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This pilot study focuses on particulate matter (PM) while cooking in a South Texan household. Dishes such as Beef, Burger, Fish, Chicken, Egg Sandwich, and Hotdog were prepared. Indoor PM levels were compared with outdoor PM levels. A DustTrak DRX was used to monitor the PM released during the cooking process. PM2.5 levels were highest while cooking beef, 162.79 + 209.62 μg m−3. Hot Dog preparation resulted in the lowest PM2.5 concentration of 27.72 + 5.58 μg m−3. Indoor PM2.5 levels were observed to be greater in contrast to outdoor levels when compared to the outdoor levels (96 words).

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are molecules present in our everyday life, and they can be positive, such as in the formation of odour and food flavour, or harmful to the environment and humans, and research is focusing on limiting their emissions. Various methods have been used to achieve this purpose. Firstly, we review three main degradation methods: activated carbon, photocatalysis and a synergetic system. We provide a general overview of the operative conditions and report the possibility of VOC abatement during cooking. Within the literature, none of these systems has ever been tested in the presence of complex matrices, such as during cooking processes. The aim of this study is to compare the three methods in order to understand the behaviour of filter systems in the case of realistically complex gas mixtures. Proton transfer reaction–mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) has been used in the real-time monitoring of volatilome. Due to the fact that VOC emissions are highly dependent on the composition of the food cooked, we evaluated the degradation capacity of the three systems for different burger types (meat, greens, and fish). We demonstrate the pros and cons of photocatalysis and adsorption and how a combined approach can mitigate the drawbacks of photocatalysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Organic aerosol (OA) is a significant constituent of urban particulate matter (PM), and molecular markers therein provide information on sources and formation mechanisms of OA. With in-situ measurement of over 70 OA molecular markers at a bihourly resolution, this study focused on the temporal variations of representative markers and dynamic source contributions to OA at an urban site in Hong Kong. The levels of secondary OA (SOA) markers were markedly elevated in continental and coastal air, and the primary markers were more of local characteristics. The diurnal patterns of 2-methyltetrols differed between scenarios, and their aqueous formation at night seemed plausible, particularly in the presence of troughs. Seven unambiguous sources were identified for the organic matters in submicron PM (PM1-OM). Despite an urban site, the SOA contribution (49 ± 8 %), primarily anthropogenic, was significant. Anthropogenic SOA dominated in continental and coastal air and in early afternoon. Local cooking and vehicle emissions became predominant in the scenario of marine air without troughs. Even averaged over the study period, cooking emissions contributed up to 40 % to PM1-OM in the early evening. The study highlighted the need to control regional anthropogenic SOA and local cooking emissions to mitigate PM pollution in Hong Kong. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooking process can produce abundant volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are harmful to environment and human health. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive analysis in which VOCs emissions from multiple cuisines have been sampled based on the simulation and acquisition platform, involving concentration characteristics, ozone formation potential (OFP) and purification efficiency assessments. VOCs emissions varied from 1828.5 to 14,355.1 µg/m3, with the maximum and minimum values from Barbecue and Family cuisine, respectively. Alkanes and alcohol had higher contributions to VOCs from Sichuan and Hunan cuisine (64.1%), Family cuisine (66.3%), Shandong cuisine (69.1%) and Cantonese cuisine (69.8%), with the dominant VOCs species of ethanol, isobutane and n-butane. In comparison, alcohols (79.5%) were abundant for Huaiyang cuisine, while alkanes (19.7%), alkenes (35.9%) and haloalkanes (22.9%) accounted for higher proportions from Barbecue. Specially, carbon tetrachloride, n-hexylene and 1-butene were the most abundant VOCs species for Barbecue, ranging from 8.8% to 14.6%. The highest OFP occurred in Barbecue. The sensitive species of OFP for Huaiyang cuisine were alcohols, while other cuisines were alkenes. Purification efficiency assessments shed light on the removal differences of individual and synergistic control technologies. VOCs emissions exhibited a strong dependence on the photocatalytic oxidation, with the removal efficiencies of 29.0%–54.4%. However, the high voltage electrostatic, wet purification and mechanical separation techniques played a mediocre or even counterproductive role in the VOCs reduction, meanwhile collaborative control technologies could not significantly improve the removal efficiency. Our results identified more effective control technologies, which were conductive to alleviating air pollution from cooking emissions. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present work, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from vehicle exhaust and cooking fumes were investigated via simulation experiments, which covered engine emissions produced during gasoline direct injection (GDI) using two kinds of fuels and cooking emissions produced by preparing three domestic dishes. The distinct characteristics of VOCs emitted during the two processes were identified. Alkanes (73% mass fraction on average) and aromatics (15% on average) dominated the vehicle VOCs, while oxygenated VOCs (49%) and alkanes (29%) dominated the cooking VOCs. Isopentane (22%) was the most abundant species among the vehicle VOCs. N-hexanal (20%) dominated the cooking VOCs. The n-hexanal-to-n-pentanal ratio (3.68 ± 0.64) was utilized to identify cooking VOCs in ambient air. The ozone formation potential produced by cooking VOCs was from 1.39 to 1.93 times higher than that produced by vehicle VOCs, which indicates the significant potential contribution of cooking VOCs to atmospheric ozone. With the equivalent photochemical age increasing from 0 h to 72 h, the secondary organic aerosol formation by vehicle VOCs was from 3% to 38% higher than that of cooking VOCs. Controlling cooking emissions can reduce SOA pollution in a short time due to its higher SOA formation rate than that of vehicle VOCs within the first 30 h. However, after 30 h of oxidation, the amount of SOAs formed by vehicle exhaust emissions exceeded the amount of SOAs produced by cooking activities, implying that reducing vehicle emissions will benefit particle pollution for a longer time. Our results highlight the importance of VOCs produced by cooking fumes, which has not been given much attention before. Further, our study suggested that more research on semi-volatile organic compounds produced by cooking emissions should be conducted in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to determine the exposure and health risk to cooking fumes of a total of 88 volunteer kitchen staff aged between 18 and 65 years working in five different kitchens in Ankara. Gas‐ and particle‐phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and volatile organic compound (VOCs) concentrations were evaluated in the indoor air of 5 kitchens. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels were analyzed to determine the oxidative damage as a result of the exposure to cooking fumes among the cooks and waiters. Significant positive relationships were found between serum MDA levels of the hot kitchen workers and indoor chrysene (Chr), indeno(1,2,3‐c,d)pyrene (Ind), and total VOC levels. Although the carcinogenic risks estimated for the exposed population were between the acceptable/tolerable levels, the hazard quotient (HQ) estimated for the exposure to indoor benzene exceeded the safe level. The results of the study revealed that exposure to organic pollutants in indoor air may be a risk factor for the development of oxidative stress, especially in hot kitchen workers. The importance of efficient ventilation in the kitchen has been pointed out to reduce health risks caused by cooking fumes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To elucidate the molecular chemical compositions, volatility-polarity distributions, as well as influencing factors of Chinese cooking emissions, a comprehensive cooking emission experiment was conducted. Semi-volatile and intermediate volatility organic compounds (S/IVOCs) from cooking fumes were analyzed by a thermal desorption comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with quadrupole mass spectrometer (TD-GC×GC-qMS). Emissions from four typical Chinese dishes, i.e., fried chicken, Kung Pao chicken, pan-fried tofu, and stir-fried cabbage were investigated to illustrate the impact of cooking style and material. Fumes of chicken fried with corn, peanut, soybean, and sunflower oils were investigated to demonstrate the influence of cooking oil. A total of 201 chemicals were quantified. Dishes cooked by stir-frying or deep-frying cooking styles emit much more pollutants than relatively mild cooking methods. Aromatics and oxygenated compounds were extensively detected among meat-related cooking fumes, while a vegetable-related profile was observed in the emissions of stir-fried cabbage. The volatility-polarity distributions of the four dish emissions were quite similar, yet the distributions diverged when different types of oils were utilized. Ozone formation potential (OFP) was dominated by chemicals in the VOC range. 10.2% - 32.0% of the SOA estimation could be explained by S/IVOCs. Pixel-based partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and multiway principal component analysis (MPCA) were utilized for sample classification and key components identification. The results indicated that the oil factor explained more variance of chemical compositions than the cooking style factor. MPCA results emphasize the importance of the unsaturated fatty acid-alkadienal-volatile products mechanism (oil autooxidation) accelerated by the cooking and heating procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor ventilation and polluting cooking fuels in low-income homes cause high exposure, yet relevant global studies are limited. We assessed exposure to in-kitchen particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) employing similar instrumentation in 60 low-income homes across 12 cities: Dhaka (Bangladesh); Chennai (India); Nanjing (China); Medellín (Colombia); São Paulo (Brazil); Cairo (Egypt); Sulaymaniyah (Iraq); Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Akure (Nigeria); Blantyre (Malawi); Dar-es-Salaam (Tanzania) and Nairobi (Kenya). Exposure profiles of kitchen occupants showed that fuel, kitchen volume, cooking type and ventilation were the most prominent factors affecting in-kitchen exposure. Different cuisines resulted in varying cooking durations and disproportional exposures. Occupants in Dhaka, Nanjing, Dar-es-Salaam and Nairobi spent > 40% of their cooking time frying (the highest particle emitting cooking activity) compared with ∼ 68% of time spent boiling/stewing in Cairo, Sulaymaniyah and Akure. The highest average PM2.5 (PM10) concentrations were in Dhaka 185 ± 48 (220 ± 58) μg m−3 owing to small kitchen volume, extensive frying and prolonged cooking compared with the lowest in Medellín 10 ± 3 (14 ± 2) μg m−3. Dual ventilation (mechanical and natural) in Chennai, Cairo and Sulaymaniyah reduced average in-kitchen PM2.5 and PM10 by 2.3- and 1.8-times compared with natural ventilation (open doors) in Addis Ababa, Dar-es-Salam and Nairobi. Using charcoal during cooking (Addis Ababa, Blantyre and Nairobi) increased PM2.5 levels by 1.3- and 3.1-times compared with using natural gas (Nanjing, Medellin and Cairo) and LPG (Chennai, Sao Paulo and Sulaymaniyah), respectively. Smaller-volume kitchens (

Energy-efficient urban development leads to the compact design of apartments. Recirculating ventilation solutions are an attempt to minimize the space required for ventilation ducting, but more data on their performance are needed. Cooking is a major source of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emissions. It is necessary to assess how well recirculating kitchen hoods perform in reducing the residents' exposure to cooking fumes compared to extracting hoods, and what airflow rates assure good removal efficiency. We have monitored the occupant exposure to several VOCs generated during the cooking of a model meal under different ventilation scenarios in a purpose-built test kitchen resembling the layout of a modern, open-space apartment. Time-resolved VOC emission profiles were measured using a proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer. The performance of activated carbon sorption-based filters for recirculating kitchen hoods in the removal of selected VOCs was also assessed. Alcohols, particularly ethanol, dominated emissions from cooking a typical Norwegian meal, but they also included acetaldehyde, acetone, carboxylic acids, and trimethylamine, among others. The use of recirculating kitchen hoods led to, on average, higher occupant exposure to VOCs compared to extracting kitchen hoods during and after cooking. This was in part due to the poor ethanol removal efficiency of the recirculating ventilation's air filters. [Display omitted] • PTR-ToF-MS used to monitor occupant's exposure to VOCs emitted during cooking. • Different kitchen ventilation conditions and configurations were tested. • Extracting kitchen ventilation outperforms recirculating solutions in VOCs removal. • VOCs emission from typical Norwegian cooking is dominated by ethanol. • Activated carbon filters have poor removal efficiency for ethanol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooking emissions show a strong dependence on cooking styles and parameters. Measurements of the average ultrafine particle (UFP) concentration, PM(2.5) and black carbon concentrations emitted by cooking activities ranged from 1.34 x 10(4) to 6.04 x 10(5) particles/cm(3), 10.0 to 230.9 microg/m(3) and 0.1 to 0.8 microg/m(3), respectively. Lower UFP concentrations were observed during boiling, while higher levels were emitted during frying. The highest UFP concentrations were observed when using a gas stove at high temperature with the kitchen exhaust fan turned off. The observed UFP profiles were similar in the kitchen and in another room, with a lag of approximately 10 min.

Cooking fumes pose huge threats to air deterioration and human health, yet occupational health risk assessment of chefs is scarce, risk analysis taking Sichuan cuisine as research object, which is a typical kind of Chinese cuisines with higher edible oil consumptions and spicy flavor has not been done as per our concern. For this reason, in this study, health assessment models were established to calculate both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks posed by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with Sichuan cuisine chefs as concerned receptors based on the inhalation risk model and the Monte Carlo method. The results show that the total carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks of VOCs were 1.11E − 4 ± 6.50E − 5 and 4.44E + 0 ± 2.77E + 0, respectively, which mainly due to 1,3-butadiene. Risk values of PAHs differed from different cooking styles, indicating no potential carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk, which occurred primarily because of BaP and PYR. Sensitivity analyses revealed that exposure duration had the greatest impact on the total uncertainty. The paper then presented preventive measures aimed at managing and preventing health risks in Sichuan cuisine cooking sources based on the evaluation results, which may contribute to implement managerial measures and publicize policies to minimize air pollution and health risk in catering industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooking is recognized as an important source of particulate pollution in indoor and outdoor environments. We conducted more than 100 individual experiments to characterize the particulate and non‐methane organic gas emissions from various cooking processes, their reaction rates, and their secondary organic aerosol yields. We used this emission data to develop a box model, for simulating the cooking emission concentrations in a typical European home and the indoor gas‐phase reactions leading to secondary organic aerosol production. Our results suggest that about half of the indoor primary organic aerosol emission rates can be explained by cooking. Emission rates of larger and unsaturated aldehydes likely are dominated by cooking while the emission rates of terpenes are negligible. We found that cooking dominates the particulate and gas‐phase air pollution in non‐smoking European households exceeding 1000 μg m−3. While frying processes are the main driver of aldehyde emissions, terpenes are mostly emitted due to the use of condiments. The secondary aerosol production is negligible with around 2 μg m−3. Our results further show that ambient cooking organic aerosol concentrations can only be explained by super‐polluters like restaurants. The model offers a comprehensive framework for identifying the main parameters controlling indoor gas‐ and particle‐phase concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooking emission is one of sources for ambient volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which is deleterious to air quality, climate and human health. These emissions are especially of great interest in large cities of East and Southeast Asia. We conducted a case study in which VOC emissions from kitchen extraction stacks have been sampled in total 57 times in the Megacity Shanghai. To obtain representative data, we sampled VOC emissions from kitchens, including restaurants of seven common cuisine types, canteens, and family kitchens. VOC species profiles and their chemical reactivities have been determined. The results showed that 51.26% ± 23.87% of alkane and 24.33 ± 11.69% of oxygenated VOCs (O-VOCs) dominate the VOC cooking emissions. Yet, the VOCs with the largest ozone formation potential (OFP) and secondary organic aerosol potential (SOAP) were from the alkene and aromatic categories, accounting for 6.8–97.0% and 73.8–98.0%, respectively. Barbequing has the most potential of harming people's heath due to its significant higher emissions of acetaldehyde, hexanal, and acrolein. Methodologies for calculating VOC emission factors ( EF ) for restaurants that take into account VOCs emitted per person ( EF person ), per kitchen stove ( EF kitchen stove ) and per hour ( EF hour ) are developed and discussed. Methodologies for deriving VOC emission inventories (S) from restaurants are further defined and discussed based on two categories: cuisine types ( S type ) and restaurant scales ( S scale ). The range of S type and S scale are 4124.33–7818.04 t/year and 1355.11–2402.21 t/year, respectively. We also found that S type and S scale for 100,000 people are 17.07–32.36 t/year and 5.61–9.95 t/year, respectively. Based on Environmental Kuznets Curve, the annual total amount of VOCs emissions from catering industry in different provinces in China was estimated, which was 5680.53 t/year, 6122.43 t/year, and 66,244.59 t/year for Shangdong and Guangdong provinces and whole China, respectively. Large and medium-scaled restaurants should be paid more attention with respect to regulation of VOCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although indoor air pollution from the use of biomass fuels is a serious health problem in Senegal, little effort has been made in this country to evaluate indoor air quality impacts from biomass combustion with traditional stoves and indoor air quality improvements derived from the use of improved cookstoves. A cross-sectional study was conducted in a rural village of Senegal to determine indoor air pollution during cooking and non-cooking periods. PM 2.5 and CO concentration levels were determined, along with two far less studied pollutants in cookstove studies, ultrafine particles and black carbon, using portable monitors. A total of 22 households were selected, 12 using the traditional stove and 10 using a locally produced rocket stove. Rocket stoves, the most extended type of improved stove used in sub-Saharan Africa, contributed to a significant reduction of total fine and ultrafine (UFP) particles and carbon monoxide (CO) (75,4%, 30,5% and 54,3%, respectively, p < 0.05) with regard to the traditional stoves, but increased black carbon (BC) concentrations (36,1%, p < 0.05). This proves that the climate and health-relevant properties of stoves do not always scale together and highlights that both dimensions should be always considered. Findings evidence that, in addition to a switch in the emission source (i.e. cookstove and/or fuel), successful strategies focused on the improvement of household air quality in Senegal should contemplate ventilation practices and construction materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooking is an important source of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and a potential source of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) both indoors and outdoors. In this study, VOC emissions from heating corn oil and stir-frying spices (i.e. garlic, ginger, myrcia and zanthoxylum piperitum (Sichuan pepper)) were characterized using an on-line membrane inlet vacuum ultraviolet single-photon ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometer (VUV-SPI-TOFMS). VOC emissions from heating corn oil were dominated by aldehydes, which were enhanced by factors of one order of magnitude when stir-frying spices. Stir-frying any of the spices studied generated large amounts of methylpyrrole ( m / z 81). In addition, stir-frying garlic produced abundant dihydrohydroxymaltol ( m / z 144) and diallyldisulfide (DADS) ( m / z 146), while stir-frying ginger, myrcia and zanthoxylum piperitum produced abundant monoterpenes ( m / z 136) and terpenoids ( m / z 152, 154). SOA formed from emissions of stir-frying spices through reactions with excess ozone in a flow reactor as well as primary organic aerosol (POA) emissions were characterized using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) and a high-resolution time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer (HR-TOF-AMS). Stir-frying garlic and ginger generated similar POA concentrations to those from heating corn oil while stir-frying myrcia and zanthoxylum piperitum generated double the amount of emissions. No SOA was observed from stir-frying garlic and ginger. The rates of SOA production from stir-frying myrcia and zanthoxylum piperitum were 1.8 μg min − 1 g spice − 1 and 8.7 μg min − 1 g spice − 1 , equivalent to 13.4% and 53.1% of their own POA emission rates, respectively. Therefore, the contribution of stir-frying spices to ambient organic aerosol levels is likely dominated by POA. The rates of total terpene emission from stir-frying myrcia and zanthoxylum piperitum were estimated to be 5.1 μg min − 1 g spice − 1 and 24.9 μg min − 1 g spice − 1 , respectively. Our results suggest that stir-frying spices could be an important source of terpenes in indoor environments in Hong Kong, at least during cooking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooking activities emit myriad low-volatility, semivolatile, and highly volatile organic compounds that together form particles that can accumulate to large indoor concentrations. Absorptive partitioning thermodynamics governs the particle-phase organic aerosol concentration mainly via temperature and sorbing mass impacts. Cooking activities can increase the organic sorbing mass by 1-2 orders of magnitude, increasing particle-phase concentrations and affecting emission rate calculations. Although recent studies have begun to probe the volatility characteristics of indoor cooking particles, parametrizations of cooking particle mass emissions have largely neglected these thermodynamic considerations. Here, we present an improved thermodynamics-based model framework for estimating condensable organic material emission rates from a time series of observed concentrations, given that adequate measurements or assumptions can be made about the volatility of the emitted species. We demonstrate the performance of this methodology by applying data from stir-frying experiments performed during the House Observations of Microbial and Environmental Chemistry (HOMEChem) campaign to a two-zone box model representing the UTest House. Preliminary estimates of organic mass emitted on a per-stir-fry basis for three types of organic aerosol factors are presented. Our analysis highlights that using traditional nonvolatile particle models and emission characterizations for some organic aerosol emitting activities can incorrectly attribute concentration changes to emissions rather than thermodynamic effects.

Air frying has become a popular cooking method for domestic cooking, but the level of released indoor air pollutants is poorly understood. In this work, we compared particle and gas phase emission factors (EF) and particle size distributions between cooking with a domestic air fryer and a pan for a variety of foods. The PM 10 EFs of air frying chicken wings and breast were higher than pan cooking by a factor of 2.1 and 5.4, respectively. On the other hand, a higher PM 10 emission factor from air frying can be achieved by increasing the amount of oil to levels similar to or above those from pan-frying for French fries and asparagus. We propose that higher temperature and greater turbulence lead to higher PM 10 EFs for cooking with the air fryer compared with the pan for the same mass of oil added. EFs of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are also generally higher for cooking with the air fryer compared with the pan: 2.5 times higher for French fries and 4.8 times higher for chicken breast. Our study highlights the potential risk of higher indoor PM 10 levels associated with domestic air frying under certain cases and proposes possible mitigation measures.

Cooking emission is known to be a significant anthropogenic source of air pollution in urban areas, but its toxicities are still unclear. This study addressed the toxicities of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and gaseous organics by combining chemical fingerprinting analysis with cellular assessments. The cytotoxicity and reactive oxygen species activity of gaseous organics were ∼1.9 and ∼8.3 times higher than those of PM 2.5 , respectively. Moreover, these values of per unit mass PM 2.5 were ∼7.1 and ∼15.7 times higher than those collected from ambient air in Shanghai. The total oleic acid equivalent quantities for carcinogenic and toxic respiratory effects of gaseous organics, as estimated using predictive models based on quantitative structure-property relationships, were 1686 ± 803 and 430 ± 176 μg/mg PM 2.5 , respectively. Both predicted toxicities were higher than those of particulate organics, consistent with cellular assessment. These health risks are primarily attributed to the high relative content and toxic equivalency factor of the organic compounds present in the gas phase, including 7,9-di- tert -butyl-1-oxaspiro(4,5)deca-6,9-diene-2,8-dione, 2-ethylhexanoic acid, and 2-phenoxyethoxybenzene. Furthermore, these compounds and fatty acids were identified as prominent chemical markers of cooking-related emissions. The obtained results highlight the importance of control measures for cooking-emitted gaseous organics to reduce the personal exposure risks.

This study evaluated the emissions of specific indoor sources usually present in Portuguese dwellings in order to understand their impact on the indoor air quality. With this aim, three typical activities were studied including home heating using two types of fireplaces (open and closed) and biofuels (pinewood and briquettes), cooking styles (frying and boiling) in different types of kitchen appliances, and several levels of bread toasting. The levels of specific pollutants were found to be above the established Portuguese limit values including VOCs, formaldehyde, and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10). Although these emissions are transient and short in duration, the resulting concentrations are high and can severely impact the occupants’ daily exposure. Besides promoting good ventilation, the choice of residential appliances with low emissions should be taken into account. In addition, it is important that occupants perform specific activities following the best practices so that their exposure to pollutants is minimized.

We measured particulate matter ( PM), acrolein, and other indoor air contaminants in eight visits to grocery stores in California. Retail stores of other types (hardware, furniture, and apparel) were also sampled on additional visits. Based on tracer gas decay data, most stores had adequate ventilation according to minimum ventilation rate standards. Grocery stores had significantly higher concentrations of acrolein, fine and ultrafine PM, compared to other retail stores, likely attributable to cooking. Indoor concentrations of PM2.5 and acrolein exceeded health guidelines in all tested grocery stores. Acrolein emission rates to indoors in grocery stores had a mean estimate about 30 times higher than in other retail store types. About 80% of the indoor PM2.5 measured in grocery stores was emitted indoors, compared to only 20% for the other retail store types. Calculations suggest a substantial increase in outdoor air ventilation rate by a factor of three from current level is needed to reduce indoor acrolein concentrations. Alternatively, acrolein emission to indoors needs to be reduced 70% by better capturing of cooking exhaust. To maintain indoor PM2.5 below the California annual ambient standard of 12 μg/m3, grocery stores need to use air filters with an efficiency rating higher than the MERV 8 air filters commonly used today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cooking is an important source of indoor emissions, and exposure to cooking emissions can instigate adverse health effects. Oxidative potential (OP) is a good indicator for assessing health risk, but studies detecting the OP of cooking emissions are rare. In this paper, size-segregated samples were collected at four sites in the canteen to study the chemical characteristics and OP of particulate matter (PM) emitted from cooking. The four sites were set to study the effects of different cooking styles and kitchen types. The results showed that the concentrations of most metals, water-soluble ions, PAHs, and OP at four sites followed the trend: deep-frying > stir-frying > second floor hall > first floor hall. And the concentration at the fine fraction (PM 0.056-3.2) was much higher than that at coarse fraction (PM 3.2-18). The PM OP at four sites were 1.1642 nmol m−3·min−1, 1.2088 nmol m−3·min−1, 0.8589 nmol m−3·min−1 and 0.9507 nmol m−3·min−1, respectively. The correlation between OP and other components showed that Zn (|r| = 0.444) and DBA (|r| = 0.507) were moderately related to OP, which suggested that heavy metals and PAHs might be contributed to PM OP. The carcinogenic risk assessments of heavy metals and PAHs showed that, there might be an increasing of potential carcinogenic risk if exposure to cooking environment for lifetime. Our results were firstly helpful for PM characteristics researches on cooking emissions, and also significant to public health protection, especially for people who usually cook. • The concentration of metals and PAHs was ranked as deep-frying area > stir-frying area > hall. • The values of OP followed the trend: deep-frying area > stir-frying area > second floor hall > first floor hall. • Zn, Mn, Pb and water-soluble Mo were related to OP of PM. • The values of the carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metals and c-PAHs were above the tolerant level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: It has long been known that cooking can create high concentrations of aerosol indoors. Increasingly, it is now being reported that cooking aerosol is also a significant component of outdoor particulate matter. As yet, the health consequences are unquantified, but the presence of well known chemical carcinogens is a clear indication that cooking aerosol cannot be benign. This review is concerned with current knowledge of the mass concentrations, size distribution and chemical composition of aerosol generated from typical styles of cooking as reported in the literature. It is found that cooking can generate both appreciable masses of aerosol at least within the area where the cooking takes place, that particle sizes are largely within the respirable size range and that major groups of chemical compounds which have been used to characterise cooking aerosol include alkanes, fatty acids, dicarboxylic acids, lactones, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanones and sterols. Measured data, cooking emission profiles and source apportionment methods are briefly reviewed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Cooking emission samples collected in two residential kitchens were compared where towngas (denoted as dwelling A) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) (denoted as dwelling B) were used as cooking fuels. A total of 50 different volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were quantified during the 90min cooking periods. None of any carcinogenic compounds like formaldehyde, acetaldehyde or benzene are detected in the raw fuels, confirming that those are almost entirely derived due to cooking activity alone. Alkenes accounted for approximately 53% of the total measured VOCs collected at dwelling A, while alkanes contributed approximately 95% of the VOCs at dwelling B during the cooking periods. The concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and toluene also increased during the cooking periods. The total amount of carbonyls emitted from the cooking processes at dwelling A (2708μg) is three times higher than that at dwelling B (793μg). Acetaldehyde was the most abundant carbonyl at the dwelling A but its emission was insignificant at the dwelling B. Carcinogenic risks on chronic exposure to formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and benzene for housewives and domestic helpers were evaluated. Formaldehyde accounts for 68% and close to 100% of lifetime cancer risks at dwelling A and B, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: We conducted this case–control study to evaluate smoking effect on lung cancer conditional on the level of exposure to cooking emissions and to explore whether there is a joint effect of these two risk factors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The high-temperature cooking of protein-rich foods represents an important but poorly constrained source of nitrogen-containing gases and particles to indoor and outdoor atmospheres. For example, panfrying meat may form and emit these nitrogen-containing compounds through complex chemistry occurring between heated proteins and cooking oils. Here, we simulate this cooking process by heating amino acids together with triglycerides. We explore their interactions across different temperatures, triglyceride types, and amino acid precursors to form amide-containing products. Ammonia, arising from the thermal degradation of amino acids, may react with a triglyceride's ester linkages, forming amides and promoting de-esterification reactions that break the triglyceride into volatilizable products. Additionally, triglycerides may thermally oxidize and fragment as they are heated, and the resulting oxygenated breakdown products may react with ammonia to form amides. We observed evidence for amide formation through both of these pathways, including gas-phase emissions of C 2-11 H 5-23 NO species, whose emission factors ranged from 33 to 813 μg total gas-phase amides per gram of amino acid precursor. Comparable quantities of particle-phase oleamide (C 18 H 35 NO) were emitted, ranging from 45 to 218 μg/g. The observed amide products had variable predicted toxicities, highlighting the importance of understanding their emissions from cooking and their ultimate inhalation exposure risks.

The lockdown measures caused by the COVID-19 pandemic substantially affected air quality in many cities through reduced emissions from a variety of sources, including traffic. The change in PM 2.5 and its chemical composition in downtown Toronto, Canada, including organic/inorganic composition and trace metals, were examined by comparing with a pre-lockdown period and respective periods in the three previous years. During the COVID-19 lockdown, the average traffic volume reduced by 58%, whereas PM 2.5 only decreased by 4% relative to the baselines. Major chemical components of PM 2.5 , such as organic aerosol and ammonium nitrate, showed significant seasonal changes between pre- and lockdown periods. The changes in local and regional PM 2.5 sources were assessed using hourly chemical composition measurements of PM 2.5. Major regional and secondary PM 2.5 sources exhibited no clear reductions during the lockdown period compared to pre-lockdown and the previous years. However, cooking emissions substantially dropped by approximately 61% due to the restrictions imposed on local businesses (i.e., restaurants) during the lockdown, and then gradually increased throughout the recovery periods. The reduction in non-tailpipe emissions, characterized by road dust and brake/tire dust, ranged from 37% to 61%, consistent with the changes in traffic volume and meteorology across seasons in 2020. Tailpipe emissions dropped by approximately 54% and exhibited even larger reductions during morning rush hours. The reduction of tailpipe emissions was statistically associated with the reduced number of trucks, highlighting that a small fraction of trucks contributes disproportionally to tailpipe emissions. This study provides insight into the potential for local benefits to arise from traffic intervention in traffic-dominated urban areas and supports the development of targeted strategies and regulations to effectively reduce local air pollution. [Display omitted] • Major regional and secondary PM 2.5 sources exhibited no clear reductions. • COVID-19 lockdown created air quality benefits by reducing traffic-related PM 2.5 • Reduction of tailpipe emissions was caused mainly by the reduced number of trucks. • Targeted strategies for heavy emitters are necessary to mitigate traffic emissions. • Cooking emissions dropped substantially due to the restriction on local businesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study investigated the emission, distribution, and removal of cooking-emitted particles in the simulated residential module of the Well Living Lab. Cooking experiments were conducted following a standardized protocol under different interventions. Cooking experiments consisted of frying bacon that emitted 2.35 × 103 (2.22 × 103) μg/min of PM 2.5. Interventions studied included: Ventilation; a combination of Ventilation and Stove Hood; combination of Ventilation and Portable Air Cleaners; Air Flush; and combination of Air Flush, Stove Hood, and Bathroom Exhaust. The impact of door configuration was also assessed. Particulate Matter (PM 2.5) and CO 2 sensors were distributed in all spaces. A method based on CO 2 traced decay was used to characterize airflow. Particle removal rate and integrated PM 2.5 concentration were used to compare the capability of different interventions in removing PM 2.5 and reducing particle exposure. The combination of Ventilation and Stove Hood and the combination of Air Flush, Stove Hood, and Bathroom Exhaust showed the best performance in reducing the integrated PM 2.5 concentration of cooking-emitted particles. Particle Removal Rate showed that cooking-emitted PM 2.5 were most effectively removed by the combination of Ventilation and Portable Air Cleaners. Air Flush was not a very effective method in removing cooking-emitted particles even with the 2.5 times increase of the supply flow rate (4 h−1 in the residential module). Closing bedroom and/or bathroom doors changed particle distribution and increased PM 2.5 concentration in the kitchen and living room. • Adding a stove hood performed the best in reducing PM 2.5 concentration. • Ventilation and PACs combined was most effective in removing cooking-emitted PM2.5. • Air Flush was not effective in removing cooking-emitted particles. • Frying bacon emits 2.35 × 10 3 (2.22 × 10 3) μg/min of PM 2.5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mass, chemical composition and toxicological properties of fine particulates (PM 2.5) emitted from cooking activities in three Hong Kong based restaurants and two simulated cooking experiments were characterized. Extracts from the PM 2.5 samples elicited significant biological activities [cell viability, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), DNA damage and inflammation effect (TNF-α)] in a dose-dependent manner. The composition of PAHs, oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs) and azaarenes (AZAs) mixtures differed between samples. The concentration ranges of the Σ30PAHs, Σ17OPAHs and Σ4AZAs and Σ7Carbonyls in the samples were 9627–23,452 pg m−3, 503–3700 pg m−3, 33–263 pg m−3 and 158 – 5328 ng m−3, respectively. Cell viability caused by extracts from the samples was positively correlated to the concentration of benzo[a]anthracene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene and 1,4-naphthoquinone in the PM 2.5 extracts. Cellular ROS production (upon exposure to extracts) was positively correlated with the concentrations of PM 2.5 , decaldehyde, acridine, Σ17OPAHs and 7 individual OPAHs. TNF-α showed significant positive correlations with the concentrations of most chemical species (elemental carbon, 16 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene, Σ30PAHs, SO 4 2−, Ca2+, Ca, Na, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn). The concentrations of Al, Ti, Mn, Σ30PAHs and 8 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene in the samples were positively correlated with DNA damage caused by extracts from the samples. This study demonstrates that inhalation of PM 2.5 emitted from cooking could result in adverse human health effects. [Display omitted] • Cooking PM 2.5 emissions elicited significant bioreactivity in dose-dependent manner. • Cantonese cooking style emitted highest PM 2.5 and chemical species concentrations. • Positive significant correlations showed between PM 2.5 /OPAHs and ROS. • Majority of high molecular weight PAHs showed strong correlations with TNF-α. • Benzo[a]pyrene demonstrated significant positive correlation against DNA damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measurements of airborne particles in buildings with low-cost optical particle counters (OPCs) are often inaccurate and subject to uncertainties. This study introduces a methodology to improve the performance of low-cost OPCs in measuring indoor particles through machine learning. A two-month field measurement campaign was conducted in an occupied net-zero energy house. The studied OPCs (OPC–N2, Alphasense Ltd.) report size fractionated concentrations from 0.38 to 17.5 μm. Co-located reference instrumentation included a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS: 0.01–0.30 μm) and an optical particle sizer (OPS: 0.30–10 μm). The machine learning field calibration method applies Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) and includes two components: (1.) correction of the size-resolved OPC counting efficiency from 0.38 to 10 μm and (2.) prediction of volume size distributions (mass proxy) below the 0.38 μm detection limit of the OPC. The field calibration method is applicable to OPCs that report size fractionated concentrations. In (1.), a GPR function was used to correct the size-resolved counting efficiency of the OPCs between 0.38 and 10 μm using the OPS as reference. In (2.), a second GPR function was used to predict the volume size distribution below 0.38 μm using the SMPS/OPS as reference. This was done given the significant contribution of sub-0.38 μm particles to volume concentrations in the accumulation mode. The machine learning field calibration method resulted in a significant improvement in the accuracy of size-integrated volume concentrations (PV 2.5 , PV 10) reported by the OPCs as compared to the SMPS/OPS. Improvements were seen in the Pearson coefficient (before correction: 0.59–0.83; after correction: 0.98–0.99); coefficient of determination (before correction: 0.35–0.69; after correction: 0.97–0.98); and mean absolute percentage error (before correction: 35–69%; after correction: 19–25%). • Developed a new machine learning field calibration method for improving the performance of low-cost OPCs. • A two-month measurement campaign was conducted in a net-zero energy house to evaluate the calibration method. • Calibration method improves the accuracy with which OPCs report indoor particle volume size distributions. • Method is first to account for the volume contribution of the "missing" sub-0.38 μm particles not measured by OPCs. • A non-parametric, size-resolved approach to OPC calibration targets limitations in particle detection/sizing by OPCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mass, chemical composition and toxicological properties of fine particulates (PM 2.5 ) emitted from cooking activities in three Hong Kong based restaurants and two simulated cooking experiments were characterized. Extracts from the PM 2.5 samples elicited significant biological activities [cell viability, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), DNA damage and inflammation effect (TNF-α)] in a dose-dependent manner. The composition of PAHs, oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs) and azaarenes (AZAs) mixtures differed between samples. The concentration ranges of the Σ30PAHs, Σ17OPAHs and Σ4AZAs and Σ7Carbonyls in the samples were 9627-23,452 pg m -3 , 503-3700 pg m -3 , 33-263 pg m -3 and 158 - 5328 ng m -3 , respectively. Cell viability caused by extracts from the samples was positively correlated to the concentration of benzo[a]anthracene, indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene and 1,4-naphthoquinone in the PM 2.5 extracts. Cellular ROS production (upon exposure to extracts) was positively correlated with the concentrations of PM 2.5 , decaldehyde, acridine, Σ17OPAHs and 7 individual OPAHs. TNF-α showed significant positive correlations with the concentrations of most chemical species (elemental carbon, 16 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene, Σ30PAHs, SO 4 2- , Ca 2+ , Ca, Na, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn). The concentrations of Al, Ti, Mn, Σ30PAHs and 8 individual PAHs including benzo[a]pyrene in the samples were positively correlated with DNA damage caused by extracts from the samples. This study demonstrates that inhalation of PM 2.5 emitted from cooking could result in adverse human health effects., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

We characterized the mass concentrations of total volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and chemical components from multiple cooking emissions, assessed the ozone and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation potential of individual VOC species, and test the purification effect on VOCs with the use of aftertreatment control technologies. The results demonstrated that Barbecue produced the highest VOCs concentrations (12470.6 μg/m3), followed by Huaiyang cuisine (2965.9 μg/m3), Cantonese cuisine (2297.1 μg/m3), Shandong cuisine (2233.3 μg/m3), Family cuisine (1843.1 μg/m3) and Sichuan and Hunan cuisine (1827.9 μg/m3). The abundance of alkanes and O–VOCs were higher in Sichuan and Hunan cuisine, Family cuisine, Shandong cuisine, and Cantonese cuisine with the value of 31.8%–41.9%, while the dominant chemical components was O–VOCs (87.0%) for Huaiyang cuisine and alkenes (33.6%) and Chl-VOCs (27.4%) for Barbecue, respectively. The sensitivity species of ozone formation potential for Family cuisine, Shandong cuisine and Barbecue were alkenes, and that of Sichuan and Hunan cuisine and Huaiyang cuisine were O–VOCs, and that of Cantonese cuisine were alkenes and O–VOCs. Group 1 and 2 test results indicated that VOCs emissions from experimental cuisines have not been effectively reduced, but the concentration of some species has increased with the use of Lide, New sunshine, Langyi and Chuangxin control technologies, except for CT2 (14% and 23% reduction). However, VOCs and individual species concentrations exhibited a strong dependence on the single or coupled aftertreatment control technologies from Huaxia company, with all emissions concentration from Barbecue showing significant decrease with the control technologies compared to the baseline testing. Overall, the use of aftertreatment control technologies have a significant effect on the reduction of VOCs emissions from Barbecue, but it played a mediocre or even counterproductive role in other cuisines in this study. • The concentrations of VOCs and species from six cooking cuisines were analyzed. • The ozone and SOA formation potential of VOC species were assessed. • The purification effect of aftertreatment control technologies on VOCs were tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) emitted from commercial cooking activities can lead cardiovascular diseases to humans. In this study, PM 2.5 filter samples were collected from the exhausts of six typical and commercial cuisines including Sichuan cuisine, Shaanxi Cuisine, Northeast Chinese cuisine, Shaanxi snacks, hotpot and Chinese barbecue (BBQ) in the Northern China. Chemical components of carbonaceous fractions, water-soluble inorganic ions, elements, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [including parent PAHs (pPAHs), alkylated PAHs (aPAHs), oxygenated PAHs (oPAHs) and nitro PAHs (nPAHs)] were quantified. The bioreactivities in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) induced by the exposures to the PM 2.5 were also measured. The PM 2.5 concentration levels in the kitchen exhausts ranged from the lowest of 290 ± 104 μg m−3 for the Northeast Chinese cuisine to the highest of 3400 ± 978 μg m−3 for the Chinese BBQ. The PM 2.5 composition was predominantly comprised of organic carbon (OC), especially for Sichuan and Shaanxi cuisines. The highest PAHs concentration was shown in the Chinese BBQ, followed by the stir-fry-dominated cuisines (i.e., Sichuan, Shaanxi and Northeast Chinese cuisines), and boiling-dominated cuisines (i.e., Shaanxi snacks and hotpot). The pPAH was the most dominated PAHs group. Our results demonstrated that higher cooking temperatures and larger oil consumptions could promote the PAHs formations. The levels of PM 2.5 cytotoxicity for the examined cuisines showed a descending order of the Chinese BBQ > stir-fry-dominated cuisines > boiling-dominated cuisines. In addition, the Person's correlations demonstrated that the cooking emitted PM 2.5 were much interrelated with the inflammation induction (R > 0.80) than the oxidative stress (R > 0.60) due to the toxic chemical compositions. Using the stepwise regression model, the bioreactivities in VSMCs were found to be conquered by the concentration levels of 12 key chemical components such as chromium (Cr) and 9-methylanthracene. The regression formula explained nearly 100% of the variations on the induced bioreactivities (R 2 = 1.00), suggesting that the suppression of emissions of Cr (or 9-methylanthracene) could be efficient in reducing the cytotoxicity induced by cooking emitted PM 2.5. Image 1 • PM 2.5 source profiles from six typical cuisines in northern China were determined. • BBQ yields the highest PM 2.5 level while Northeast Chinese cuisine was the lowest. • PM 2.5 from Chinese BBQ and Sichuan cuisines were abundance of PAHs. • PM 2.5 from BBQ induced the highest production of ROS, IL-1β and MCP-1. • Cr and 9-methylanthracene were found to be the most toxic in cooking emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food cooking is a significant source of indoor volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can pose serious adverse health effects. The use of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), charcoal and wood as the cooking fuels for grilled or fried products can be a major source of the emitted pollutants inside industrial and commercial restaurants. This paper attempts to determine the inhalation exposure of VOCs generated by the food cooking process of barbecued and fried products in the kitchen area of a commercial barbecue restaurant. A broad range of VOCs was sampled and analyzed in a commercial barbecue restaurants' kitchen atmosphere for 30 days to investigate the exposure levels of the employee. The median concentration of carcinogenic VOCs were 6.11 μg/m3 for benzene, 3.51 μg/m3 for chloroform, 1.58 μg/m3 for styrene, 1.12 μg/m3 for ethylbenzene, 0.11 μg/m3 for tetrachloromethane and 0.06 μg/m3 for 1,2-dichloroethane. Sources of the quantified VOCs were mainly attributed to cooking styles and fuels, cleaning products and building materials. The carcinogenic potential of the indoor VOC exposure was between 3.4✕10−8 and 1.1✕10−5 that indicating a possible risk of lung cancer. • Indoor concentrations of 60 VOCs were analyzed in a barbecue restaurant. • Sources of the VOCs were attributed to cooking fuels and styles investigated by PCA. • An ILCR of 1.4✕10−5 was estimated for inhalation exposure to carcinogenic VOCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated the emissions of specific indoor sources usually present in Portuguese dwellings in order to understand their impact on the indoor air quality. With this aim, three typical activities were studied including home heating using two types of fireplaces (open and closed) and biofuels (pinewood and briquettes), cooking styles (frying and boiling) in different types of kitchen appliances, and several levels of bread toasting. The levels of specific pollutants were found to be above the established Portuguese limit values including VOCs, formaldehyde, and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10). Although these emissions are transient and short in duration, the resulting concentrations are high and can severely impact the occupants’ daily exposure. Besides promoting good ventilation, the choice of residential appliances with low emissions should be taken into account. In addition, it is important that occupants perform specific activities following the best practices so that their exposure to pollutants is minimized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]