Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br and Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor (L.) Moench, which are two important crop plants that regularly co-occur at archaeological sites in Africa and the Indian subcontinent. These two taxa are further compared with Panicum miliaceum L. and Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauvois, which is of relevance for agricultural sites in prehistoric South Asia, Eastern Asia, Africa, and part of Eurasia where the four crops certainly or presumably co-occur. Leaves of Pennisetum glaucum and Sorghum bicolor were systematically sampled to explore the variation of short cells and to collect 27 morphometric variables of 3100 bilobate phytoliths with newly developed open-source software. This study provides new information on the occurrence of cross-like and notched (nodular) bilobate short cells in leaves of pearl millet and trilobates in sorghum, which is of relevance for taxonomic distinction. The morphometric variables of the bilobates phytoliths do not allow for taxonomic classification between P . glaucum and S . bicolor . Possibilities for taxonomic distinction between the leaves of these taxa should thus be searched in other directions than bilobate phytolith morphometry. The obtained morphometric data are nevertheless important since they allow for future comparison with other taxa. Indeed, morphometric analysis allows for distinction between Pennisetum glaucum / Sorghum bicolor , Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica . Furthermore, one P . glaucum population that was grown in a rather different climate than the others also shows different bilobate morphometry results. This difference between P . glaucum populations points to phytolith morphometry possibly being influenced by environmental settings. Moreover, it has implications for sampling strategies of similar research and the validity of morphometric identification criteria based on data from few reference populations or reference populations from a single region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Terramare civilization (ca. 1650-1150 cal bce) on the Po plain in northern Italy is considered to have been an agrarian society typical of the European Bronze Age, with a subsistence economy based on arable and livestock farming, and which showed some innovations such as the introduction of millets as cultivars. Some questions are still open concerning the agricultural system, the food and non-food uses of plant resources and the organization of labour at these sites. In this paper, for the first time, phytolith analysis has been integrated with more standard archaeobotanical methods applied to material from the long-lasting settlement of Fondo Paviani, Verona. The aim of the study was to use phytoliths as a tool to investigate the cereal economy in order to detect different grass subfamilies and possibly provide hints about local crop processing activities. For this purpose, two contexts, a shallow ditch at the edge of the site that had been filled with domestic waste and a near-site fen with natural infilling, have been the objects of a multi-proxy inter-disciplinary investigation. This includes the analyses of phytoliths, pollen, NPP, sediment texture and micromorphology. The phytolith record shows remains of panicoid as well as pooid grasses, including chaff material with frequent traces of threshing that indicate the processing of cereals at the site and the possible use of chopped straw as fodder. The comparison of different kinds of evidence strengthens the interpretation and offers a new perspective on the application of phytolith analysis to Bronze Age northern Italy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explore crop processing at archaeological sites in Haryana and Rajasthan, northwest India. Current understanding of the agricultural strategies in use by populations associated with South Asia's Indus Civilisation (3200-1900 bc) has been derived from a small number of systematic macrobotanical studies focusing on a small number of sites, with little use of multi-proxy analysis. In this study both phytolith and macrobotanical analyses are used to explore the organisation of crop processing at five small Indus settlements with a view to understanding the impact of urban development and decline on village agriculture. The differing preservation potential of the two proxies has allowed for greater insights into the different stages of processing represented at these sites: with macrobotanical remains allowing for more species-level specific analysis, though due to poor chaff presentation the early stages of processing were missed; however these early stages of processing were evident in the less highly resolved but better preserved phytolith remains. The combined analyses suggests that crop processing aims and organisation differed according to the season of cereal growth, contrary to current models of Indus Civilisation labour organisation that suggest change over time. The study shows that the agricultural strategies of these frequently overlooked smaller sites question the simplistic models that have traditionally been assumed for the time period, and that both multi-proxy analysis and rural settlements are deserving of further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Documenta Praehistorica is the property of Documenta Praehistorica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Until recently the recovery of plant remains in Croatia was rare, resulting in few studies addressing the nature of Neolithic crop cultivation. This paper presents new archaeobotanical data from eleven Neolithic settlements in coastal and continental Croatia. Within continental Croatia, three sites dating to the Starčevo culture (early/middle Neolithic; ca. 6000-5300 cal bc) and six to the Sopot culture (late Neolithic; ca. 5300-4000 cal bc) are examined along with two Hvar culture sites (late Neolithic; ca. 4800-4000 cal bc) located along the coast. Different settlement types are included in the study: open air sites, tells and cave sites. From the data collected the most common crops identified were einkorn, emmer, barley, lentil, pea and flax, as well as the fruits Cornus mas (Cornelian cherry) and Physalis alkekengi (Chinese lantern), which were particularly dominant in the Sopot culture settlements. By examining formation processes, sieved crop processing products and by-products were identified at six of the sites, suggesting that cereals were processed on a day-to-day basis at the household level. In contrast, the remains from the late Neolithic coastal cave site of Turska Peć suggest two distinct formation processes. At the eastern side of the cave the plant remains suggest that episodes of dung burning occurred, possibly to clear the cave of excess waste during seasonal habitation of the cave by herders and livestock. Towards the back of the cave, cereal remains and higher charcoal densities may suggest an area used for food preparation or cooking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Having found Setaria italica (foxtail millet) and Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) still being cultivated traditionally in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, we carried out ethnographic interviews with farmers to help us document an agricultural process on the verge of extinction. Crop processing of S. italica and P. miliaceum varies depending on the use of either plant. In Asturias, Setaria italica is harvested while green and used as fodder. In Galicia and in the north of Portugal, P. miliaceum grain is used mainly for human consumption. This distribution of millet in the north of the Iberian Peninsula appears to have been the case in prehistory too, although this will need to be confirmed by future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed oil expression is an important economic venture in rural Nigeria. The traditional techniques of carrying out the operation is not only energy sapping and time consuming but also wasteful. In order to reduce the tedium involved in the expression of oil from moringa oleifera seed and develop efficient equipment for carrying out the operation, the oil point pressure of the seed was determined under different processing conditions using a laboratory press. The processing conditions employed were moisture content (4.78, 6.00, 8.00 and 10.00 % wet basis), heating temperature (50, 70, 85 and 100 °C) and heating time (15, 20, 25 and 30 min). Results showed that the oil point pressure increased with increase in seed moisture content, but decreased with increase in heating temperature and heating time within the above ranges. Highest oil point pressure value of 1.1239 MPa was obtained at the processing conditions of 10.00 % moisture content, 50 °C heating temperature and 15 min heating time. The lowest oil point pressure obtained was 0.3164 MPa and it occurred at the moisture content of 4.78 %, heating temperature of 100 °C and heating time of 30 min. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that all the processing variables and their interactions had significant effect on the oil point pressure of moringa oleifera seed at 1 % level of significance. This was further demonstrated using Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Tukey's test and Duncan's Multiple Range Analysis successfully separated the means and a multiple regression equation was used to express the relationship existing between the oil point pressure of moringa oleifera seed and its moisture content, processing temperature, heating time and their interactions. The model yielded coefficients that enabled the oil point pressure of the seed to be predicted with very high coefficient of determination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communal granaries are a widespread and very significant feature of northwest Africa. Here the first systematic archaeobotanical study of such a granary is presented, with desiccated plant macro-remains retrieved from the pre-Hispanic site of El Álamo-Acusa, Gran Canaria, Spain (cal. ad 1000-1500). While modern contamination caused by animals was evident, most plant remains found there were ancient, including cereals, pulses, cultivated fruits and wild gathered plants. Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare and Ficus carica were the most common taxa, which appear to have been the two main staple foods for the pre-Hispanic population. The high frequencies of chaff and other plant residues indicate that crops were stored unprocessed. Most food plants had been eaten by insects and other animals, and only unpalatable parts were present. Remains of Sitophilus granarius (grain weevil) were common in the samples, suggesting problems of insect pests during long-term storage. In addition, we have identified leaves of cf. Laurus novocanariensis, which may have been used as an insect repellent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Processing agricultural produce can be a way for farmers to avoid fluctuating crop prices and improve the nutritional status of their households. For such processing to add value and increase farmers' incomes, there are a number of factors that need to be ascertained. This paper puts forward a methodology for calculating the cost of capital equipment, raw materials, and processing costs on an annualized per kilogram basis. This enables producers to compare their production costs with the price offered for the final product, including the dried chips produced for sale by small-scale producers. The key message is not that orange sweet potato processing should be abandoned but to highlight the areas that need to be addressed by implementing organizations, particularly given the extent that past root crop processing initiatives have relied on uncosted time and free financial inputs by the promoting organization. The true costs of processing should be identified, using a similar methodology to that suggested here, and discussed with groups who express an interest in processing. Markets, and all the quality requirements, must be established with a buyer before production is started. This research is based on work undertaken as part of the HarvestPlus Reaching End Users project in Uganda to promote the uptake of vitamin A-rich orange sweet potato by small-scale farmers -- a project funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation between 2006 and 2009 to reduce vitamin A deficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Archaeobotanical studies were undertaken at the Yuergou site, which is located in the Turpan basin in Xinjiang, China, and which has been dated to around 2300-2400 years b. p. Altogether 21 taxa were identified. Four cereal remains were identified, Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare var. coeleste, Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica. The first three were probably cultivated while the last one may not have been grown deliberately, but probably grew together with plants of P. miliaceum. A fruit stone of Ziziphus jujuba (Chinese date) was discovered, which showed that this may have been cultivated around the site during that time. Charcoal of Picea sp. was found, from wood which must have been used as fuel by the indigenous people. Fifteen taxa of wild plants were also identified, most of which can be considered as weeds, and which grew near the site. Burs of Xanthium strumarium were discovered. As nearly all of them were broken, the seeds may have been used by the ancient inhabitants. Since most of the cereal remains consisted of chaff, they must represent by-products. Furthermore, grains of Echinochloa crus- galli may also have been exploited as complementary food resources. All the above indicate that both cultivated and wild plants were used for cereals, fuel, or other purposes, and plant resources played important roles in the daily life of the ancient inhabitants of the Yuergou site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Physical properties of Moringa oleifera seed and kernel were determined as a function of moisture content. In the moisture ranges of 8.43–31.66% (d.b) (seed) and 6.75–31.5% (d.b) (kernel), the major, intermediate and minor axes of seed increased from 1.19 to 1.32cm, 1.02 to 1.08cm and 1.00 to 1.05cm respectively, while those of kernel were in the range of 0.74–0.79cm, 0.64–0.71cm and 0.61–0.65cm respectively. 1000 seed and kernel weights increased with moisture content and ranged between 0.5–0.6kg and 0.2–0.38kg in the above moisture ranges. Particle and bulk densities of seed and kernel increased from 0.88 to 0.98kgm−3 and 0.51 to 0.83kgm−3 respectively and from 0.55 to 0.64kgm−3 and 0.64 to 0.7kgm−3 respectively, as moisture content increased in the above ranges. Porosity of seed and kernel increased from 37.5 to 68%, and from 20 to 74% respectively as moisture content increased. Static and kinetic coefficients of friction varied with structural surface and increased from 0.272 to 0.725 and 0.235 to 0.689 respectively for seed, and from 0.211 to 0.732 and 0.215 to 0.566 respectively for kernel. Angle of repose of seed and kernel increased from 17.1° to 23° and 13.1° to 21.8° respectively in the above moisture content ranges. Regression models that adequately expressed the relationships existing between the physical properties of moringa seed and kernel with moisture content were presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The cracking of conophor nut using an impact test apparatus was carried out at different moisture contents (14.9% - 50.3% (d.b.)) and impact energy levels (0.05 - 0.19 J) under lateral and longitudinal loading orientations, in order to explore the possibility of developing an effective and appropriate technology equipment for cracking the nut. The data obtained on the quantity of fully cracked nuts with unbroken kernels, fully cracked nuts with broken kernels, partially cracked and uncracked nuts were subjected to statistical analysis. Results showed that moisture content, impact energy and loading orientation as well as their interactions significantly affected the crackability of conophor nut at 1% level of significance. The moisture content at which a combination of high whole kernel yield and minimum kernel damage was obtained ranged from 14.9% to 31.9% (d.b.). The impact energy range of 0.05 to 0.11 J gave the best combination of high whole kernel yield and minimum kernel damage at both lateral and longitudinal orientations. The study shows that the development of a spinning disc cracker, which uses impact to crack conophor nut is possible. It suggests that the radius and speed of the spinning disc should be such that would ensure that the impact energy generated and imparted on the nuts will not exceed 0.11 J and nuts should be conditioned to the dry basis moisture content that does not exceed 31.9% (d.b.) prior to cracking for optimum efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Indus Civilization (3rd to 2nd millennium BC) has been understood primarily through the study of its cities. However, the majority of the population lived in rural villages whose material remains have not been the focus of archaeological research. There has been no consensus on the nature of the social organization of the Indus Civilization, and the focus on urban sites and elite artefacts has meant that there has been little investigation into urban–rural interactions or the impact of urbanization on rural hinterlands. Food production, particularly that of staple crops, is one of the key links between a city and the villages that surround it. This paper uses phytolith analysis, a method of identifying plants and their constituent components using microscopic plant silica, to explore if the development of the cities affected the daily practice of crop processing and exchange in the Indus Civilization. This helps to ascertain whether city-centralized models of social organization can be applied to all aspects of rural–urban interactions. Using samples from Early and Mature Harappan periods at the village site of Masudpur VII in Haryana, India, the aims of crop processing, the crop assemblage and the local environmental conditions have been explored. This study concludes that contrary to the assumed city-focused models, the aims of the processing, composition of the crop assemblage and the local environmental conditions at Masudpur VII were not altered by the development of the city of Rakhigarhi in close proximity to it. This paper demonstrates that an understanding of ancient civilizations cannot be accurately drawn from the study of only their most conspicuous sites, especially when most of the people lived in the rural hinterlands. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Pulses are a significant component of traditional subsistence in South Asia. Reliable identification criteria for identifying these from archaeological seed remains are reviewed. The botanical evidence relating to the wild progenitors and their distribution, especially of Indian natives (Macrotyloma uniflorum, Vigna radiata, Vigna mungo) is summarised, including new evidence from primary botanical research. The problem of seed size increase in pulses is reviewed through a focused study on Vigna spp., in which it is shown that seed enlargement is delayed by 1–2,000 years after initial cultivation. The taphonomy of archaeological pulses is considered in the context of crop-processing of pulses, in which an important distinction can be drawn between free-threshing and pod-threshing types. The total archaeobotanical record for pulses in South Asia (India and Pakistan) is summarised and key regional differences are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Archaeobotany, ethnographic observation, and laboratory experimentation are brought together to build model sequences of grape processing parallel to the better studied and reported sequences in existence for cereal processing. A set of such model sequences is developed and presented, and explored in the context of rich archaeobotanical assemblages from the Hellenistic farmstead at Komboloi in Southern Macedonia. We conclude that the remains of pressed grapes are reasonably distinctive, whereas whole grapes and raisins can leave similar material in charred state, requiring close scrutiny for secure separation. Our model sequences are further considered in the light of other sites in which Vitis remains have been variously interpreted, and our own reinterpretations offered. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The development of space food has been evolving since the Soviet cosmonaut, German Titov, became the first human to eat in space in August 1961. John Glenn was the first American to consume food, applesauce, on the third manned Mercury mission in August 1962. Before these events, there was no knowledge that humans would be able to swallow and, hence, eat in weightlessness. Space food development began with highly engineered foods that met rigid requirements imposed by spacecraft design and short mission durations. Improvements in the habitability of the spacecraft have permitted improvements in the quality of space food. As the missions became longer, the need for better nutrition, more variety, and easily consumable foods also became more important. Currently, the International Space Station astronauts have a wide variety of foods. The goal is to provide acceptable foods that taste similar to foods we eat here on Earth. Extended planetary stays will require even more variety and more technologic advances. Plants will be grown to recycle the air and water and will provide food for the crew. These harvested crops will need to be processed into safe, healthy, and acceptable food ingredients that can then be prepared into menu items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]