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Copyright of Mağallaẗ Al-Dirāsāt Al-Tārīẖiyyaẗ wa Al-Ḥaḍāriyyaẗ Al-Miṣriyyaẗ is the property of Beni Suef University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Mediterranea - Ricerche Storiche is the property of Mediterranea-Ricerche Storiche and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The main purpose of the article will be to plan the process of implementing a strategy for increasing the efficiency of open systems commercial relations to ensure uninterrupted sustainable development in accordance with the level of key parameters. The object of the study is the open systems of commercial relations to ensure the uninterrupted sustainable development. In the context of the study, a separate region was chosen - Liberec Region. The research methodology involves the use of fuzzy sets and linguistic variables. As a result of using the method, a system was formed for selecting the best strategy for increasing commercial relations of sustainable development in accordance with the parameters established by experts. The study is limited to taking into account the parameters of open systems commercial relations to ensure uninterrupted sustainable development in accordance with the level of key parameters in the context of sustainable development of only one region. In addition, the choice of strategy for increasing the efficiency of open systems commercial relations to ensure uninterrupted sustainable development was limited to three parameters. Prospects for future research will include expanding the parameters and unifying them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Academic Social Science Studies is the property of Journal of Academic Social Science Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Electronic Turkish Studies is the property of Electronic Turkish Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this article the author examines in detail the bilateral relations between Spain and Brazil during the presidency of Jair Bolsonaro. In addition, the subject of this article is the opposition of EU governments to the environmental policies of the South American country and the disastrous policies of the Brazilian authorities in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. President Bolsonaro’s negligence of climate change and Amazon deforestation has prompted European governments to openly oppose the ratification of the Mercosur – EU Free Trade Agreement, which was signed in 2019 after 20 years of negotiations. In May 2016, the parties agreed on reciprocal terms, resulting in signing of the agreement. It also included the exchange of goods and services, essential investments and public procurements. All this was done in the context of a global policy of protectionism amid a weakening role of the WTO as a supporter of the trade liberalization process. Despite its success, countries such as France, Austria and the Netherlands stand against the Mercosur – EU trade deal, which can halt its ratification. The Spanish government, on the contrary, is lobbying for ratification of the agreement. Madrid, interested in benefiting from the Bolsonaro government’s liberal economic policies, maintains strong ties with its South American partner. The author analyzes the transformation of Spain from a relatively irrelevant partner of Brazil in the 20th century to one of the main investors directing significant resources to the Brazilian economy. We also assess the results and challenges of the Brazil – Spain strategic partnership in a broader context of the Brazil – EU relations.

The Republic of Kazakhstan and the Kyrgyz Republic have always been close friends, allies and brotherly countries. In the past decades, a solid foundation of bilateral relations has been laid. In recent years, various meetings have been held to strengthen the relations of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. The status and appearance of the commercial and economic relations of the two countries are regularly discussed at the level of diplomatic representatives, including the heads of state and government of the two countries, the foreign ministers, the ministers of the relevant fields and the ambassadors. Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan have successfully interacted within the framework of international and regional organizations and have the same or close positions in many important international and regional issues. This completes the current interaction potential of the two countries. Today, one of the main objectives of foreign policy of both countries is the dynamic and balanced development of foreign economic ties, which provide the most favorable conditions for economic growth. In this context, the expansion of the commercial and economic cooperation is of particular importance for the two republics. The trade and economic relations between the two states are analyzed below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the second half of the 1970s, the main task of the Hungarian diplomacy has no longer primarily been building and deepening political relations, but rather establishing and pushing the economic and trade relations regardless of political orientation of the countries. In this context, the Hungarian government has given an important role to the Gulf countries. Distinguished relations were established with Kuwait: in 1981 the ruler of Kuwait visited Budapest, and in 1982 the Hungarian head of state visited Kuwait. Hungary developed fruitful trade relations with the United Arab Emirates in the 1980s. The study contains Hungarian and Arabic archival documents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Business (20789424) is the property of Universidad del Pacifico and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Română de Drept al Afacerilor is the property of Wolters Kluwer Romania and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Every citizen - consumer – who purchases merchandise or services personally, via electronic commerce or commercial company and who, due to the contemporaneous communication and transaction methods happens to enter in commercial relations with other merchants from Europe, will need at some point adequate knowledge in case a dispute arises between him and his partner. To be more specific - which will be the competent court to examine the matter, what rules will this court apply, but most importantly – if the judgment is in his favour and the defendant’s place of residence is in another member- state – how can this judgment be effectively enforced. Moreover – we see recurrent cases where during a dispute on a purely national basis between entities of the same memberstate, envisioning a possible unfavourable case outcome, one of the parties moves its assets to another member-state during the process. At the end of the court proceedings, the creditor faces a number of difficulties pertaining to the effective judgment enforcement. These circumstances gradually directed the European Union to the idea of establishing a common European legal space, in which every citizen of a member-state can calmly exercise his rights and freedoms with no concern as to possible complications, and that in his contacts with partners or merchants from other member-states he can rely upon effective, anticipated and speedy European administration of justice. In this aspect, the most important legal acts are: Regulation №44/2001 on jurisdiction, recognition and enforcement of judgments and Regulation №805/2004 creating an European Enforcement Order for uncontested claims.

Copyright of Revista Venezolana de Gerencia (RVG) is the property of Revista de Filosofia-Universidad del Zulia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Trade and Commercial Relations Between Poland and the Military Governments of the US/UK and French Zones of Occupation in Germany 1946–1949 – Trade Agreement, List of Products, Payments Agreement

A new research phase has been carried out since 2018 in Sillyon, an important city of Pamphylia. In the course of surveys a total of five amphora stamps were collected from the surface on the south slope and around the Hellenistic tower. Four of these stamps are of Rhodian origin whereas the origin of the last one could not be identified. In general, the Rhodian amphora stamps from Sillyon are attributed to a period from the second quarter of the second century BC to the end of the same century. These stamps are of importance for they cast light onto the commercial relations between Sillyon and Rhodos as well as onto the Hellenistic period history of the city. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dave de Ruysscher and Jeroen Puttevils look into the complex interaction – typicalof the Low Countries – between various stakeholders (economic agents, citygovernment and central government) that shaped the legislation of economic practices. Eschewing top-down (the central government imposes its rules) and bottom-up (merchants sought to have their customs legalised) models, and taking into account the powers enjoyed by city governments in the Low Countries, which were both ample but also constrained by the central government, the authors trace the development of one particular type of contract and transaction – sixteenth century marine insurance, a growing sector for which Antwerp became the key centre. By laying bare the negotiation process which preceded the compromise, they find that decisions on the legislation regarding marine insurance were both politically and economically induced. The three major agents (merchants, city government and central government) were not monolithic blocs: within the Antwerp mercantile community different opinions on marine insurance and its legislation could be heard. There were ‘national’ differences and small-time insurance purchasers thought differently about state legislation than their larger colleagues and insurers. Parties with political clout also had a stronger voice in negotiations. De kunst van het compromis. Onderhandelingen over wetgeving voor hetzeeverzekeringswezen in Antwerpen (c. 1550-c. 1570)De wetgeving rond economische praktijken in de zestiende-eeuwse Nederlanden werd in belangrijke mate bepaald door de complexe interactie tussen verschillende belangengroepen (economische agenten, stedelijke overheid en centraal gezag). Dave de Ruysscher en Jeroen Puttevils zijn van mening dat top-down (de vorst legt zijn regels op) en bottum-up modellen (kooplieden willen hun gewoonten omgezet zien in wetten) weinig afdoend zijn en stellen zich vragen bij de reikwijdte van de macht van stedelijke overheden. Door op zeeverzekering te focussen, een praktijk die sterk groeide in de zestiende eeuw en waarvoor Antwerpen een belangrijk centrum werd, wordt het onderhandelingsproces en het zoeken naar een compromis tussen de verschillende belangengroepen duidelijk. De beslissingen over wetgeving waren daardoor het resultaat van zowel politieke als economische dynamieken. De verschillende belangengroepen werden door interne spanningen gekenmerkt: zo verschilden Antwerpse handelaars qua participatie in de zeeverzekeringssector, ‘nationaliteit’ en contacten met de politieke machthebbers.

The relations between China and Latin America and the Caribbean, have undergone a whirling growth, mostly as of the years 2000s. The economic ties are the most important, though other relations have developed, such as the ones in the political, cultural, educational and security sectors, among others. Up to the moment, the economic relations have borne benefits for both regions, but they have also caused negative effects for the Latin American region. The article introduces the current situation of the relations and provides suggestions on possible actions directed towards making them better in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts from the side of the Holy See to undercut commercial relations with the Near Orient were never particularly successful, not even after the Fall of Constantinople when fear of the Turks was on the rise. Two German literary works from the following half century demonstrate how the viewpoint of the merchants is articulated within a horizon of experience that is far from religious or geo-political concerns. In Rosenplüt's carnival play Des Türken Fastnachtspiel the Turkish Sultan is depicted as representing an idealized state (not least when it comes to the conditions of commerce) contrasting the multifarious deficiencies of the Holy Roman Empire; in the anonymous novel Fortunatus the conditions and institutions of commercial relations are foregrounded, exemplified by Alexandria and with a focus on the rational logic of commerce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, the flow of goods, people and ideas across the South Atlantic has increased considerably, due not only to growing trade and cooperation ties between South America and Africa, but also to the new interests of extra-regional emerging powers such as the People’s Republic of China. This article examines China’s growing role in the region in three different spheres (economic, political andsecurity interests) in light of its changing strategy in developing countries; the role of non-state actors such as corporations and diaspora communities is also included. The authors conclude that, even though the Chinese state does not yet have a “South Atlantic policy”, the region has gained strategic importance for China. Finally, the article highlights China’s renewed interest in Antarctica.

Negotiating the Asiatic Route: Financing the Dutch East India Company, Enkhuizen Chamber, 1602-1622During its first twenty years the Dutch East India Company, or voc, struggled with the disadvantages of operations being spread over six local chambers, as imposed by its 1602 charter. Mirroring the Dutch Republic’s urban particularism, this operational fragmentation effectively bankrupted chambers if ships failed to return. Using the ledgers of Enkhuizen, one of the smaller chambers, we detail the difficulties with which it grappled and chart the slow process of overcoming them through the harmonisation of administrative procedures and other trust-building measures. These culminated in the company directors claiming limited liability for debt, which until now they were generally thought to have possessed from the start.

The dominant paradigm in the internationalization of the economies regards the market as a regulatory entity, but the foundation lays on the development of industrial models that include all production phases with links between the private and the public sector. From these industrial models the development of a more complex and more inclusive productive process that provides more possibilities of participation in the international markets is promoted. The expansion of these models beyond local contexts make the studies of productive linkages possibilities among countries fundamental, in the case of Colombia such countries suitable for the creation of commercial advantages because of their commercial and geographical proximity. Objective: To analyse the linkages and the potentialities for the conformation of productive chains between Colombia and Venezuela. Methodology: It is developed in three phases, 1. a review of literature about production linkages, 2. an application of complementary index for the Colombian and Venezuelan economies, and 3. a comparative analysis of the productive chains to identify country-specific advantages to produce certain goods and services. Findings: Due to the strong commercial relation between Colombia and Venezuela, the implementation of associative models (i.e. productive chains) in the internationalization process would offer competitive advantages to both countries and would make them more successful participants in international markets.

Este artigo analisa as relações político-comerciais Brasil-África no governo Sarney, procurando demonstrar que as mudanças observadas no sistema internacional e na realidade doméstica afetaram diretamente a condução da política externa brasileira e, por conseqüência, a intensidade das relações do país com o continente africano.This article analyzes the politician-commercial relations Brazil-Africa in the government Sarney, looking for to demonstrate that the changes observed in the international system and the domestic reality had directly affected the conduction of external politics Brazilian e, for consequence, the intensity of the relations of the country with the African continent.

For several decades, Mexican-Cuban relations left apart ideological issues, what allowed the development of a constant and stable bi-lateral relationship: Mexican stance towards Cuba featured an explicit support towards the Cuban process, the former becoming thechief Latin American investor on the island, and the latter its second main business partner in the Caribbean. According to the author, the relationship between Mexico and Cuba has been modified, due to pressures from the US governement: the Mexican governmentis currently subordinated to Washington, a situation that has meant a rupture with Latin America as a whole and Cuba specifically. Finally, the author indicates that the conditions are favorable for a Mexican change of attitude towards the re-establishment of an assertive and independent foreign policy, which would lead to the recovery of its leadership and prestige in Latin America.

K.E. Sluyterman, J. Jonker, J.L. van Zanden, S. Howarth, Geschiedenis van de Koninklijke Shell, I, Van nieuwkomer tot marktleider, 1890-1939, II, Stuwmotor van de koolwaterstofrevolutie, 1939-1973, III, Concureren in turbulente markten, 1973-2007, [IV], Bijlagen, cijfers, toelichting, volledige bibliografie en index [inclusief drie dvd's] Some Reflections on the History of Royal Dutch ShellThe first positive feature of this impressive book is its unrelenting focus on a number of key issues. As a result, the authors succeed in presenting a coherent analysis of this complex global company. Another strong feature is the comprehensive and clear overview it provides of the rapid technological developments within the oil industry. Nevertheless, the origins of this fascinating firm could have been dealt with more thoroughly. The way in which the financial problems were solved during the start-up phase, in particular, remains shrouded in mystery. Furthermore, an interesting dimension could have been added had the concepts of Chandler been used. In addition, the chapter has not yet been closed on the ongoing conflict between Royal Dutch Shell and the local population in Nigeria.

The foundations of change. Integration and diversification in the Antwerp book trade during the second half of the seventeenth centuryWar, ruthless international competition, high import and export duties on books, and unforeseeable changes in the taste of readers all posed a serious threat to the survival of the book trade in the Southern Netherlands during the late seventeenth century. Nevertheless, some Brabantine printers not only survived the crisis they even managed to prosper. This article provides additional insights into the survival strategies adopted at the time based on material from the archives of Balthazar II Moretus’ Officina Plantiniana and the medium-sized publishing house of Hieronymus III Verdussen. Although both entrepreneurs reacted to the crisis by imposing harsh reforms, restructuring, and implementing innovative techniques such as sale on approval, their actual management choices differed greatly. The Officina Plantiniana focused more on the industrial component by opting for large-scale printing. Moretus cut back deliveries to smaller markets and dealers and concentrated on the major booksellers instead as they were able to order in bulk and resell the books to their smaller colleagues which meant that he no longer had to pay for transport and marketing. Moretus also abandoned the inefficient barter system and insisted upon cash payments so that he no longer had to take on books with a limited market value. Verdussen on the other hand followed a completely different path and seemed to renounce printing. He outsourced more and more printing work to jobbing printers in Germany or the United Provinces, thereby externalizing the risk of overstocking or losing out due to a drop in demand. By cultivating a number of advantageous alliances, Verdussen was also able to drastically reduce his custom and transport costs. As the registers of their guild reveals, in order to survive the crisis the majority of publishers in Antwerp chose Verdussen’s course of commercial capitalism as opposed to the industrial approach followed by Moretus.

Adam Clulow, The Company and the Shogun: The Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014, 352 pp., isbn 978 0 2311 6428 3).

Nigel Worden (ed.), Cape Town between East and West: Social Identities in a Dutch Colonial Town (Johannesburg, Hilversum: Jacana, Verloren, 2012, xxii + 264 pp., isbn 978 1 4314 0292 2, 978 90 8704 290 5).

Alexander Claver, Dutch Commerce and Chinese Merchants in Java. Colonial Relationships in Trade and Finance, 1800-1942 (Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 291; Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2014, xxiv + 442 pp., ISBN 978 90 04 25657 6).

In this study, commercial relations between Turkey and Kazakhstan covering the years 1992-2014 are discussed. The relationship began in 1992, because Kazakhstan declared independence at the end of 1991 and diplomatic and commercial relations with Kazakhstan started since 1992. Trade relations between the two countries in this period of 23 years were investigated for in some products. It is tried to put forth that as the years, which products shaped the trade and what products have been the subject of trade at which intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Este artigo aborda brevemente a evolução das relações entre Brasil e Rússia, desde os tempos da União Soviética, para remarcar o contraste entre uma relação até bem pouco tempo distante e o atual status de parceria que une os dois países. Estas relações bilaterais são descritas e analisadas a partir de áreas temáticas diferenciadas: político-diplomática, econômico-comercial e de cooperação tecnológica. O texto inclui também conceitos presentes fundamentalmente no desenho e análise da política externa brasileira, tais como: desenvolvimento, países-continente e parcerias estratégicas. O contexto do pós-Guerra Fria favoreceu o desenvolvimento desta relação, mas as percepções recíprocas em relação a condição de países-continente, bem como o papel que lhes cabe como atores relevantes na construção de um ordem multipolar, são considerados como os principais pilares do estabelecimento de uma parceria estratégica entre Brasil e Rússia.This article briefly traces the development of the relations between Brazil and Russia, when the latter was still the Soviet Union. It aims to stress the contrast between a distant relationship some years ago and a partnership nowadays. The bilateral relations are depicted and analyzed through political, diplomatic, economic, commercial and technological aspects. The author also presents some key concepts used in the Brazilian foreign policy analysis, such as "development", "continental countries" and "strategic partnership". Athough the post Cold War context may be one of the main reasons for the development of the relationship, the author argues that reciprocal perceptions as continental countries and the role in building a multipolar international order are more relevant factors which have favored the consolidation of a strategic partnership.

After the start of the Crimean War, one of the main objectives of the European diplomacy was the resolving of the contradictions related to the navigation on the Danube. Removing Russia from the Danube's mouth and eliminating the danger of Austria's exclusive control in the Romanian region of the river, represented important victories for Romanians, which, under the collective guarantee of the great European powers, could follow their own political destiny and meanwhile to grow economically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]